Chemistry Notes

Periodicity
Atomic Radius
DEF: 1/2 distance between nuclei of
neighboring
atoms in the pure element, if rare gas it is
called
van der Waals radius

Influenced by the following

o Nuclear Charge
o Shielding Effect

Across a Period
Proton added to nucleus NC
e- added to the same valence shell do
not shield each other well from the
nucleus, SE is negligible
NC w/o corresponding increase in SE
e- more strongly attracted to nucleus
Atomic Radius across the period

Down a Group
Proton added to nucleus NC
e- added to the next shell, valence e - are
further away and are screened by more
inner electrons SE
SE(due to extra shells added)
outweighs the NC e- are less
strongly attracted by the nucleus
Atomic Radius across the period

Cation Radius
No change in number of protons
Valence electron removed, outer shell
of e- are lost
Remaining e- are closer and more
strongly attracted by the nucleus
R

Anion Radius
No change in number of protons
e- added repulsion between e-
SE
R

Melting Point
DEF: temperature in which a pure solid in equilibrium with its pure liquid at atmospheric
temperature
involves increasing the distance between particles by breaking the forces of attraction
between particles
depends on structure and bonding
Na to Al

Si

P to Ar

relatively high m.p

giant
metallic
structure
strong
electrostatic
forces of attraction
between
sea
of
delocalized e and
metal cations

high m.p
giant
molecular
structure
breaking many strong
covalent bonds are
required

low m.p
weak van der Waals
forces

Ionization Energy
DEF: Minimum energy required for the removal of 1 mol of outermost electrons from 1 mol
of gaseous atoms in its ground state

Across a Period
IE increases across a period because of an
increase in nuclear charge and almost constant
screening effect as electrons are added to the
same quantum shell, resulting in a greater pull
in attracting electrons.

Down a Group
IE decreases down a group as although there is
an increase in nuclear charge, it is outweighed
as electrons are added to the next quantum
shell which is further away and are screened by
more inner electrons,

Exceptions
Group 2 > Group 3
eg.
Be
&
B
2
2
1s 2s
1s2 2s2 2p
For B, 1st electron to be removed comes
from 2p subshell which is at a slightly
higher energy level than the 2s subshell
Thus more loosely held by the mucleus
and is easier to remove

Group 5 > Group 6

eg.
N
&
O
2
2
3
1s 2s 2p
1s2 2s2 2p4
For O, it is easier to remove electron from
paired electrons in the 2p subshell
because of the inter-electronic repulsion
between psired electrons

Electron Affinity
DEF: Enthalpy change when one mole of gaseous electrons acquires one mole of
electrons to form one mole of negatively charged gaseous ions

1st E.A is exothermic

o Strong electrostatic force of attraction is
formed between nucleus and incoming eo Energy is released nucleus attracts an eo H for addition of an e- to an
atom
is
exothermic
Exception: E.A for N
o When a e- is added to the N atom, the incoming e - pairs up with an e- in the 2p
orbital of N atom
o Energy needs to be supplied to overcome the inter-electronic repulsion between
the paired electrons
o e- process is less exothermic than expected
o For O and F, nuclear charge is larger than N, there is a stronger
electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus and the
incoming eo Energy released when the nucleus attracts a e - is larger than the
energy taken in to overcome the inter-electronic repulsion

Electron Negativity
DEF: ability of an atom in a covalent bond to attract
bond pair of electrons towards itself
Connection between I.E and E.N
Atoms with high I.E are expected to have high E.N
o Atoms with high I.E require a large amount of

energy to remove one mole of electron from

a mole of gaseous atoms
These atoms have greater effective nuclear
charge in attracting its valence electrons,
which accounts for high E.N

Transition Metals

DEF: an element that forms at least one stable ion with a partially filled d sub-shell
Electronic Configuration

*Scandium
Titanium
Vanadium
Chromium

21
22
23
24

30

[Ar] 4s2 3d1

[Ar] 4s2 3d2
[Ar] 4s2 3d3
[Ar] 4s1 3d5

[Ar]
4s2 3d10

Exceptions
Sc and Zn are not transition
elements
Ions formed have no partially filled
d subshell of e-

*Zinc
Characteristics
o High density, m.p and b.p
o Ability to form compounds of different oxidation states (Multiple oxidation
states)
Due to close proximity in energy of the 4s and 3d e e- are removed from the 4s subshell first, followed by the 3d subshell
Ligands
DEF: negative ions or molecules that possess at least one lone (non-bonding) pair of
electrons
Coordination Number (C.N): number of dative bonds formed between the ligands and
transition metal
Examples:
o Monodentate: CO NH3 CH- Cl- H20 NO2- SCNo Biodentate: Ethylenediamine (H2NCH2CH2NH2) Ethanioate (C2O42-)
Complex Ions
DEF: an ion that consists of a central metal ion closely surrounded by a cluster of
molecules or negative ions called ligands through dative bonds
Reasons for formation:
o Relatively high charge density allows it to attract the lone pair of electrons from
ligands
o Availability of energetically accessible empty orbitals to accept lone pair
Explanation for colour
o When ligands approach the transition metal ion to form a complex ion, the dorbitals in the 3d subshell is repelled unevenly by the ligands resulting in the
splitting of the degenerate 3d orbitals into two groups of different energy levels
with an energy difference of
E.
o An electron from the lower
energy level 3d orbitals may
now excite to the higher level
3d orbitals if it adsorbs
energy that corresponds to
E by absorbing a specific
wavelength of light in the

visible spectrum. As a result, unabsorbed wavelengths are transmitted and

observed as the colour of the complex.
o Colours of the complex ions are affected by
Different
ligands: any permanent chemical change
DEF: substance that increases the rate of reaction without
itself undergoing
Provides alternative pathway for reaction which lowers theactivation
energy
different
splitting capacity on the d-orbitals
size of d-splitting orbitals depend on ligand strength
Energy Gap, E
E f absorbed colour observed wavelengths

CATALYST

Heterogeneous
One which is in the different phase as the reactants
Provides an active site on which the reaction occurs

Reason
Heterogeneous
Availability of partially filledAvailability
3d orbitalsof partially filled 3d orbitals
One which is in the different phase as the reactants
Provides an active site on which the reaction occurs