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What do You Need to Know About

Electrical Power?
Electric Power Systems for Non Power System Experts
By

William (Bill) O. Kennedy, P.Eng., FEIC


IEEE Canada President
For the IEEE Ottawa Section
May 27, 2004
on 60th Anniversary of the IEEE Ottawa Section
Copyright 2004 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

Purpose
Give

a basic understanding of how


power systems are put together
and how they work
Concepts will be emphasized
Mathematics will be kept to a
minimum
Mathematics only when necessary
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Introduction
First

part covers power system


components
Second part covers how the
components fit together and work
along with some measures of
power system performance

A little bit of Physics


Hans

Christian Oerstead discovered the


relationship between magnetism and
electricity
Michael Faraday discovered that a
voltage is induced on a wire when its
moved in or through a magnetic field
James Clerk Maxwell developed the
mathematics of electromagnetics

Real and Reactive Power


Real

power does the work


Reactive power helps real power
do the work
Power systems need both or they
wont work
What is reactive power?

Reactive power
Quarterback can
throw a bullet, but
not very far
For long distances,
throws in an arc
Real power is the
bullet
Reactive power is
the height of the arc

Reactive Power

Capacitors store energy equal


to CV2
Capacitor banks are used to
boost or raise voltage
Reactors use energy equal to
LI2
Motors and fluorescent lights
require reactive power

Part 1 - Equipment
Generators
Transformers
Transmission

Lines

Loads

Generators

Generators
Fundamental
E

Law

= N d/dt

Where

is the flux
Magnetic example
High

school physics
Faraday's discovery motion
Maxwell mathematical theory

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Generators
Rotor

turns inside of the generator


satisfying Faradays Law
Voltage induced on the stator follows
a sine wave
Take advantage of space and put three
coils equally spaced, 120o apart

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Generators
Three Phase
1.5

Magnitude

1.0
0.5

Phase A

0.0

Phase B

-0.5 0

45

90

135

180

225

270

315

360

Phase C

-1.0
-1.5
Degrees

Motion of rotor induces a voltage on the stator


Stator doesnt move and waveform reflects effect of
rotor field as it moves inside the machine
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Generators
Control
Terminal

voltage

Speed

Terminal

voltage controlled by varying


the voltage applied to the dc field of the
rotor
Speed controlled by governor, as load
increases, fuel supply increases

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Generators
Speed

and frequency (60 Hz)


Frequency (f) = n/60 * p/2
Poles

are in pairs, hence divide by 2


Speed in revolutions per minute, whereas
frequency in cycles per second, hence
divide by 60
Steam

sets high speed, small rotors


Hydro sets low speed, big rotors
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Generators
Two pole machine
rotates at 3600 rpm
steam generator
Twelve pole
machine rotates at
600 rpm hydro set

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Generators
Generation by Fuel Type (Canada)
2%
2%
10 %

Prime mover drives


the generator
Energy sources in
Canada

0%

16 %
co al

3%

nuclear
14 %

hyd ro
o il
g as
d ual fuel
p ump ed s to rag e
o ther

53 %

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Generators
Capability curve
Limits

Generator Capability Curve


1
0.8

Reactive Power

0.6
0.4

0.2

0
0.00
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1

0.25

0.50
Real Power

0.75

1.00

Stator heating
Rotor heating
Stability

Whats required
Whats used

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Generator Capability Curve


1
0.8

Reactive Power

0.6
0.4
0.2

0
0.00
-0.2
-0.4

0.25

0.50

0.75

1.00

Real Power

-0.6
-0.8
-1

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Transformers
Follow

Faradays Law
E1=N1d/dt & E2=N2d/dt
Flux (d/dt) is constant
Voltage change depends on number of
turns, and basic equations can be
equated with the result:
E1/N1 = E2/N2
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Transformers

Since conservation
of energy must be
preserved and
voltage varies
inversely, current
must vary directly
I1N1 = I2N2

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Transformers

Usual connection for the transmission system


is WYE grounded at the high voltage
Generators connected DELTA
Loads can be both

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Transmission lines
Transmission

lines are the highways on


which power travels
Losses are proportional to the current
squared on the line times the resistance
Want highest practical voltage to
minimize losses
As we will see, SIL is an important
property of transmission lines
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Surge Impedance Loading


(SIL)

Transmission line
consists of:

Shunt capacitance
Series resistance and
inductance
Distributed along length
of line

Treat as distributed
lumped elements
Can ignore resistance

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Surge Impedance Loading


(SIL)

Load

Load

Close the breaker at


sending end
Shunt capacitance
charges to CV2
Close the breaker at
receiving end and feed
the load
Series inductance uses
energy at LI2

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Surge Impedance Loading


(SIL)
Equating shunt and series energies
CV2 = LI2
Performing the math yields

SIL (power) = V2/SI


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Properties of Surge Impedance (SI)


Remains fairly constant over a wide range of
voltages
Starts around 400 at lower voltages and
decreases with bundling to around 225 at
1500 kV
Capacitance and inductance also remain
constant
Using this we can construct the following
table

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Properties of Transmission Lines


Voltage (kV)

SI ()

R (/km)

X (/km)

Charging
(kVAr/km)

SIL
(MW)

X/R

69/72

370

0.4

0.5

15

13/14

1.2

138/144

370

0.2

0.5

70

50/55

2.5

230/240
single

340

0.07

0.45

225

170

230/240
bundled

300

0.07

0.4

290

180/195

345 bundled

285

0.026

0.365

525

415

14

500 bundled

250

0.018

0.345

1340

990

20

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St. Clair Curve


3.25
3.00
2.75
2.50

2.00
1.75
1.50
1.25
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25

10
00

90
0

80
0

70
0

60
0

50
0

40
0

30
0

20
0

0.00
10
0

Line Loading (SIL)

2.25

Length (km)

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Loads
Three types of load models
Constant MVA motors
Constant current resistive loads
Constant impedance reactor & capacitor
banks
For power flow use constant MVA
For transient studies need a combination and
may require frequency

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Summary Part 1
Generators

make the product


Transformers raise and lower voltage
to allow efficient transport of product
Transmission lines are the highways
Loads are the end user of the product

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Lunch Break

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Characteristics of power systems


Generation is usually remote from loads
Transmission needed to connect generation
to load
Transformers needed to raise/lower voltage
Want as high a voltage as practical for
transmission minimizes losses
Use load size, generator size and line SIL to
get line voltage
In Alberta, lines are typically 150 km long
At that distance loading 2 times SIL

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Putting it all together


Generators

produce real power (P)


Generators produce/consume
reactive power (Q)
Generator Q for underexcited
operation is around half overexcited
ability

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Putting it all together


Transmission lines consume P in form of
losses, typically 5% to 7% of generation
Lines produce/consume Q depending on
power flow on the line as a fraction of SIL

< SIL VArs flow out of line


> SIL VArs flow into line
Half from each end, if voltages are equal

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Putting it all together

Loads consume P & Q

P required for resistive loads


Q required for reactive loads induction motors
Synchronous motors can produce/consume Q

Switching and/or load stations

Use shunt reactor/capacitor banks to


produce/absorb Q
Primarily for voltage control

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Breakers
Breakers used to
connect/disconnect
equipment
Breakers must be
capable of picking
up and dropping
loads

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Breakers
Breakers must be
capable of switching
unloaded
transmission lines
Breakers must be
capable of
interrupting the
symmetrical fault
plus any dc offset

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How the power system works


Fundamental rules
Maintain reactive power balance and
voltages will be in required range
typically +/- 5% of nominal
Maintain load/generation balance and
frequency or speed remains constant
typically 60 Hz +/- 0.02 Hz

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Power flow

To solve a power flow need to solve for four


variables at each bus

Bus voltage V
Bus angle
Real power P
Reactive power Q

However, some variables already known

Load P & Q
Generator bus V

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Power flow
Need

a model of the system


Per unit system is best
Must have consistent voltage ratios
Base impedances on voltage level
Most models involve some lumping, i.e.
not practical to model every detail
However, this depends on the type of
study
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Solution methods
Four

solution methods

Gauss-Siedel

solves phasor equations


Newton-Raphson solve for P & Q by
separation of variables
dc solves circuit as a dc circuit by
treating jX as a resistance
Decoupled load flow variant of NewtonRaphson. Separates V &

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Solution methods
Solution results
Balance generation with load and losses
Keep all bus voltages within tolerance +/5%
Require a slack or swing bus. Can be a
fictitious generator to supply/absorb P & Q
Solution achieved when swing bus P & Q
equal zero
Not practical, therefore minimize swing bus
P&Q

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Types of studies
Steady

state studies
Operations study effect today and
tomorrow, usually short time, e.g. up to
one month
Planning study effect of load and
generation three or more years in future
Fault study what happened yesterday

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Types of studies
Dynamic

studies
All of the above: Operations, Planning &
Fault
Transients what happens as power
system moves from one steady state to
another
Additional studies determine equipment
ratings, e.g. breaker duty
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Contingencies
Contingencies

test the system for

robustness
Contingency loss of one or more
components at a time
Costs escalate if system designed for
more than two contingencies
Example loss of a generator and line or
transformer N-G-1
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Power system example


Go

to example

46

Power System Performance


Losses

weve ignored losses up


to this point
Measuring outages
Lines

& Stations
Delivery Point measures

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Transmission Losses
Losses are
stochastic
Simple system
losses vary as a
square of current
Complex system
losses display a
linear variance

Transmission Losses
500

L o s s e s (M W )

400
300
200
100
0
4750 5000 5250 5500 5750 6000 6250 6500 6750 7000 7250 7500 7750
Net Generation to Supply Alberta Load (MW)

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Transmission Losses
Transmission Losses Histogram
500

Count

400
300
200
100

431

418

405

392

379

366

353

340

327

314

301

288

275

262

249

236

223

210

197

0
Losses (MW)

Histogram demonstrates a normal


distribution pattern for losses
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Transmission losses
Transmission Generation, Load and Losses by Day

Net Gen
Net Load
7500

1000

+3-sigma

900

-3-sigma

800

Ave Losses
6500

700
600

6000

500
5500

400

Losses (MW)

Geenration & Load (MW)

7000

Losses

300

5000

200
4500

100

4000

0
1

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

Hour

Losses on AIES are very linear


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Power system performance


Need

measure system performance


Measure frequency and duration of
outages
Reason outages occur infrequently
Measures of performance look at all
components and causes
Usually stated as an average of whole
system
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Performance
For

Alberta, AESO publishes data to its


website on line and terminal outages as
an overall average for the voltage class
For Delivery Points frequency and
duration data also published as a
system average
For comparison, all Canada data is
included for Delivery Points

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Performance
Two

types of duration are measured


Momentary < 1 minute
Sustained > 1 minute
Following are examples of charts
published on the AESO website

http://www.aeso.ca/transmission/5548.html

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Transmission - line
Alberta Interconnected Electric System
Transmission Outage Statistics
Summary for Line Related Forced Outages
For the Period From 1997 - 2001

Voltage
Class (kV)

Kilometer
Years
(km.a)

Number of
Sustained
Faults

Frequency
per 100 km.a
(faults100
km.a)

Total
Outage
Duration
(hours)

Average
Outage
Duration
(hrs/fault)

Unavailability
per 100 km.a
(%)

Number of
Momentary
Faults

Frequency
per 100 km.a
(faults/100
km.a)

69/72

9,017

186

2.06

1,130

6.08

0.14%

601

6.67

138/144

54,417

322

0.59

2,272

7.06

0.05%

685

1.26

240

33,968

235

0.69

1,159

4.93

0.04%

320

0.94

500

1,595

14

0.88

37

2.64

0.03%

95

5.96

Total

98,997

757

0.76

4,598

6.07

0.05%

1,701

1.72

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System Average Interruption Frequency


SAIFI-MI

Frequency

1.6

Alberta

1.2
Canada

0.8
0.4

Ice Storm
Removed

0.0
1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

Year

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System Average Interruption Duration

Duration (minutes)

SAIDI
400

Alberta

300
Canada

200
100

Ice Storm
Removed

0
1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

Year

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Summary Part 2
Power

flow studies model and test


the system for robustness
yesterday, today and tomorrow
N-G-1 is used to test the system for
operation today and into the future

57

Summary Part 2
Losses

are an important part of


power system design and operation
Higher voltage lines reduce losses
However, losses are fixed when the
conductor is chosen

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Summary Part 2
Outages

are measured using


frequency and duration techniques
Presented as system average
numbers

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Thats all folks!

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