ARTICLE IN PRESS

International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 42 (2005) 561568

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Technical note

A method for estimating the strength properties of a granitic rock

subjected to dynamic loading
S.H. Choa,, Y. Ogatab, K. Kanekoa
a

Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan

Geo-Resource Development and Safety Research Group, AIST, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan

Accepted 26 January 2005

Available online 29 March 2005

1. Introduction
The fragmentation of rock subjected to dynamic
loading largely depends on the fracture process, which
plays an important role in controlling the number of
fractures produced, fracture propagation direction, etc.
The fracture process is affected by rock inhomogeneity
and external conditions, such as the loading rate [13].
Inhomogeneity is an important factor in progressive
failure, and is generally treated as the distribution of
fracture strength and the elastic modulus of the rock.
Various loading rates result in different crack growth
and fracture patterns.
In rock fracture mechanics, a non-linear process zone
is caused by the initiation and propagation of microcracks in the immediate vicinity of a crack tip. This can
be described using the fracture process zone (FPZ) [46],
i.e., non-linear fracture mechanics are appropriate for
describing the fracture process in rock. In rocks, the
FPZ is usually characterized by a bridging zone and a
microcracking zone around the crack tip, as illustrated
in Fig. 1. A similar FPZ is observed in front of the area
of crack propagation with different rock fracture
methods, such as hydraulic fracture and in a fracture
toughness experiment [7]. Yon et al. [8] investigated the
dynamic behavior of the FPZ in concrete, and showed
that the fracture energy is ostensibly insensitive to the
strain rate. Kaneko et al. [9] identied the FPZ of rocks
as a factor in the fragmentation process in rock blasting.
The evolution of the FPZ and its inuence on dynamic
Corresponding author. Tel./fax: +81 11 706 6325.

E-mail address: chosh@geo-er.eng.hokudai.ac.jp (S.H. Cho).

1365-1609/$ - see front matter r 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijrmms.2005.01.004

crack propagation in brittle materials has been studied

[10]. Cho et al. [2] claried the strain-rate dependency of
the dynamic tensile strength of rock using the dynamic
tensile test and a dynamic fracture process analysis
based on Hopkinsons effect combined with the spalling
phenomena. It was pointed out that the strain-rate
dependency of the dynamic tensile strength is caused by
(1) the fracture process related to the inhomogeneity of
the rock, (2) crack arrests owing to the stress released at
adjacent microcracks, (3) the crack propagation velocity, and other factors. To simplify the dynamic fracture
process and facilitate the analysis of the results, the
study did not consider the FPZ in the analyses. Cho and
Kaneko [3] veried the loading-rate dependency of
fracture propagation in rock using dynamic fracture
process analysis, which adapts the tensile softening
curve [4,11] and microscopic strength for the rock
inhomogeneity. These studies validated the FPZ model
for dynamic fractures. Although the dynamic fracture of
rock has received considerable attention in the past few
decades, there is no method for evaluating the fracture
energy and inhomogeneity of rock subjected to dynamic
loading.
This study used dynamic fracture process analysis and
a dynamic tensile test based on Hopkinsons effect
combined with the spalling phenomena to estimate the
fracture properties of granitic rock subjected to dynamic
loads. The dynamic fracture processes of rock specimens
were analyzed to investigate the strain-rate dependency
of the dynamic tensile strength and the response of the
displacement velocity at the free end of the specimen
under different fracture energies. The measured displacement velocities are used to evaluate the ratio of the

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Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of the fracture process zone (FPZ) at the

front of a crack tip.

initial to the nal ying velocities. Based on the

experimental and numerical results, the fracture energies
and coefcient of uniformity of the Inada granite
specimens subjected to dynamic loading are determined.

2. Dynamic fracture process analyses for rock

This study used dynamic fracture process analysis
[2,3] to simulate a dynamic tensile test based on
Hopkinsons effect combined with spalling phenomena.
The increment displacement form of a dynamic nite
element method was used to explain large displacement
behavior. A re-meshing algorithm was used to model
crack propagation, assuming that tensile fractures, i.e.,
crack initiation, propagation, and interconnection,
occur at element boundaries. Therefore, cracks were
modeled as separations from element boundaries that
did not change the shapes of the elements. At each
element boundary, the fracture potential was checked at
every time step. The fracture potential was calculated
from the ratio of the normal stress to the tensile strength
at the element boundary. If the fracture potential of two
elements exceeded 1, the node between the elements was
separated into two nodes. Since the cracking and
fracture processes were treated as the separation of
elements, contact problems, i.e., overlapping of the
separated elements, were possible owing to the perpendicular compression stress that was applied to the
separated elements. This problem was solved iteratively
to prevent meshing overlaps when the separated
elements were in contact with each other. Rock is an
inhomogeneous material and the inhomogeneity can be
represented using the Weibull distribution, which
considers the microscopic strength of rocks. Random
numbers satisfying the Weibull distribution with coefcient of uniformity m were generated to construct a
spatial distribution of the microscopic strengths in the
analysis model [2].
Although the dynamic behavior of the FPZ in rock is
not well known, it was reported that the fracture energy
for the FPZ in concrete shows the strain-rate insensitive
[8] and the dynamic behavior of brittle materials
including ceramics, rocks and concrete, subjected to
high strain rate often involves the similar development
of complex fracture and fragmentation patterns [1,8]. It
should be safe to assume that the FPZ model for

concrete is used to simulate the fracture process for rock

under different strain rates. Our analysis used the 14
tensile softening curve [12], which is an approximate
function of the crack opening displacement (COD), h,
and the cohesion, S, as shown in Fig. 2(a), to model the
FPZ in rock. COD values from 0 to W1 correspond to
the microcrack zone and values from W1 to W2
correspond to the bridging zone in Fig. 2. The inner
area, which is colored gray, is dened as the fracture
energy, Gf. Then, W1 and W2 can be calculated as
0:75G f =S t and 5:0G f =S t ; respectively, where S t is the
mean microscopic tensile strength. Figs. 2(b) and (c)
show that the cohesion S* can be determined from the
variation in the COD, Dh, where Smax and Dhmax are the
maximum cohesion and COD experienced in the
previous step, respectively. The cohesion S* is also
given by the following equations:
S
S t  0:75

0:25S t

St
Dh
W1

W 2  Dh
W2  W1

0oDhoW 1 ; Dhmax oDh,

(1)

W 1 oDhoW 2 ; Dhmax oDh,

(2)


Smax
Dh
Dhmax

DhoDhmax ,

(3)

where St is the microscopic tensile strength of an

element boundary. In order to apply the estimated

Fig. 2. Tensile softening curve for the fracture process zone (FPZ) and
determination of cohesion S* with variation of crack opening
displacement (COD) Dh.

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3. Model description and dynamic fracture processes

The 2-D analysis model consisted of one loading
boundary and three free boundaries, as shown in Fig.
3(a). To induce various local strain rates in the model
specimen, different peak values, rise times, and decay
times were considered to determine the incident pressure
at the loading boundary. Four analysis models were
used for the various loading conditions and different
specimen lengths, as listed in Table 1. Fig. 4 shows the
pressuretime curves for the analysis models. The
models were divided into triangular elements consisting
of 422110,521 nodal points. Fig. 3(b) shows the nite
element layout for the Type I analysis model. The
parameters and calculation conditions are listed in Table
2. Random numbers satisfying the Weibull distribution
were generated to give the spatial distribution of the
microscopic strengths for four coefcients of uniformity:
m 2; 5, 10 and 50. Here, the mean tensile strength is
4 MPa, m 2 corresponds to inhomogeneous material,
and m 50 corresponds to comparatively homogeneous
material. The grain size of Inada granite ranges from 0.5
to 4 mm and the average of grain size is 2.25 mm [13].
The size of the FPZ for Inada granite was predicted as
about 10 mm from the relationship between grain size
and the size of the FPZ [14]. The smallest length of
element for the analysis model is 1 mm, which is smaller

than the average grain size of Inada granite and the

height of the analysis model is 20 mm, which is larger
than the size of the FPZ for Inada granite. It is
conceivable that the application of a microscopic (grain
size) strength distribution, which represents granitic
rock inhomogeneity, and the tensile softening curve for
the FPZ can enable representation of dynamic fracture
process for Inada granite.
The fracture processes were simulated using specimens with 10 different microscopic strength spatial
distributions when m 2; 5, 10 and 50 with the four
models, which consider G f 0; 30 and 300 Pa m. The
fracture processes of a specimen with m 1; which
corresponds to homogenous rock, were also simulated
for each model for G f 0; 30 and 300 Pa m. The
maximum principal stress distribution and crack propagation in a Type II specimen when m 5 and Gf
300 Pa m are given in Fig. 5. The compressive stress
wave caused by the incident pressure reached the free
end of the specimen and was reected as a tension wave
at 84 ms. The tensile wave was superimposed on the tail
of the compressive stress wave, and developed an
increasing amount of tension. It started to produce a
large number of microcracks at 92 ms.
Fig. 6ac shows the relationship between the dynamic
tensile strength and the apparent strain rate when

Type I
Type II
Type III
Type IV

20

Input pressure (MPa)

cohesion S* to the nite element model, it is necessary to

consider the cohesion as the nodal force acting on the
walls of cracks.

563

15

10

0
0

50

100

150

Time (s)
Fig. 3. Geometry of the model subjected to dynamic loading.

Fig. 4. Pressuretime curves.

Table 1
Analysis models for the dynamic tensile strengths and fractures
Model

Type
Type
Type
Type

I
II
III
IV

Geometry

Incident pressure

Height H (m)

Length L (m)

Peak pressure P (MPa)

Rise time tR (ms)

Decay time tL (ms)

0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02

0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5

20
18
16
14

1
1
1
1

50
70
90
110

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Table 2
Mechanical properties and calculation conditions for the analysis
model
Parameter

Value

Density r (kg/m3)
Elastic modulus E (GPa)
Poissons ratio n
Mean microscopic compressive strength S c
(MPa)
Mean microscopic tensile strength S t (MPa)
Fracture energy Gf (Pa m)
Critical COD of micro-crack zone W1
(106 mm)
Critical COD of bridging zone W2 (106 mm)
Coefcient of uniformity m
Time step Dt (ms)
P wave velocity CP (m/s)
S wave velocity Cs (m/s)
Bar velocity Cb (m/s)

2500
40
0.25
60
4.0
01000
1.88187.50
12.501250
2, 5, 20, 50 and N
0.02
4381
2529
4000

m 1 was owing to variation in the position of the

fracture plane because of stress variations caused by
specimen surface waves. These results show that the
strain-rate dependency of the dynamic tensile strength
depends on Gf within the range of m 250, approximately.

4. Inuence of fracture energy on the displacement

velocity curve
In the previous section, it was pointed out that the
strain-rate dependency of the dynamic tensile strength
depends on the FPZ. This means that the dynamic
fracture process of rock subjected to a dynamic load is
affected by the FPZ around the crack tip, and the
response of the displacement velocity at the free end of a
separated specimen changes with the fracture energy.
Fig. 8 shows a schematic curve of the displacement
velocity versus time at the free end of a separated
specimen. Here, V and V* are the average displacement
velocity and ying velocity, respectively. V is given by
f t0 f t0 Dt f t0 Dt f t0 2Dt
V

,
2
2

Fig. 5. Distribution of the axial stress and crack propagation process

in a Type II specimen when m 5 and Gf 300 Pa m:

where f is the displacement velocity function at time t. If

the fracture energy incorporates cohesion of the cracks
corresponding to the FPZ, the ying velocity of a
separated specimen will decrease. By contrast, if the
fracture energy for the cracks is neglected, the kinetic
2
energy of the ying specimen will be 12 M V : Here, M is
the mass of the separated specimen. Therefore, considering the fracture energy 12 MV
2 ; the kinetic energy of
the ying specimen can be written as

2
1
2 MV

m 2; 5, 20, 50 and 1; and G f 300 Pa m: Here, the

apparent strain rates were derived from the displacement velocity at the free end of a specimen model in the
same manner as in an experimental approach [2]. The
slope of the tted line n and the scatter in the strength
data decreased with increasing m. Even in the homogeneous model, the dynamic tensile strengths differed
slightly from the mean microscopic tensile strength, as
listed in Table 2.
To investigate the strain-rate dependency of the
dynamic tensile strength of rock, which has different
fracture energies, the slope constant n was plotted
against the coefcient of uniformity m, as shown in Fig.
7. Here, the slope constant n was derived from the
relationship between the dynamic tensile strength and
the apparent strain rate when m 2; 5, 10, 50 and 1;
and Gf 0; 30 and 300 Pa m. The constant n was greater
when G f 0 Pa m and decreased with increasing Gf, and
decreased with increasing m. The values were similar for
mX50. Conceivably, the value of the constant n when

(4)

12 M V  Gf D,

(5)

where D is the unit area of the separated specimen.

Using M rDd (where r is the density and d is the
length of a separated specimen), V* is given by
q
2


(6)
V V  2Gf =rd.
Using Eq. (6), it is possible to predict the fracture
energy, Gf, from the measured average displacement
velocity, V ; and observed ying velocity, V*. Fracture
plane formation during the dynamic tensile test involves
a complex fracture process in rock specimens [2].
Considering this complex fracture process, it is difcult
to estimate the Gf using Eq. (6) and this shows the
necessity of using Gf related to the complex fracture
process.
To investigate the inuence of the fracture energy on
the displacement velocity curve, the displacement
velocities at the free end of a Type I specimen within
the range from Gf 0 to 1000 Pa m are compared in
Fig. 9. The displacement velocity curves rapidly increase

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565

Fig. 6. Dynamic tensile strength plotted against the apparent strain rate when Gf 300: (a) m 2; (b) m 5; (c) m 10; (d) m 50; and (e)
m 1:

to a peak, and then gradually decrease with a small

oscillation. When G f 0 Pa m; oscillation then occurs,
like a free vibration. By contrast, when G f 300 and
1000 Pa m, the displacement velocity curves decrease
continually without converging on a constant velocity.
This occurs because W2, described in Section 2, is larger
than the COD of the cracks in the specimen model, and
cohesion is applied to the cracks. Note that the velocity
curves when G f 0100 Pa m converge on a constant
value, which corresponds to the ying velocity of a
fragmented specimen. Therefore, as Gf increases, the
convergent value of the oscillating displacement velocity
at the free end decreases.
Fig. 10 shows the variation in the ratio of the initial
velocity, Vb, to the ying velocity, Ve, as Gf increases in
Type I, when m 5; 10 and 50. Here, Vb corresponds to

the displacement velocity at the time when the velocity

curve increases again after the peak velocity. The error
bar depicts the standard deviation of the ratio Ve/Vb. In
this analysis, the ratio Ve/Vb when Gfp50 Pa m was
derived from the displacement velocity curves within the
time 100120 ms; when GfX100 Pa m, the displacement
velocity curves for the time 150200 ms were used. The
ratio Ve/Vb decreased with Gf. In detail, when m 50;
Ve/Vb was greater than when m 5 for Gfp50 Pa m,
while Ve/Vb was greater when m 5 for Gf 100 Pa m.
Moreover, the relationship between the ratio Ve/Vb and
Gf for Type IV showed the same tendency, as seen in
Fig. 10.
Therefore, from Figs. 7 and 10, Gf and m can
be estimated if Ve/Vb and the slope constant n are
known.

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566

Fig. 7. Relationship between the slope constant of the tted line and
the coefcient of uniformity when Gf 0; 30, and 300 Pa m.

Fig. 10. The velocity ratio variation with increasing fracture energy,
Gf ; for m 5; 10 and 50.

5. Estimating the dynamic fracture properties of rock

Displacement velocity v(t)

5.1. Dynamic tensile tests based on Hopkinsons effect

_
V
V*

t0

t0+
t

t0+2
t
Time, t

Fig. 8. Schematic of the displacement velocitytime curve at the free

end of a separated rock specimen. V and V* are the average
displacement velocity and ying velocity.

Fig. 9. Displacement velocities at the free end of a Type I specimen for

the range from G f 0 to 1000.

An experimental approach [2,1517] for a dynamic

tensile test based on Hopkinsons effect with the spalling
phenomena was used to determine the ratio Ve/Vb for
Inada granite. Fig. 11 shows a schematic of the
experimental setup used to observe and measure the
ying velocity of a separated rock specimen. The
experiment started with the high-speed camera controller simultaneously sending signals to the high-speed
video camera and the accurately controlled blasting
machine, which sends an ignition signal to a precise
electric detonator and the oscillograph of the laser
vibration meter used to record oscillation. The rock
specimen was shocked by the detonation of the precise
detonator and the displacement velocity at the free end
of the rock specimen was measured using the laser
vibration meter. The ying velocity, Vf, of a separated
specimen was observed using the high-speed video
camera.
Fig. 12 shows an example of the measured displacement velocities at the free end for Inada granite
specimens. The response of the velocity curve is similar
to that when Gf 10 and 20 Pa m in Fig. 9. The
experimental results for four Inada granite specimens
are listed in Table 3. Here, Vf and Ve are the ying
velocity observed using the high-speed video camera and
the ying velocity measured using the laser vibration
meter, respectively; the two velocities are the same. The
position of the fracture plane was checked with the highspeed camera. The average value of Ve/Vb determined
for four Inada granite specimens was 0.80. The slope
constant n for Inada granite was taken as 0.329 from the
results reported by Cho et al. [2].

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5.2. A diagram for estimating the fracture energy, G f ;

and coefficient of uniformity, m, for Inada granite

567

300 Pa m, respectively. Using Fig. 10 and V =V b 0:80;

Gf for Inada granite was estimated as 9, 9 and 16 Pa m
when m 5; 10 and 50, respectively. Note that Gf
depends on m. These analyses show that when Figs. 7
and 10 are rearranged to give a relationship between m
and Gf using the estimated Ve/Vb and n, the fracture
properties m and Gf for Inada granite can easily be
estimated. Fig. 13 shows the diagram used to estimate Gf
and m for Inada granite from the estimated Ve/Vb and n
using the relationship between m and Gf. The estimated
Gf and m for Inada granite were 48.5 and 9.5,
respectively.
Kaneko et al. [9] reported that the coefcient of
uniformity m1 obtained by Brazilian tensile strengths
ranges from 7.9 to 15.5 in Inada granite and the
coefcient of uniformity m2 obtained by the specimen
size effect of the Brazilian tensile strengths is 18.32. Note
that the estimated m in this study is included the range
of m1. This implies that the macro-scale inhomogeneity
of a rock can be used to explain a micro-scale
inhomogeneity of the rock, i.e. there is a fractal
characteristic of the coefcient of uniformity, and there
exists the strain-rate insensitivity of the coefcient of
uniformity.

Using Fig. 7 and n 0:329 for Inada granite, the

coefcient of uniformity, m, for Inada granite was
estimated as 20, 12 and 7.5 when Gf 0; 30 and

Fig. 11. Experimental setup for the dynamic tensile test based on
Hopkinsons effect with the spalling phenomena.

100

Ve /Vb=0.80
n=0.329

Coefficient of uniformity m

Ve/Vb=0.9
Ve/Vb=0.8
Ve/Vb=0.7
n=0.3

10
n=0.4
n=0.45

Gf =48.5
m=9.5

1
0

50

100
150
200
Fracture energy Gf (Pa m)

250

300

Fig. 13. A diagram for estimating the coefcient of uniformity, m; and

fracture energy, Gf ; for Inada granite.

Fig. 12. Displacement velocity at the free end of a specimen (A-5)

subjected to an electric detonation at the other end.

Table 3
Dynamic tensile test results for Inada granite
Exp. no.

L (m)

r (kg/m3)

Cp (m/s)

d (m)

t0 (ms)

Dt (ms)

Vf (m/s)

Ve (m/s)

Vb (m/s)

Ve/Vb

A-2
A-3
A-4
A-5

0.341
0.340
0.349
0.340

2595
2584
2609
2603

3710
3620
3769
3731

0.044
0.052
0.048
0.038

5.0
4.0
5.6
5.0

11.9
14.4
12.7
10.2

4.20
3.90
3.71
4.35

4.20
3.90
3.71
4.35

5.40
4.25
5.40
5.20

0.77
0.91
0.68
0.84

L: Length of a specimen, r: Density of a specimen, Cp: P-wave velocity, d: Length of a separated specimen, t0: Rising time, Dt: Collapse time of stress
wave from the free end to the fracture plane, Vf: Flying velocity observed using the high-speed video camera, Ve: Flying velocity measured using the
laser vibration meter and Vb: Initial velocity estimated using the measured displacementvelocity curve.

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In addition, the values of Vb in Table 3 were

determined using the numerical approach presented in
Section 3. However, the velocity V at the time t0+2Dt
differs from the initial velocity Vb. This is also seen in
Fig. 12. In fact, it is difcult to obtain an accurate initial
velocity V experimentally owing to the stress variation
caused by surface waves, reected waves from microcracks, etc. Ultimately, we concluded that the more
accurately the initial velocity Vb is measured, the more
accurate the estimation of the fracture properties.
6. Conclusions
The dynamic fracture processes of rock specimens
subjected to dynamic loads were analyzed to investigate
the strain-rate dependency of the dynamic tensile
strength and the inuence of fracture energy on the
displacement velocity curve. It was revealed that the
strain-rate dependency of the dynamic tensile strength is
affected by Gf within the range of m 250, approximately. Increasing Gf results in a decrease in the
convergent value of the oscillating displacement velocity
at the free end and the ratio Ve/Vb increases with Gf.
Dynamic tensile tests based on Hopkinsons effect
combined with the spalling phenomena were performed
to determine Ve/Vb for four Inada granite specimens.
The average Ve/Vb was 0.80 and the slope constant, n,
was 0.329. Based on the experimental and numerical
results, a diagram for estimating Gf and the coefcient of
uniformity, m, for Inada granite was derived. For Inada
granite, G f 48:5 Pa m and m 9:5:
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