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UNIVERSITY PARIS 8 - VINCENNES - SAINT-DENIS

UFR 1 - ARTS, PHILOSOPHY, AESTHETICS

THESIS
to get the grade

DOCTOR OF

U NIVERSITY P ARIS 8
in

BEAUTY

, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF ARTS

Discipline: Music

Presented and supported publicly by

Guilherme Carvalho

Title:
MUSICAL PERFORMANCES OF IDEAS MATHEMATICS

Supervisor: Horacio V

Jury:
Martin L

ALIBERTE

Mr. Makis S OLOMOS

Ms. Antonia S

OULEZ

February 2007

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AGGIONE

TOVANT -P ROPOS

This work is the result and witnessed a musical journey (composer and
interpreter) influenced by mathematics. It addresses the issues of formalization
music and, more generally, that of reconciliation between the two disciplines. In
this context, it aims to expose a musical thought strategy with which to deal with
issues specific to the work of the composer.

F OREWORD

This work is the result and the traces of a musical trajectory (as composing and interpreter)
Influenced by mathematics. It deals with the stakes of formalization in music and, more
Generally, with Those of Bringing together thesis subjects. In this frame Particular, it AIMS
to the bring forth a strategy for musical thought with qui approach to issues proper to a
composer's work.

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T TABLE OF CONTENTS

TOVANT -P ROPOS .................................................. ............................ 2

I NTRODUCTION
.................................................. ............................. 6
. Thought formelle.................................................................................................... 7
. Mathematics presence ............................................... ............................... 7

. Languages ............................................................................................................ 10
. Thorisation....................................................................................................... 11
. Pratiques............................................................................................................ 14
I - E AND Xistence
MRULTIPLICIT
................................................ 17
1. From the rapprochement between mathematics and music ..................... 18
. Hardware abstraction and constraints .............................................. .............. 19
1.1 Reasons for a rapprochement between the two disciplines .................. 21
. Musical thinking, musical discourse ............................................. ................... 21
to. discourse on music .............................................. .................................. 22
b. musical discourse ................................................ ............................................ 23
. Take mathematics as such ............................................. ..... 24
. Mathematics as "Truth"? .................................................. ....... 27
1.2 Ways to establish a rapprochement .......................................... ........ 29
. Formalization, model, modeling ............................................. .................. 30
. Using mathematical ............................................. ......................... 32
to. ................................................. Application .................................................. . 33
b. parallle........................................................................................................ 35
c. intermediate situations ................................................ ............................... 37
1.3 From what is formalized ............................................ ............................. 38
. Notation.............................................................................................................. 38
. With the notation: writing and proofreading ........................................... ............... 42
to. writings and logical time .............................................. ............................... 43
b. analysis and proofreading ............................................... ...................................... 45
. Running time (time) ........................................... .... 48
to. distance of a formal language ............................................ ............................ 49
b. validity of this juxtaposition with formal languages ............................. 53
. Discourse on music .............................................. ...................................... 54
to. theories of music .............................................. .................................... 54
b. analyzes and styles ............................................... ............................................ 56
c. understanding and communication ............................................... .................. 58
2. the possibility of musical performances ................................. 59
. The effectiveness and efficiency of links ........................................ ...................... 61
2.1 First definition ............................................... .................................... 65
. Illustration: Any differentiable function is continuous ....................................... 66

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. Illustration: Princpio Cavalieri ............................................. ................... 71
. Traces of formalization .............................................. .................................. 75
2.2 Second definition ............................................... ..................................... 77
. Illustration: a convex set ............................................. ..................... 80
to. convexity ....................................................................................................... 81
b. homotopies.................................................................................................... 84
. Illustration: Lema 1 .............................................. ............................................ 87
to. partitions....................................................................................................... 88
b. primitivation.................................................................................................. 90
c. droulement................................................................................................... 91
2.3 Types of representations .............................................. ............................. 92
. Constructed representations ................................................ ............................. 95
. Found representations ................................................ .................................. 97
. Representations mtamusicales ................................................ ..................... 100
3. From the senses in a formalization ........................................... ........... 102
3.1 Two sense to "interpretation" ........................................... ............... 103
. Movements of "meaning" ............................................. .................................. 104
3.2 intelligibility and understanding .............................................. ................ 105
. Transmission of content ............................................. ............................... 107
. Signification..................................................................................................... 112
4. arbitrary decisions ............................................. ..................... 114
4.1 The possibility to model .......................................... music 115 ....

4.2
the to
distance
object model ..........................................
............. 121
4.3 From
decisions
model between
...........................................
..... 126
4.4 Overcoming the distance between object model .......................................... ..130
4.5 An irreducible distance .............................................. .......................... 134
4.6 The need for arbitrary decisions ........................................... ..... 137
II - G OMTRISATION
.................................................. .............. 140
1. Figure and forms ............................................. ................................... 141
1.1 Non-Euclidean Geometry ............................................. .................... 141
Figures 1.2 and musical musical contexts ............................................ ..145
. Figure note................................................................................................. 146
to. illustration: as a melodic line .......................................... ....... 151
. Link to the perception .............................................. .......................................... 152
. morphological eidetic ............................................... .............................. 155
. Objects ............................................................................................................... 158
2. Musical Spaces .............................................. .............................. 161
2.1 Dimensions and parameters .............................................. ........................ 162
. Illustration: a first musical space ............................................ .......... 165
2.2 Directions and fragments of space .......................................... ............. 167
3. musical objects as functions ........................................... .170
3.1 Variable Sets .............................................. ............................. 171
to. instruments.................................................................................................. 173

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b. game modes ............................................... ................................................. 174
c. hauteurs....................................................................................................... 176
d. positions...................................................................................................... 178
e. dynamiques.................................................................................................. 180
f. dures........................................................................................................... 181
3.2 Fonctions.................................................................................................184
. Indivisible gestures ................................................ ........................................... 186
. Insertion time .............................................. ..................................... 189
3.3 Continuities ................................................ .............................................. 191
4. Areas modular, composed space ........................................... 193
. Several temporal directions ............................................... ..................... 194
. An "extended" size ............................................. ................................ 195
4.2 Locality and globality .............................................. ................................... 197
4.3 The form of a work ........................................... ................................. 199
III - P

.................................................. ....... 202

OTIQUE MRUsical
1. Dfinition(s)......................................................................................203
. Language courant.............................................................................................. 203
to. music as a "text"? .................................................. .............. 204
. Stravinsky........................................................................................................ 206
. Schoenberg, Dahlhaus ............................................... ..................................... 207
. Nono, Antunes ............................................... .................................................. 209
. Backes, Ruwet ............................................... .................................................. 213
. A position .............................................. ......................................... 217
2. Poetry and poetics of weak topology ......................................... 218
2.1 clotting time and time felt ............................................ ... 219
. An inspiration in literature ............................................. ................... 220
. Phrasing and integrations ............................................... ..................................... 221
to. in the partition ............................................... ........................................... 222
b. "Lightness" ............................................... .................................................. . 224
2.2 Internal and External Memory ............................................. ...................... 225

C CONCLUSION .................................................. ............................. 228

. Mathematics, a metaphor for the composition? ........................ 229
B IBLIOGRAPHY
.................................................. ........................ 231

TONNEXES .................................................. .................................... 241

1. a convex set ............................................. ........................... 242
2. Lema 1 - e parties primitive .......................................... ............ 251
3. Any differentiable function is continuous ........................................... ..254
4. weak topology .............................................. ................................... 269

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I NTRODUCTION

Human reason has this particular destiny (...) it is

overwhelmed by the issues it can not be excluded (...), but which
it can not provide an answer (...).
- I. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason

A form of abstraction accompanies the so-called western music, and

probably that of other regions as well, since its inception. Once a gap or
a range is detached from the instrument or voice that the product to be an idea
itself, we have a passage of the material to the abstract, a chronometric time to
logical time, which carries both wealth and flexibility of what Xenakis
call the off-time

1And conceptual and semantic difficulties inherent in any

abstraction 2And this detachment in particular. A special thought to the music

thus made possible, a way to observe and talk about that can be addressed,
precisely because of the distance taken with respect to the physics of sound, its
time course and understanding.

1 XENAKIS
I. [1963], formal music.
2 See in particular GOODMAN
N. [1966] The structure of appearance.

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. Formal thought
In fact, it is very difficult for us to design a speech without music
This way of abstracting, it appears as "natural" in the musical thought:
it is historically often issue notes, harmonies, rhythms, taken as
starting points essential to the definition of music, so that it can be
avoid the surgery. Even when these concepts are poorly adapted to a practice (such as
for concrete music

3) Or are deliberately avoided (as in scores

graphic or verbal Fluxus

4), We still meet frequently

a preoccupation with form, how to register events in time and

space, and extract (or Less) intelligibility.
This formal thought is thus practically unavoidable in our music,
and can become an object of study in itself, we believe it is useful to study the ways
to talk about these abstract and formal aspects of musical thought.

. Of maths
We want to address the issues in the text of a critical and constructive
oriented mathematics, focused on music in general and composition
particular. Specifically, we want to concern ourselves with input from a
approximation of musical and mathematical thoughts in the field of
understanding of music, understood as organization of sound objects and

3 See redefining vocabulary must construct S

P. [1966] Treaty of musical objects.
CHAEFFER
4 See eg N
M. [1974] Experimental music (ch.6).
YMAN

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music (listening and writing), but also in those of aesthetic and

poetic musical. We will seek to clarify how formal thought in music

can address these issues, how they can be made and processed.
The engine of this work is actually a set of reflections aroused by the idea
a reconciliation between the two disciplines, and the fact that we have the
personally always thought very similar fashion. Our musical reasoning
as for composition and for interpretation, is deeply influenced by a
reasoning as a mathematician: we wanted to search and clear
the terms of this influence in its many aspects. If sometimes the direct link
mathematics seems to fade, as in a discussion on poetry
music, the route that leads to these points is no less indebted to this look
mathematician on the subject. Mathematics deal indeed abstract forms and
formalization, but do not forget that there is mostly accurate question in speech, in the definitions in the methods - and this is what directs this
sought after.
If one of our goals is then contribute to the accuracy of the discourse on
music and ways of thinking about composition and performance, it may be relevant
take the preoccupation with a certain musical epistemology as one of
lines that run this text. To paraphrase a definition given by Granger

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epistemology

5We could say that the musical epistemology should be both

philosophical analysis of some musical practices, taken in their procedures and

their actual evolution, and also more general interpretation of the meaning of
musical knowledge. These two actions, the interpretation of the knowledge and analysis
practice, are the source and center of our approach.
Of course, here we must distinguish the study of science and knowledge
Scientific study of practices and musical knowledge. In particular, the

This language is distinct ways in both areas: speech

Science is not directly done on or with sensitive data while it is
possible to consider, for joints inserted in time, a musical discourse
that is. At least some forms of systems used music and
musical thought stood outside a language itself, so
directly on the sensitive or presentable.

6 Moreover, the very idea of precision

Science (in practice and discourse) is not trivially compatible with

a musical accuracy, the same definition can vary depending on the context, and sets
involved mostly aesthetic considerations that lexical.

5 See GRANGER
G.-G. [1994] Forms, operations, objects: "(...) epistemology must be both analysis
some philosophical sciences, taken in their effective procedures and their evolution, and secondly
more general interpretation of the meaning of scientific knowledge. "(Introduction, p.8)
6 As opposed to the speakable, as we find them in W
L. [1922], Tractatus Logico
ITTGENSTEIN
Philosophicus. This brings us to a first difficulty inherent in any theoretical work on practical
music: how to talk about what exactly presentable and sensory experiences that it generates?
We obviously can only get around these "holes" in the language, taking into account the
meaning of salience, often rich, these detours generate.

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. Languages
We see that the various relationships of music in language can
appear quite naturally into a discussion on the interpretation and knowledge
musical: it will also issue throughout our text, in parallel with the
formal languages, meaning construction, and reports to the poetic (literary). Us
want to integrate these issues to the broader reflection on the insertion of a "way
Mathematical act "in music: the construction of musical performances of ideas
mathematics.
On the one hand, the study of these representations is similar to what Granger appoints
mtadisciplines 7. They are moving in two directions: first, "to
elucidating the possibility of internal operation of a system condition
symbolic as a work of thought; secondly, to an explanation of the methods
in action in a theory. "Indeed, if we look at the composition of view

composer, we are facing an organized set of actions, networked

by operations of various types and on them: Operations that combine
modify, select, start or discontinue these actions, consider the results, and
From then generate other actions and other operations just recharge it
network.
On the other hand, the musical experience that can not be reduced to a system
symbolic (especially when it comes to perception and interpretation)

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musically represent a mathematical idea also means taking
arbitrary decisions (external to a given formal framework) to act on and from a
practice. We focus so as to process changes
compositional or interpretive even (in his "gestures", so to speak) when
oriented, at least in part, by such a representation.

. Theorization
It must be stressed here that mathematics will never be used in our work
prove anything: they are a tool or a particular contextualization for
a thought that bears it, on other subjects as mathematics. More specifically,
is for us to develop a discourse on music whose form is directly and
centrally influenced by the mathematician thought

8. In particular, when we

formalize this is not primarily to extract an application (software, by

for example), but because we want to think in that particular way, without
did not involve any stiffness.

7 GRANGER
G.-G. [1994] What is mtadiscipline? In forms of Operations Items (p.112).
8 We would like to do in mathematics equivalent to the distinction between
"Logical" musical (a work) and musicians (a musician in a compositional process or
interpretive). This is made difficult by the fact that metamathematics may be strictly part
even math (so explicitly with category theory): thinking about
Mathematics can have the form of a proper mathematical thinking. We will
occasionally the difference between interest rather the results of reasoning and its

consistency, or rather how to develop this argument and give it a consistency

(Respectively, the mathematical case and the mathematician cases).
9 "It is well known that the accuracy of mathematical results, combined with a poor knowledge of
delicate ontology of music, can cause dogmatism in which mathematics is
unfairly empowered. "(It is Well Known que la precision of mathematical results, together with a
poor knowledge about the delicate ontology of music May Provoke a dogmatism for qui est mathematics
unjustly made responsible.) - A
MZZOLA
G. [2002] The Topos of Music (p.9).

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Theorizing we want to develop is based primarily on the works and
on our experience as a composer and performer.

10 From one point of view it

leads to a "naive" theory or axiomatic nor fully formalized. We do

not necessarily about looking completeness, subjects, or the theory
itself, but rather consistency.

11 The problems are still those of a

composer (which is incidentally interpreter and mathematician), and this is reflected

in the questions that guide research in the vocabulary we choose to
throughout the text, and therefore in the relative importance of different topics
constituting the discussion.
If elements of music theory emerge from our text, we can a
little better understanding of the nature of it by observing its consistency, its objects and its
strategy. 12 Naturally, we are aiming primarily a musical consistency: in the last
analysis, the conclusions we draw must be musically relevant. In
second level, our thinking is trying to keep a mathematical consistency as much as
possible, as it heuristically. Similarly, our objects of study and
Work is mostly music: we allow even, if necessary, to modify
the interpretation of a mathematical idea for musical purposes. Finally, the strategy
along the entire research is mainly mathematician: it relies on

10Conversely, the works that we have made would not have existed, at least as they
are, without theoretical reflection.
11We are not suggesting that completeness and consistency are mutually exclusive here, as is the case in
mathematics, but we do not deny a priori the possibility.

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precise terminology, on the direct impact of a definition on the reasoning
that employs; the choice of elements of a building or deduction is always
oriented.
But we do not seek to establish a true musical theory but
rather to offer directions and theorizing modes. At most, this work
could be that the theory of our own music and our own processes
compositional: we can see it as a "translation" into more terms
precise and sharable, thought and actions at work in these processes. Therein lies
Our main difficulty with which can proliferate approaches topics that
We are interested in how to realize the network of associations involved in the
composition, interpretation or listening (even if that properly ours)?
This network is not always based strictly, much less still logically
consistent, and so difficult to formalize the strict sense.

13 In particular, more

close to our main theme, it is in him that is realized while passing

mathematics to music, when the passage is embodied in a formalization or
no: formalization is an integral part of the network.
If any originality appeared in the approach to issues
"Classics" of the composition (such as time, material, shape,
intelligibility ...), it would be that the whole approach is causing very

12We take the view that the special nature of a musical theory gives (at least partly)
consistency in the triplet-object-strategy N ICOLAS
F. [2005b] How musically evaluate
mathematical theories of music?

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Personal: the effort is provided in the sense of making it communicable and criticism.
We chose to run the risk of idiosyncrasy: this approach may not be
understood "by one who has ever thought of yourself ideas that are exhibited -

or at least similar ideas.

14

. Practices
Again, it is an attitude inspired by mathematics that will guide this
discussion put our thinking music (our musical epistemology):
we will focus systematically on its shape - its internal joints and
its links with other thoughts, properties that allow the report to
practice (compositional or analytical) and a way to understand the subjects
it surrounds but does not contain. The idea of serving as a point of view
mathematician to address a closely linked to the perception discipline may seem
contradict a precaution taken Granger, "the transcendental attitude
analysis leads us to recognize that mathematics are always away
more perceived.

15 This is only an appearance, we just do not try to

do math, but to develop a thought from experience

music and from that experience. There is no a priori whether removal is our
strategy is a mathematician: we take mathematics as a tool, not
mathematical tools. This is Granger itself indicating the possibility of this

13We might even claim that it can not be entered in full (at least by us).
14WITTGENSTEIN
L. [1922], Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (Preface).

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approach: "The problem of epistemology is therefore interpretation
forms " 16.
We discuss the works, formalizing and musical poetics of ways
like, constantly seeking to develop dialogue analysis and perception. Us
can say with Nattiez that "the analytic act is frozen in time, perception,
it is dynamic "

17: Analysis may consider a complete form, perception

has access to the shaped construction or emerging. The reference to the perception, impact
that the dynamic of the latter has the same definition of an analysis and, particularly, on the
possibilities and modalities of understanding of music is fundamental to us. Us

can not limit ourselves to observe the progress process without our gaze
is modified by the movement of the process itself, in its deployment. This is
how we understand the words Molino:
The time of the analysis was - is still probably some - the moment
where we thought we could bring together the disciplines around a general theory
applicable to each individual work: the dream is over.
Therefore there can be no epistemology of analysis because
Now that analyzes not mean anything specific, because by that we mean any
method whose object of study is the music.

18

Although we did not want to keep completely the idea that "analysis" refers to
any method of studying music, we will retain the impossibility of

15GRANGER
G.-G. [1967] Formal Thinking and Human Sciences (p.11).
16Idem, p.12
17NATTIEZ
e part, the musical discourse).
, JJ [1973] Foundations of a semiotics of music (2
18MR
Olino, J. [1995] Experience and knowledge.

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musical epistemology if we consider that a general analysis, instead of
several analytical processes that depend on the context in which they are made, and alter.
Reflection should well be following the shape of what we study.

This text is therefore a critical and reflective study of our musical activity from
what we appear, what is somehow immanent: works on
composition work and the interpretation (where we include listening and analysis).
As we observe the instrumental gestures to take as a material
compositional, and that we isolate from their original contexts of the elements of works
above us to take them as generators of shapes, we will look
the direction of relations between the components of our musical activities (choice,
formalizations, associations, defined by a more or less controlled process)
regardless of their origin and their logical hierarchy.
We chose, as we said, to run the risk of
idiosyncrasy, it is because we believe it is actually less: if we can

20

19

to make it more transparent at least part of our thinking, we have opened the
possibility of dialogue with other composers, first, and with reflection
on music in general.

19Nevertheless, we will use often, economics, the word "analysis" to describe this process.
20We paraphrase N ATTIEZ
, JJ [1973] Foundations of a semiology of music: analysis
immanent level (which the author has had the misfortune to also appoint "neutral level") is "the study of
direction of relations between the component elements work (notes or other sound objects, defined by
controlled process), regardless of their origin and their compositional perceptual hierarchy.

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I - E AND Xistence

MRULTIPLICITE

I am Interested in mathematics only as a creative art.

- GHHardy, A Mathematician's Apology

In this first chapter, we will look at the possibility of closer

mathematics and music in a relevant way to the composer's work and
the analyst. This is a discussion that intentionally remains theoretical in its most
much: we want to care here the reasons and conditions of this
reconciliation, issues that may arise as the formal side than on the side
aesthetics. Rather than proposing a particular mathematical theory of music,
Here we establish the kind of questions that must be asked a musician, and
particularly a composer, when he wants to use mathematical or
simply formalize some of his work.
We will look in more detail on the types of representation
a mathematical idea in music, the sense that such a representation can
take, and how it can delineate the relative positions of two
disciplines in relation (local or global) it establishes. We aim to show
there are relevant ways to musically represent a mathematical idea

(By showing that it is possible to represent such an idea, which can obtain a

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musical relevance, and having such constructions), and that these representations
are manifold.
In the following chapters, we will see how these ideas can be
confronted with issues raised by others, particularly with
concerns the poetic and musical formalization.

1. Rapprochement between mathematics and music

We believe it important to start working with a study opportunities

represent a mathematical idea in music, and the possible relevance of such
representation. The question may arise whether the same reconciliation between these disciplines,
before any transition between one and the other, is realizable, and price of each side. In
Indeed, if we think of the musical representation of a mathematical idea, we
are obliged to take music and mathematics within the same framework
of thought, therefore, in particular, bring us an epistemology as it
"Versatile", which can be used to talk about tripling musical, mathematical and
the interaction between them precisely. It is this "vocabulary" that we
want to show, just by its use

21Through this chapter.

21We do not claim to exhaustive definition of this vocabulary, which precede and justify its
employment. Instead, it is talking simultaneously of these three fields that caution should be
taken and details will be like so many refinements of a purely epistemology
musical.

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. Hardware abstraction and constraints
Before bringing mathematics of music specifically, we
can think about the strangeness that there may be wanting to reconcile some
activity whatsoever which has any connection with physical concerns. Indeed,
mathematics is the abstract discipline par excellence, which has no connection
necessary with the sensible world (they can use it, but get rid of them
quickly

22). In a sense, we can not do otherwise than mathematical

(Or for) the mathematics itself. Nevertheless, all our science, and very
especially physics, using mathematics - it's hard for us to
designing the formalization of a scientific thought without using abstraction
mathematics and pure logic. Naturally, this abstraction itself has never
enough to do science: scientific act an experimental component has its root.
But to address scientific thought which seeks general from contingencies
particular, the use of the abstract makes sense. A tool for thinking this
exceeding, and groups conceptually in itself, various content should well be a
the most accurate tool and purely formal as possible; Historically, the choice fell on
Mathematics

23.

22Striking examples occur in geometry. See in this regard, for example, G

G.-G. [1999]
RANGER
Thought of space .
23Although we seem natural now, this choice was not the only one available, and was made for
philosophical reasons as much as practical. V. it, B
EA [1952] The Metaphysical
URTT
Foundations of Modern Science ; particularly Chapter VI.

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This view of mathematics as a simple tool of thought reminds us
although there can be no justification or recovery of any theory
his only mathematical formalization. These judgments can only be issued about
content of a theory ( applicable to his farm, somehow "practice"), or the
only content that mathematics can directly address are contained

formal 24. Of course, the way in which it exposes something involved in that one
exposed but discuss the form of a speech amounts to only discuss the
internal correction (which still retains paramount). Reasoning
without any logical error may well lead to the absurd if he leaves premises
equally absurd or simply erroneous (the ex falso sequitur quod libet of
logicians: false, we deduce that you like). What a formalization or a glance
Mathematics can actually bring to an already established discourse is mainly
clarity and consistency in delivering the internal contradictions; refinement,
greater accuracy vocabulary may also result. When a
speech is built around a formalization, we can hope that it will make
single and efficient handling of speech itself - and thus indirectly the
manipulation of what this discourse refers. In no case, therefore, relevance
Additional is to be expected from the use of mathematics as a tool or framework
formalization. Our attention and focus on what can bring to this job
work and reflection of the musician on a few different ways to communicate

24V. G RANGER
G.-G. [1994] Forms of Operations Objects . We shall return to the subject of

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mathematics and music, and finally some elements of the musical discourse or the
concretely formalized music.

1.1 Reasons for a rapprochement between the two disciplines

What then come to mathematics in music, specifically? If we
maintain that appeal to mathematics really makes sense when
is to articulate an abstract thought, the question becomes what can be a
musical thought, from which it takes place and how.

. Musical thinking, musical discourse

We will assume, for simplicity, that there musical thought in any act of

composition or interpretation of one or more works (musical analysis and listening

being forms of interpretation) and also any analysis of these acts (this is the case
musicology and theory of the composition). There may not only
a musical thought involved in these activities, and there may be musical thought
also elsewhere, but we limit ourselves to the work of these three situations. Us
still consider that this musical thought is manifested through a speech

25 : A

musical work, a partition, an execution, a text. We will call speech

musical one that is in some way to an internal part (fixtures and

formal contents in music.

25We understand that speech is still registered in time - always in a logical time
sometimes also in a timing set time. This registration is essential and we
return throughout this work.

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joints of its material, its formal content and possibly aesthetics), and which is given
to understand by reading or listening to this particular room. In contrast,
discourse on music will be the one whose object is the activity of the musician, the speech
musical or the same music; it takes place outside the musical. Thus, the shape,
harmony, articulation stamps, the course of a play, participate in a
musical discourse; the analysis of a work, a treaty of harmony, this text it, are
discourse on music.
So we want to study what can do mathematics or
these discourses.
to. discourse on music
Of first responses are already appearing throughout the history of discourse on
Music: Rameau spoke of music as "psychomathmatique science"

26;

Simha Arom algebraically analyzes the rhythm of some central music

27.

In fact, several formalizations roughly mathematics music speech

(Speech and music) accompany the European music history. Can be used
particularly mathematics to formalize a theory of music to
studying music whose sources and methods are entirely unknown to us or

partially, but to articulate the relationship between music and other forms
expression, or between music and science. In fact, formally expressing

Note that we do not want to lend to the term "discourse" only the content that has
rhetoric. In particular, a poem, a story we are also speeches.
26RAMEAU
J.-Ph. [1737] Harmonic Generation

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23
relationships keeps the music (or work) with other activities or other
speech, it is possible to discover new aspects of these relationships. This is one
of the most fertile areas of formalization: the ability to manipulate
symbolic elements, establish them abstract relationships that can
suggest concrete; this case is even greater when it is a
modeling - which can be seen as a formalization equipped with association rules
or additional internal operation.
b. musical discourse
Meanwhile, the musical discourse can also use this reconciliation
mathematics: stochastic music and, more generally, the composition
Computer Assisted show well. For clarity and richness in
the articulation of musical ideas together, to bring out these reports
new, or to control more precisely known reports can be called
mathematics to. There may therefore be an aesthetic contribution thereof to the track:
formalization may suggest new musical relationships and new
musical objects (whose relevance remains to be established by use in works
consistent). In reality, this could also be said of a rapprochement with
any other discipline: new ideas can arise, influenced by a frame
particular thought. In any case, whatever one approaches the music may be
subjected to all sorts of purely musical order restrictions (outside, so at this

27TO
, S. [1985], polyphony and polyrhythms of Central Africa. Structure and methodology .
ROM

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24
that closer). This is not necessarily a loss of interest:
limitations formalization may just contain a good portion of his wealth.
This is both through clarity that is obtained and the limitations that we impose,
when adopting a system of rules, such a system is "useful", it allows or
demand for new twists to known situations.

. Take mathematics as such

In addition to formalizing the strict sense, mathematics can offer more
just a thought pattern or development of reasoning, a set
ideas that revolve and are built in a special way. The different ways to
conduct a mathematical discourse can be the basis of ways to conduct a
Music speech or music. It is no more then use a tool
mathematical thinking in a musical, but to form this thought in the image of the
mathematical thinking. Note that, although the result of the production
mathematician, the corpus of mathematics itself, can be seen as a
set of deterministic processes and purely analytic propositions, the activity
mathematician, production of a formal language and its analytical results, is not
not deterministic. Pure mathematics research is often guided by
choices and tastes rather foreign to its results: "elegance" demonstrations,
"Beauty" results ... Without these influences, development would be impossible:
yet it was a question of getting as a result of a mathematician activity
set of propositions derived from a set of premises, it would always

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25

set this starter set for the deduction. Find starting points,
interesting and fertile sets of assumptions and formal ways that exploit
at best this fertility, these are typical activities that mathematicians can not
be reduced to a deterministic process. However, in the composition, analysis and
musicology, we find quite similar situations: an argument that
may be more stringent, is followed; "conclusions" are drawn (which can be in
the case of the composition, unless of course the "consequences" of their premises);
a whole set of rules and patterns are involved. But the choice of these patterns,
how to monitor or modify their starting points and support, none of this
is given unequivocally, whatever the level of formalization used. Which
allows a mathematician to define these joints of his speech can help the
set to music; how to create, monitor, and modify the rules
can be suggested from one discipline to another. We conduct in this case a
reconciliation rather synthetic operations on both sides, before the
"Start" a process or series of shares - and this process may,
eg in the composition does not itself be directly formalized. This is the
contrary to what happens for a formalization, where reconciliation takes place exactly
and in the process (where all kinds of analytical operations take place), without the
how to make choices that lead to the formalization comes in.
A simple example will better differentiate between operations
within a formal process and those that precede them. In first-order logic,

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26
one can not deduce anything of the proposal (p q) nor the proposal (q

r). If I want

to infer something, I choose to articulate the (formally) with

conjunction: ((p

q) (Q r)), and I can only assume

(p
r). The form of the combination was

provided in the formal language, but not the choice of placing this conjunction between these
specific proposals. In other words, if I want to get (p
formal deduction, I selected as premises (p

r) through a
q) and (q
r), and their combination. There

deduction itself is internal to the formal process, it follows written rules before
her, and in fact define it. But the choice of premises is outside this
formalization 28He moved from the entire set of rules that constitute it: it is
this overall vision (thus "outside") that makes it possible. Ultimately,
it is a desire to give shape to my speech (here within a formal language).
This statement may seem trivial, but we take it in a specific context, in
including the form of discourse as manifested in a "middle": a language
(Formal or informal), a system, a set of rules in general. This medium defines
opportunities form, but it does not create themselves

29: Just knowing that there

a set of rules to follow or use not serving the act to follow or

use, or give the "details" of the act. Thus, a sense of not formalization, and

28This did not prevent him being formalized in another frame logically further. We believe
not only to formal logic which includes the quantifiers and operators need / opportunity,
but also to the theory of demonstrations and geometric logic for studying
symbolically these decisions and their "form" logic (see eg R
G. [2005]
ESTALL
Proof & Counterexample andOLDBLATT
G
R. [1984], Topoi, The categorial analysis of logic ).
29We return to this relationship between form and environment in the chapter dedicated to the geometric look
that we can focus on the music, and the compositional processes in particular.

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27
alone utility, if it is thought in a complex network of
knowledge (and thus opportunities for choice) and if the determinism inherent in
analytical operations that make up interacts with the network. When we
talk about formalization, then a whole series of decisions and processes external to
strict formalization in itself is necessarily implied, as to the definition
of a formal language for his job.

. Mathematics as "Truth"?
In terms of aesthetic contributions that this rapprochement with math
can offer, there are sometimes some research of "absolute" music
doubts that mathematics could be seen as a paradigm
abstraction, independence of any contingency. An abstract formalization
it would also create an abstract music, freed from the constraints of

30, Came without

physical world (and so the influence of the time)? For some music,
the organization according to a formal scheme is at the center of the composition, so that
"resistance" to physical contingencies is reached: we believe
including Baroque counterpoint, which leaves almost always include both
whatever instruments (defined heights) that act. But this example is
misleading: it can lead us to believe that all music where the stamp is simply
carrier information (not structural information itself) also resist
well in the transcripts. Of course, when the stamp carries, transcripts are

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28
possible where the original song is recognizable, but it would be too
reducer to believe that in any transcript all the music is preserved.
Indeed, historically transcripts were always interpretations
specific, so the action on starting work. Even those where appearance
purely formal is central (the most famous example is probably the Art of Fugue ,
Bach), the choice of stamps eventually awarded this abstract information, which the
will put in a condition to listen, is never trivial. In addition, beyond this structure
logic remains all the aesthetic content

31, The interpretation and implementation

must be at the heart of the work of the interpreter. This prolongs the Art of Fugue is
therefore its relative independence of the stamp, but must be the same as that
which prolongs the orchestration of the Symphonie Fantastique by Berlioz, or use of
cello pressure , Lachenmann. Although a formalization can overcome
a room of some physical constraints, it allowed at least under the influence of
interpretation (especially that of listening).
Another way to use this is the absolute abstraction
mathematics, yet in order to obtain a degree of continuity of the work, would be
construct that expresses this work around immutable principles such as those of
mathematics. Such a subject would it not better chance of being always significant
if he could find, as some feelings, through the centuries and cultures?

It has been hoped, but this condition is largely insufficient to ensure the quality

30V. FICHET
L. [1996] Scientific Theories music, XIX

e and XX
e centuries , J. Vrin, Paris.

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29
of a room, the same way that a piece that represents Nature or Love is
not justified by its subject alone 32. Indeed, all these "demonstrations" to music or
of a work does take into account precisely to remain completely formalized,
none of the external aspects formalization in question the decisions taken by the
composer, external to the subject he treats, are nevertheless a crucial point in the development
in music from it. Similarly, in the theoretical field, decisions
prior to formalization are at the center of the system or model that follow:
can be modeled from set theory or from polynomials,
regardless of what will be modeled, but the theoretical results will be different
according to this choice. The boundaries of a theoretical corpus chosen as part of a formalization
already indicate that the author wants to promote or eliminate its considerations.
Again, mathematics can not justify anything by their mere presence
in a musical thought. Our attention must therefore be as much about what
closer, and what, on how it is done.

1.2 Ways to bridge the gap

Here we want to discuss some ways to bring mathematics and
music, in order to further define better what shall we have the representation
music of a mathematical idea. These ways sometimes overlap, and we aim

31Including at least as the set of assessments that we can do the work.

32And yet that was the case, it remains to prove that "Nature" and "Love" remains through
centuries and cultures each one and the same.

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30
not to be an exhaustive list of reports that can be established between the two
disciplines.

. Formalization, model, modeling

It should be clarified before any of the terms we've used those
formalization, model, and modeling. We say that there formalization of discourse
music or music when there is the possibility of manipulation (sometimes indirect)
objects of this discourse through a formal language or simply a set
abstract symbols (that is to say, originally external to the speech itself) with
syntactic rules. Thus, a partition is a formalization of the musical discourse; there
pitch-class set theory

33 is a formalization of discourse about music (and can be used

to formalize the musical discourse). A model is a formalization

special: it is a set of proposals (usually abstract), and relationships
between the proposals, which symbolically express certain aspects of an object or a
phenomenon, so that if there is a relationship between two proposals then a relationship
between the aspects of the object expressed by these proposals, and that relationship
expresses thereof 34. A modeling is to build a model from an object
(Or set of objects) particular and precise theoretical framework.

33V. FORTE
, A. [1977] The Structure of Atonal Music , Yale University Press, New Haven.
34We take the word as well as its most common usage, and not as the model theory takes
in mathematics, for which a model is an object (or set of objects) in which we find the
properties of a theory .

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31
The main difference between a model and any formalization lies
in the fact that the model has an internal organization that goes beyond mere syntax:

it has a "functioning" Autonomous (logically necessary links between some of

its parts, sequences to the image of a causal ...), which expresses the
operation of the modeled object. In modeling, the model is 'like'
the modeled object (or vice versa), while a formalization in general does not seek
to establish such a link. The organizations that we can find in the
manipulation of symbols of a simple formalization (such as those we do
with the elements of a partition) are superimposed to the syntax of these symbols, but
are somehow independent: a formalization can be used in several
logic, while in the very definition of a model is already a way
specific chaining proposals to make "deductions". So our rating
is a formalization that can be used both to manipulate elements of a speech
Baroque music that stochastic elements of music; but only the latter models
part of his musical discourse by the mechanical gas

35 - Certain behaviors

musical are "like" gas behavior. Similarly, we find

in G. Mazzola a model in music theory from the geometric logic and
algebraic topology

36: Passing a composition process to a partition is

35V. XENAKIS
I. [1963] Formalized Music , Stock Music, Paris.
36MR
G. [2002] The Topos of Music , Birkhuser, Basel.
AZZOLA

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32
"Like" the passage of a logic diagram for a Heyting (or proposals
in such logic)

37.

Note that a formalization and modeling are not necessarily

mathematics and that, in any case, the idea of expressing certain symbolically
aspects of an object involves not express many other any structure
thus allowing formal abstract manipulation is necessarily a
simplification of what is manipulated; such a construction is thus defined by the
choice of what will or not expressed.

. The use of mathematics

We speak here of use or without use of mathematics
propose to do again, not necessarily serve as a direct way of tools
formal or do calculations

38. Recall that our focus is on mathematics

not only for the formalization, but mainly by the central place in
this discipline the idea of precision .
If we turn now to what in mathematics, will be used
in that reconciliation with music, both situations define the choice of "material
formal ". On the one hand, the musician may be interested in a particular outcome of
mathematics, such a formula or theorem, and make it applied to all

37 Also M
G. [2005] The possible role of musical logic to some
AZZOLA
mathematical intellectuality (Conference of 16 April 2005 at the Music Seminar in Mathematics
ENS).
38They will appear later in the illustrations by musical examples.

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33
or part of his work, his interpretation or his theory. On the other side,
somehow the opposite of this interest in a single result in mathematics,
it may consider comparing what he wants to formalize a music theory
mathematics, an articulated set of formulas and expressions, all carriers
their demonstration, and make a parallel between these sets.
to. application
If our focus is on an isolated result in mathematics, we
we can use it as a tool in the construction of a work or a
interpretation. We will call this one-time use of a mathematical idea a
implementation of this idea. The idea is to go directly to the selected result to the
music, by a kind of "translation" to-one with the result. This approach
assumes that mathematical consistency will be forwarded to the musical discourse or
music by this method, and this principle implies a commutative or
equivalence relations expressed in mathematical result and those

can exist so musically relevant between musical or theoretical objects

in question. An example of mathematical propositions application to speech
39, Where two

Music is provided by Xenakis for the construction of his play Herma

equivalent expressions of set theory are used to organize between
these sets of heights. Within these assemblies, another application

39XENAKIS
I. [1963] Formal Music

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34
organizes the heights, according to the theory of probability this time

40. In the field

music theory, applications are found in many treaties, particularly towards the end
XIX

e century41. Among them include the classification of the agreements and the "construction" of

tonal harmony made by C. Durutte from polynomials

42. It is obviously not

talking about equating the quality and the results of these two applications:
only how to pass from mathematics to music is similar, the
decisions and actions around this passage differ significantly.
A well made application establishes a correspondence between objects of discourse
music or music and "objects" of the mathematical theory used as a
semantics (at least partial) of this theory, but semantics is not limited
to simple objects, as it would be in a formal language of the first logic
order imposes between objects of discourse coming from the theory relations. The
speech to which the mathematical result is applied "work" as this,
regardless of the characteristics he might have had without the application; otherwise
said in a strict application any judgment about the musical discourse or the
music is really about the theory used. This is practically a modeling
but built in reverse, mathematics to music. It is quickly
account the issues raised by this approach: an application poses

40The fact that Xenakis organizes the heights stochastically "by hand" in these sets does not take
the fact whether it is a good implementation of probability theory: the crucial point remains
the impact of this theory about writing and composer already knows enough applications
formally strict order to imitate them.

41For an overview of this topic, see the book F

music ...

ICHET
L. [1996] The Scientific Theories

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35
musician constantly question whether these "inherited" relationships of the theory are
musically valid or relevant, and what should be there for them to change the
become. One who makes an application must always (active) saute its
thought of the musical or musicological side. Deviations Xenakis over its
formal schemes, although often cited as inconsistency argument
music, are instead clearly the construction of a musical validity parabove any purely mathematical or logical validity

43. When Durutte

emphasizes rigor and musical relevance of the results obtained only by his
polynomials, it moves away from a theory compatible with musical aesthetics while it
claimed to formalize.
b. parallel
The player can also focus on a whole set of articulated
mathematical propositions, on an entire theory. In this case, it is no more
translate word for word phrase, but rather to implement a structure or
general form of a speech to another, and we call this use of
Mathematical a parallel between the selected theory and music. Attention is
both on the sequences and relationships of concepts and objects on these objects
themselves. Again, we imply the possibility of a transfer of coherence

42DURUTTE
C. [1876] Summary of elementary Technie Harmonic , quoted byICHET
F L. [1996].
43 Especially when Xenakis informally recreates a stochastic arrangement of notes
within sets of heights Herma , it overcomes the problems of a strict application all
keeping an accurate overall sound result, genre originally obtained by formalizing well

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36
between two forms of thought, but here it goes through more or less recoveries
of one of the major forms of discourse by the other, and not by a set
direct equivalencies. F. Nicolas establish, in its theoretical discourse, two parallel:
44And between integration and hearing
45.
between number and work
The main difference between this approach and a parallel application
a result is that, for the application, it is closer to the music fragment
isolated mathematical thinking, and it must be done from time to time in some aspect
musical object at a time; for parallel, we can not realize this occasionally
reconciliation, all chosen mathematical theory is related with all
Music speech or music that you want to formalize, and nothing can be isolated
to one side or the other. The application is independent of the relationships that can
have its terms (that is applied and that which is applied) with their
"Environments" of origin; in a parallel, the context is kept intact
both sides. Without defining a direct interpretation in music of mathematical objects,
parallel wins the certainty of not imposing relationships that could be
non-musically valid; formalization is music to abstraction
Mathematics: we formalize relationships and properties that already exist. This
However abstraction leads to losing precision has application in the established link
between mathematics and musical entities: they are more manageable

accurate (v. E
XNAKIS
[1963]). This is precisely the musical representation of an idea, as we
define it further.
e ICMPC,
44NICOLAS
F. [1994] Many notes and musical work , Proceedings of
the 3 Liege.

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37
"Directly" (with symbolic paraphernalia itself), and the parallel often fails
as an operating tool for composing

46Do actually settling between theories.

From a more pragmatic point of view directly, we could say that an application
involves metonymic processes (substitution) while a parallel rather

a metaphorical process (comparison).

c. intermediate situations
Application and are parallel, we said, extreme choice of "material
formal "if they are strict: a single element or the whole of a theory. The
mathematical formalization will be found most often between these two poles,
employing multiple results simultaneously, more or less directly, without
necessarily jeopardize all theoretical relationships they could maintain
(With each other or with the rest of the mathematics). Several different applications
articulated (ie controlled) based on musical criteria as much as mathematics
may be, for example, a formalization of broader scope than the simple
time application of a formula, but still keeps an operational nature
practice. Again, the choice of the musician before the formalization itself
are crucial: decisions on the intended use, the context in which such use may

45NICOLAS
F. [1997] The third hearing is the right (from the musical audition designed as an integral
gration) , Music Scienti, No. 2.
46This does not detract from its usefulness in general, among others to think directly operating tools
the composition themselves, or to operate within a scan. Symmetrically, we
seems that the application, as we have defined it, is more immediately usable in practice
Compositional in theorizing.

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38
or will be, the generality of the tool, and so on, will place this rapprochement
between mathematics and music instead of the side of a parallel or an application.

1.3 What is formalized

Now observe what in or around a musical discourse or the
music can be approached using patterns or formalizations more or less strict,
not necessarily mathematics. We subsequently seek the inside
these formalizations can be linked to mathematics.

. Notation
For a musical discourse, the notation (when it exists) is perhaps the appearance

most obviously formalized. Indeed, our traditional notation arises (or at least
stabilizes) as a reduction of its instrumental few parameters, including
control is relatively simple and that bring the sound instrumental in
concerning its manipulation by whoever note of his vocal. This instrumental notation
inherits the vocal scoring many of its features; in particular, it
favors certain aspects of the instruments sound that easily found in the voice
sung as a defined height or duration "singable" (neither too long nor too
short) at the expense of those who may be more difficult to identify them, such as
attack transients or gestures of the instrumentalist. This kind of inclination Us
already shows what can be more easily controlled by any set of
rules from this rating or moving "around" her; it may also indicate the

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39
need to expand and supplement, and in which direction

47. These limitations, which are

in fact the concentration of this notation around the syntactic object that is the "note"
however, are not only harmful to the effectiveness of this tool: simplifying and
discretization of sound, in this procedure goal (to be able to handle this symbolically
a) allow precisely to handle various structures more "big" as the note itself
same (reasons, melodies, variations, counterpoint ...). More recently, the discretization
Digital sound Mane ratings for managing more structures
"Small" as the note. The notation whatsoever, performs a cut on the
continuous sound to express in its syntax, and cutting, which is never neutral,
allows logical articulations of the sound continuously. In this sense, it is almost a
formal language 48: There is a finite amount of primitive symbols (range, keys,
notes, bars ...) and syntax, sufficiently precise to be implemented in
music notation software, accompanied by a kind of semantics: the symbols
written signify instrumental gestures with enough precision, but simultaneously
enough flexibility for several instrumentalists can "read" the same
partition understandably, and assimilated as the same piece of
music

49. Of course, the similarity ends there: partition and formal language have

47This need has accompanied the rating since its inception: appear according to the musical needs
dynamic controllers, joint or attack symbols; the ornamental details
evolve or disappear. MR ONTEVERDI
In Il combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda [1624] indicated
with "that if lascia arco e strappano if the con rope due ditta" which later would note is simply pizz.
48As, for example, those of F REGE
G. [1879] Begriffsschrift , or R USSEL
, B. & WHITEHEAD
, AN
[1910-13], Principia Mathematica .
49We identify here, and it is a voluntary simplification, the "result" of the partition of gestures
instrumentalists (more on this). Note that this view also allows us to consider
a CD as a kind of partition must also be "interpreted" by a player.

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40
very distant targets, which appears precisely in the fact that score indicates
something much larger and more blur (instrumental gesture) than can
indicate the proposals of the first order logic (a truth value). In addition,
while the equivalence of sequences of different symbols are at the heart of Use
"Fertile" of a formal language (they allow deductions), they are rarely
useful around do musical notation, precisely because they do not generate
Content (logical equivalences here being the same species as a substitute
white by two black linked, for example, or by a programmed object patch which
reproduces its behavior indentique). There is thus, in the notation
Similarly, no substitution or deduction rule that would extend the syntax without
preserve the 'semantic' powers (the modus ponens the first logic
preserves order): you can not write the same thing in two ways truly
different.

50 What is lacking in musical notation is precisely what we do

would not find in a formal language (or at least in the first logic
order).
To overcome this situation, it is always possible to add to the rules
strictly syntactic (as it internal) of musical notation other rules
operating on its contents, which allow to pass from a series of symbols to a
new sequel. It therefore goes beyond the notation as simple representation of a sound
"Simplified" to make generating new materials, and it becomes possible to

50This indicates a special bond between syntagmatic and paradigmatic aspects of

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41
building parts only fragments from the notation: increases
decreases reversals, transpositions and demotion of a melodic line or
a waveform; resumption of a rhythmic pattern on a new set of notes, or
a melodic motif on a new rate; simplification and enrichment of a
fragment by removal or addition of passing notes, or granulation is ...
also possible to "refine" the syntax notation by imposing restrictions
Additional to the sequence of symbols of the rules of counterpoint and harmony
can thus be seen (and documented) as constraints that remain
primarily syntactic (which may explain why he did not just follow the
to produce consistent music). It is clear that these rules are an order
logic and higher than the rating complexity as simple transcription;
it is in fact better for the composition decorated when supplemented with both
ways to create the new material and restrictions on this creation. There is
Interestingly, these additions to the basic syntax notation are not
necessary for interpreting (and hence to the analysis): it does not act on the
partition, but from her. An interpretation that is built outside the
notation, in its interior it can only find relationships between suites
symbols and their use

51.

musical discourse. We return to this subject.

51We shall return to this opposition between constructed and found in a work.

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. With the notation: writing and proofreading

Note before going further, that any rating already implies a system of
rules, and can therefore be considered as a (first) formalization. If we
invert this finding, we can think that the essence of a
formalization, whatever it is, is to be a kind of notation , how to implement a
a special thought to what is less understandable or otherwise manipulated (or
the least is another way). Indeed, we believe that the main motivation
behind formalizing the idea is to manipulate indirectly symbolically, which
is formalized. The syntax and rules for handling these symbols do not establish
not of themselves (they are not given by the symbols in itself), but depend
some precise formal thought. They are in fact a kind of definition or
of realization of this thought: we could say that they are allowing that
thought to occur when we use

52. When we manipulate objects

indirectly through a formalization, so we follow a logic that is not

directly theirs, we encadrons according to another thought, which is external to them

53.

In particular we believe the changes undergone by the idea that sound can have a
composer where it should be noted; this difference in thinking between different

52W cf. ITTGENSTEIN

L. [1935] The Blue and Brown Books "thinking is essentially the activity
is to operate with signs. (...) Moreover, if we speak of the place where thought takes place, we
have reason to say that this place is the paper we write "( Blue Book , [6] - [7]). The idea
a thought present in his own writing also reflected in the Remarks on the Foundations
Mathematics (W
L. [1939]). Note, however, that syntax and rules
ITTGENSTEIN
Handling is not strictly speaking a write , even if they are indispensable.
53This does not mean that necessarily driven objects have their own logic, intrinsic or
they have one that is inaccessible directly; but a formalization is not neutral, and implies

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43
notations involved probably also noted the difficulty of electroacoustic music
in a traditional partition.

54 Each formalization leads to manipulation

Symbolic different, thus different operations on objects .

to. writings and logical time
This view leads to a central place in the research
we carry the idea of writing , understood precisely as the creative use and

criticism of any symbolic system. The deployment of a thought by

notation defines a directional sequence of symbols: it establishes an order,
or more interdependent orders. We can say that writing is thus part of
a logical time , in the sense that we can follow it in its development. This
is already written, sometimes we can follow the sequence linearly, but the
usually the present order in the writing itself is rather paradigmatic that
phrase

55 He does not only depend on the sequences (so to speak

"Physical") symbols, but also, to a large extent, the relationships can

have between them distantly rated symbols of one another

56. This time designed by

a rating is then not rigid, it allows jumps, shortcuts, returns. In

how to handle one (and its consequences) that other approaches (and even other formalizations)
does not necessarily imply.
54Naturally, the most trivial limitations of the score, as the relative imprecision and stamp
temporal articulation, are the source of this impasse, but we would say that the partition offers
type of joint (not just scale) of often incompatible with sound joints,
same macro-temporal, electroacoustic music.
55 These terms are often present in the vocabulary of the language, cf. for example
SAUSSURE
F. [1916], Course in General Linguistics . But we want to keep them here without any
implications of this discipline, in the sense suggested by their etymology. Thus, we understand
phrase as it relates to the sequence and combination possibilities and paradigmatic
as it relates to the comparison and substitution possibilities.

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44
Indeed, we can follow a logical sequence between the first theme and
development of a classical sonata without dwelling on the second theme
or transitions naturally unavoidable when listening; In the same way,
when the composer writes a passage he can use items that have been used, or
which will become a wholly material later in the work, and that look in
future does not take place (in the same way, anyway) when listening. This double
organization, both on purely logical or abstract relations (paradigmatic)
that according to the same note (phrase), gives a special topology
logical time. It is thus necessarily separable (and usually separated) by a time
chronometer , and this is crucial: the logical time is reversible and foldable to
will

57, Writing can be superimposed on itself, be influenced by its own

results realized at multiple scales (time, complexity, abstraction ...) very

different simultaneously. The idea of writing makes possible thereby that of proofreading ,
which is also essential, in our point of view, for the possibility of
composition or depth analysis. Indeed, we want to understand a
compositional process as a series of actions on and within a network
knowledge, choice and operations, led by different states and reactions of this
same network 58. In other words, to write consistently requires constant
able to read what is already written; the active memory of previous states of the network

56This is even more strongly the case when it comes to what is being written.
57We return to the folds of time and logical spaces in the chapter on geometric.

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45
involved in the determination of the following states. Note that this memory is here
the crucial element: we can actually consider a purely mental work
organization and generation of the musical material, such as that which occurs in a
improvisation as a kind of writing - then the logical time may have its
reduced topological complexity (for limitations on the amount of information
manageable simultaneously), it is nevertheless fundamentally different from
chronometric time by its malleability.

59 However, we will keep throughout this

Work the idea of writing associated with that of a rating, as the Deputy hear
above.
b. analysis and proofreading
Similarly, we can include analysis as a network
(Internally organized) readings and re-readings of a work at various scales; or more
just as the organization of this network. If an analysis must be more than
simple monitoring events of a work, it is indeed that it allows the setting
relationship possibly distant objects, it offers new content from
these relationships and relationships between internal and external factors at work. In some
so, faced with a series of objects, the analysis is to build and give meaning

58Just
likelevels
that proposed
"complex
involving aRemarks
pluralityabout
of Music Composition
operating
", in V Vaggione
H. [2001]systems
Some Ontological
AGGIONE
Processes .
59We leave here the principle that improviser has a musical vocabulary internal (not necessarily
shareable writing or speech) that allows it to refer indirectly to musical elements,
that is to say not only by recalling a sentence per se, for example, but by associating it to other
content. Limitations on the complexity we can handle mentally tell us again, if

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46
a logical network of links

60 between these objects, and between them and a context

likely to exceed the work; it proposes to raise or build

61. Naturally, the

paradigmatic syntagmatic joints from joints

more often a part of this network before the analysis, exactly as a

context (historical, stylistic, sociological, aesthetic ...) who oversees and directs its
constructions. Several types of relationships between objects (musical or symbolic) are already
defined before the analysis begins, so we know what style we are dealing,
sometimes simply by the choice of a method (as is the case with the analysis
Schenker, which is an analytical method provided with a syntax

62). But it is

also possible to seek the highest possible abstraction of these contexts

prerequisites, as in contrastive analysis

63. In all cases, this network

knowledge, choice and operations that the analyst defines or redefines and through
which he offers his interpretation depends on the possibility of re-reading of the work: no
her, he does not have the ability to recall things that are elsewhere in time
logical that where there bears his immediate attention, and thus act on the linear order and

were needed, that a rating is not just a way to preserve ideas, but both the
work (both in music and elsewhere).
60Here we describe these links logical just to differentiate them possible links materials (for
proximity or congruity) there is not necessarily the possibility of formal sequence consisting
therebetween.
61This is the case even for the paradigmatic analysis proposed by
R N. [1972], language, music,
UWET
, JJ [1987] General Musicology and semiotics . Indeed, Nattiez itself
poetry and N
ATTIEZ
stresses that the analysis of the problem (paradigmatic or similar) is primarily that of segmentation
a statement on its syntagmatic axis (lectures at ENS Paris, 1992, cited by V
OisinF. [2003]
The contrastive musical analysis ).
62See SCHENKER
H. [1935] Der freie Satz ( The free writing , trans. N.Mees, ed. O.Jonas) Mardaga, Lige,
1993.
63See VOisinF. [2003] The contrastive musical analysis .

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47
unique juxtapositions of objects to extract a sequence of ideas comparisons
and functions.
The idea of re-reading, set out in this way may seem trivial but actually
immediate impact on formal tools of composition and analysis:
Adaptive search algorithms, constraints by generating material (on the
existing material), analysis of melodic or harmonic structures (for a
room), depend to resume as data "input" results. Except
computer music, similar situations arise: work out the details
a room and their participation in global form, to connect or highlight
roles of the same material at two different locations of a workpiece, are actions that
require more than a single reading of the musical content. Thus, our
focus throughout this work will focus on the music when written (either
time of its composition, or during a scan, as transcription), and the
issues of formalization of this writing (and around)

64. Of course, writing

is in a different logical time time course of the music not

only because the logical time can fold, but also because of the time
reflection caused by writing (and rereading) of anything

65 - It is

usually in real time.

64 In these cases, writing takes for the music a comparable way to that it takes for the
mathematics: it is in her that "exercised" thinking it is the logical trace (and the logic) of
musical or mathematical world. It is here that we truly the realization of a thought,
we were talking about before.
65This time of reflection is somehow chronometric time when the shares in and is part
the logical time of the composition and analysis.

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48
. Running time (time)
Besides the musical notation, the course of the music in time may also

be subject to rules formalized. Thus, a sonata, a rondo or fugue (especially

as particular sequences) have fairly precise definitions. Inside
even a "note" we can establish a system of standards for building microas sound (depending on attack, changing its spectral density, its
granulation ...). In most meso- or macro-time event (such as exposure
themes of a sonata, or sonata itself), these rules have a syntactic scope
restricted, as the notation: towards "outside", they do not allow
build new sequences from a given course; to
the "inside", they do not reach on time scales or smaller retail
a certain order. Thus, only from the construction rules of a roundel,
it can proliferate other "forms"; similarly, in the recapitulation
a sonata, the main topics to be included in the main tone, but
no constraint is given as to the changes to the transitions
themes or changes that will suffer the second theme to go to this tone
main. When micro-temporal sequences are taken into account, we
more frequently find examples of flow rules which act as
a "note" to its interior, and define opportunities for others
"Notes" from the first (we think including synthesis algorithms

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49
granular

66 ; certain steps in stochastic music

67Although treating

time scales that exceed the micro-time, as share these properties).

to. distance of a formal language
The formalization of the deployment of the music in the time away yet
more than the rating of a formal language. Indeed, the syntax of these sequences
is of a higher order than that which organizes a transcription symbols are
joints are between sequences but also in their interior, but
exhaust this "syntactic inside." We often know, within certain scales

time (on the order of a phrase or pattern, for example), how to define
different sequences of sequences without having completely defined the
sequences themselves, or their opportunities for development: for example, it is possible
formalize modulations (or modulating sequences) Terms that apply
in different materials.
But beyond this syntax is the problem of semantic
these deployments. We know how to interpret a note on a staff with a gesture
instrumental or vocal, the indication is clear enough; but denotes the form
of a roundel, for example? The simple answer to this question is that such a form would
denotes herself, she is content. However, this would place that
Granger called the zero degree of formal content, where there is "an interpenetration

66As those of R OADS

C. [2002] Microsound , MIT Press, Cambridge.
67Especially when Xenakis uses the physics of gas as a model. V. X
Formal music .

I. [1963]
ENAKIS

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50
Full content and forms "," complete adequacy of operating and
the objectal "68; or ways to deploy the music (as a roundel, for example)
provide us with precisely the information on the possibilities of evolution and
articulation (temporal or understanding, perception) musical objects
conceivable in the inner world of the room where the manifest ways - if I know
I listen to a roundel, I know the chorus comes, even if it comes back changed. The
Objects of this internal universe are, at least in part, "previously specified by
diverse and multiple operations of thought (...) that what seems capital are
longer forced to be exercised only on the sensitive area bounded by our
perceptions " 69. So we did a nontrivial formal content of a form
music: it acts on an object that is not defined within oneself, which
exists beyond its mere manifestation (local) time

70. But these possibilities

evolution of musical objects are precisely what defines the shape in question we
here want to understand the shape as what is possible worlds,

special opportunities to correlate certain operations.

71 Listening to it

68GRANGER
G.-G., The concept of formal content and formal content and dualityRANGER
, in GG.-G. [1994,
p.46., p.62], forms, operations, objects .
69Idem, p.47.
70Here we take the risk to assign a formal content to the music, while Granger argues that it
Only logic, natural language and mathematics that can arise a real formal content.
We believe that there is a similarity between music and natural language in the constitution of their
consistency (unfounded organicity and almost in formal, like the language of games
Wittgenstein), firstly, and secondly a resemblance ideas form in logic, mathematics
and music, which allow the emergence of formal content. Granger placing formal content
somehow upstream synthetic judgments a priori of Kant, we would go up to say their
existence in music is quite compatible with (or suggested by) the fact that we always know
what music has no authority to define it.
71We will see in the chapter on the geometrization how it is equivalent to consider the form
of a work like geometry or as a formal space.

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51
are actual developments of the musical objects (those that actually take place)
suggest this form in time. In other words, that I listen to a
Rondeau informs me that the chorus comes, but it is only listening to this return that
I know how he came back, so I know the shape of this particular rondo
(Among others, it is only listening as I can see that it is indeed a
rondo).
The formal content of a musical form can not not exceed this content
is inside the shape

72. You could say it is actually intensional , in the logical sense

the term: it allows to define and understand this form. Listening by against, is
shows that the expansion of the form, or a part thereof: a particular case of this
which could have other achievements

73. This finding may lead to a discussion

knowledge and recognition of musical forms: are only

extensional defined with each listen; There he has as unitary extensions (this
that would prevent the appointment of shapes); can we know a musical form
intensionally / extensionally, and how; shape heard for the
first time it can be a special case of a "form" more general? Us
here will avoid these arguments, it seems, more directly to questions
cognition that formalism or music. Note simply that or analysis

72But not to the objects themselves, manifest in the form of a special way.

73To simplify, we can say that the intension of a concept is all the necessary properties
and sufficient for something to be part of this concept, or be designated by him; and its
extension is the set of all that is indeed part of the concept or designated by him.

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52
interpreting a form is based on its extension, while the composition of a
form is working on its intension

74.

Without this precise semantics, one does not strictly speaking a language
forms - no vocabulary, syntax or rule of well-defined operation, even
form of the generating elements (or not a discrete set of these). Maybe
be paradoxically, it is precisely this that makes this area particularly conducive to
formalization: each of these elements must be fully composed for a
form is divided into several time scales, logical, and it is during this
formalizing a composition, or simply a more or less flexible set of
rules may occur. Note that this applies equally to the production of a work, which
becomes a special case of application of these rules and where they exist and
change, as for the analysis, when it comes to producing a formal model that the work
analyzed contains (as a sub-structure among other possible simultaneously). The
composer built the set of rules that will follow and also the possibilities
modification of this set; the analyst sets its standards of investigation and determines
and the possible sets of rules from which, according to him, is the one
the work analyzed below. It is in both cases the composition of a process, consisting of
Rules interactions with their users, which is the formalization of conduct
music in time.

74Or with the intension, if it is a form already established.

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53
b. validity of this juxtaposition with formal languages
Here one can question the relevance of comparing and rating
work on the form of a side and the other, formal languages; we have just seen in
Indeed how they differ. If we insist on this parallel, it is because we
consider any formalization as a kind of notation, so as writing,
and the question of a relationship between writing (especially if it is formalized) and Language
formal arises quite naturally. Moreover, we believe that through this
approximation it is possible to begin a discussion about musical semantics. More
Specifically, we can start looking for what may designate objects
music

75And especially how. We subsequently develop this subject related

with a discussion of "musical poetry"; for now, we can say more

just one of the central issues in an investigation of semantics
music is to define and differentiate what music shows and what it says

76; a

Another equally important issue is the limits (as it internal ) a

"Musical language". The merger with formal languages allow us to
make more precise the notion of formal content

77 to address references

of a possible musical meaning, internment and externally to a work.

75Broadly: sound objects in a local context, phrases, sections, up to a whole work.

76These two actions are mutually exclusive for Wittgenstein's Tractatus [1922].
77GRANGER
G.-G. [1994] Forms, operations, objects .

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54
. Discourse on music
Alongside these formalizations of musical discourse, several aspects of
discourse on music can also be formalized. It is perhaps inevitable
talk about music occasionally using terms that are external to him the

reference music theory to other disciplines, and vice versa, is a constant

Throughout the history of mankind. Thus, the concept of musical form in the period
78; links are forged between

Classic feeds as many grammar Biology

architecture, painting and music by Bauhaus

79; the sounds of instruments and voices

have sizes and strengths comparable to objects of everyday life in

Kamayura Xingu

80. But these extra-musical references to not always a

formalization, because it is not always about indirectly manipulate objects or

musical concepts.
to. theories of music
Direct association and operating between music and other disciplines that
remains our most famous because founder of a particular vision of
music (and the world) is certainly that of the Pythagorean school. We have here

78 PREDA
-SCHIMEK
H. [2003] A look at the genesis of the form of theories, between classicism and
Romanticism (1790-1845) , Musurgia, X / 2. For the author, the formal hierarchy of classical form,
replaces the Baroque vision of music as rhetoric , is supported by at least three
models: the periodic , from dance music and poetic verse; the
hierarchical model, from grammar and biology; and evolutionary model, borrowed
probably also to biology.
79KANDINSKY
W. [1926] Point and Line on Plan . Of course, the discussion focuses on Kandinsky
painting, but the vocabulary is so divided, for him, the two disciplines that could almost
be the opposite movement. A different link between music and architecture through the thought that one
found in X
I. [1971] Music: architecture .
ENAKIS

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55
an application of mathematical principles not only a musical practice
(Training ranges, for example) but also an understanding of what can and
be music. This is probably the first mathematical theory of
music

81Where musical questions raise math problems (such as

the division of the octave into equal parts leading to an irrational number) and
conversely (as the ratio of number, measurement, and pitch of a note). This
theory was consistent (free internal contradictions), but also complete, because it
taking into account all the music they could find; that is, to our knowledge,
the only one that was well, probably thanks to the "limits" (geographical and others)
the music of the time and especially mathematics and then reports qu'entretenaient

philosophy 82.
e century alone, another theory making a new use of
In the eighteenth
mathematics (but also physics) becomes a reference for thought
83. One of the differences

music: Sound vibrations Corps studied by Rameau

80M Cf.ENEZES
BASTOS
RJ [1978] A Musicologica Kamayura. Para uma da antropologia comunicao
No. Alto Xingu , Funai, Braslia.
81But this is not the first musical application of mathematical principles: theory, purely
arithmetic twelve liu dates from 2637 BC. AD, China. See K
Elkel M. [1988], the Music
worlds (cited by CHOUVEL
J.-M. [1995], The Physics and Aesthetics. An epistemological analysis
terms of knowledge of the harmonic phenomenon ).
82 Several mathematical theories of music have existed, but they are most often
inconsistent or incomplete. It is possible that the one proposed by MAZZOLA
G. [2002] The Topos of
Music , comprehensive and consistent, although its complexity and orientation (as much as a mathematician
musician) can make it difficult to dialogue with other theories (not mathematical) widely
adopted. It seems, however, have the merit of not excluding any musical practice,
formalize several existing musical theories and propose new math
problems.
83RAMEAU
J.-Ph. [1722] Treaty of Harmony reduced to its natural principles , and
R J.-Ph. [1737]
AMEAU
Harmonic Generation (loc. cit.). Before him, Zarlino in the Istitutioni harmoniche [1558] employed the

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56
has this approach from those that precede it is the use, albeit in a prism
Mathematics, physics. But it is indeed a formalized approach: the
relationships between physical entities dictate the relationship between musical entities
(As the movement of the basic low). Virtually all
formalization of music theory until XX

e century, will refer to one of these

two visions to symbolically manipulate music: the numerical ratios

more or less simple, or one of the harmonics of a vibrating body.
b. analyzes and styles
Other formalizations instead focus on the analysis and understanding
a style or a particular system. Thus, Schenker offers a new rating
for the analysis of tonal works
atonal music

84 ; Forte uses abstract algebra to study

85. Of course, any tool for the analysis can be taken up by the

composers, but some have independently developed their own formalizations

of the same composition. Thus we find in algebraic manipulations
the serial school 86 ; an arithmetic proportions Stockhausen

87; theory

fractions to build a natural range that "correcting" the Pythagorean; but Rameau
the first exception to this research based exclusively on numerical proportions.
84SCHENKER
H. [1935] The free writing . Incidentally, Schenker also seeks to justify its
approach by natural harmonics.
85FORTE
, A. [1977] The Structure of Atonal Music .
86BOULEZ
P. [1963], Thinking music today , Gonthier, Geneva. Note that several of these
manipulations were present at S
, A. [1911] Harmonielehre ( Treaty of harmony ) and
CHOENBERG
some even, of course, in the Baroque counterpoint. However, they become in the Boulez
constitution of the musical "The world of music today (...) was born from the expansion of the
concept of the series ". The case is similar to the following examples: formalizations there are more
a simple composition tool.

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probabilities Xenakis

88. It is no longer here to build a formal framework for

particular piece, but to formalize the possibility of construction of these frameworks,

so that the interaction between the rules selected for the composition, or the analysis of the
room, and user is itself subject to other rules, an "order" superior.
It is possible with this approach a formal definition of which may be a style
or school

89And the act of this definition is not completely separated, in the work of

composer, the definition of its own syntax, its "language" individual, his
"Accent" in a style or defining or selecting an agreement or its
especially inside of a room. The structure of a composition process includes
this additional layer of rules that apply to other rules: the process
remains consisting of several simultaneous levels of decisions that interact

90.

The titles of the "schools" of composition, which could learn from these formal frameworks
the largest are given generally well after producing several works more
or less independent, do not always think about their inclusion in a
"Genealogy" of this kind; style definitions and systems are thus the most
often extensional (they summarize post of properties). Of course,
precise distinction of logical differences in rule sets, including

87See COTT
, J. [1979], Conversations with Stockhausen , Lattes, Paris (especially pp. 211 ff, pp. 251 ff).
The subject also appears in some of the Letters to Pierre Boulez ,TOCKHAUSEN
S
, K. [1953-1960] LivretAutumn Festival program in Paris in 1988, Contrechamps.
88XENAKIS
I. [1963], formal music .
89A pretty good approach to these notions is at B
, J. [2005] The musica iperAboni-SCHILLINGI
sistmica . The author builds the concepts of form , style and system from a double standard
necessity and causality applied to sound phenomena, generating sonmes , morpheme and stylemes .
90Thereupon see VAGGIONE
H. [2001] Some Ontological Remarks ...

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58
composer does not necessarily have to care, may become more important when
is to establish a hierarchy between the rules inside of a room and a set
parts, as can the analysis of a style or construction of a theory.
c. understanding and communication
Further away from the actual composer or analytical activity, thought
formal can be conducted to study the elements that allow understanding
of a work, or ensure its intelligibility. Thus, Lerdahl and Jackendoff studying
structure of our perception of tonal music through a system of rules
comparable to that which can be made to formalize the understanding of a
91. Antunes also addresses the least meaningful elements
language
Music with tools from linguistics

92. The possibilities for communication

through music or communicate a musical message can also be

addressed in a formalized way, for example, in the Information Theory

93.

Although these subjects often remain outside the scope of our study, the research
are conducted focusing more on the structure and functioning of apprehension
and understanding of music on the music itself, the results can
have a significant impact on research musical performances
of mathematical ideas. Indeed, when we seek any effective
these representations, understood as an addition to listening opportunities or

91LErdahl F. & J ACKENDOFF

, A. [1996] A Generative Theory of Tonal Music , MIT Press, Cambridge.
92TO
NTunesJ. [2001b] The Semanteme , in Emotions & music, EDK, Paris.
93V. MOLES
, A. [1972], Information Theory and Esthetic Perception , Denol, Paris.

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59

understanding, we can not overlook what is known of the interpretation process

themselves. In particular, it will interest us when we discuss the way in
formalization.

2. The possibility of musical performances

The discussion above has two dichotomies (musical discourse and

discourse on music; application and parallel), which we will use for
approach and define the representation of a mathematical idea. We will look to us
positioned at the intersection of these two oppositions to study the possibility of bringing
locally

94 mathematical ideas, more or less isolated from their contexts purely

scientific and musical ideas, articulating the internal and external aspects of
work.
One can search in the areas of scoring, shapes and theory
music which can lead to performances, not just formal elements
or formalized; we add to this the possibility of obtaining some
"Musical poetics"

95. Of course, we will consider an application or parallel

as we define those above, are a step in the direction of a

representation - indeed, formalized using mathematics is already included

94That is to say, not only using the punctual, but not necessarily not so
overall.
95We are in the third chapter on the subject of a musical poetics, its definition and
sense that can make that expression in the context of our work. Here we can
accommodate the notion vague enough of "meaning, expression, message" from the music.

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60
in his work or its interpretation. Here we want to go further than these first
approaches allowing us to consider multiple simultaneous views on
mathematics (or the idea to represent) and especially on the composition process or
of interpretation.
Naturally, this approach forces us to constantly make
decisions about what, in mathematics, will be used and what, in music, this will

Content: we are always seeking correction and musical relevance, and can
thus be led to move away from a strict mathematical consistency. Actions
game in the ctoiement of these two disciplines here are primarily those of a musician

96 ;

considering that there is a mathematical content that goes into the music, the result
final content can only be a purely musical , in which mathematics may have been
help. If we still use the term "representation" to talk about this
use of mathematics thus can the "deformed", it is because there is here
an indirect manipulation of ideas and mathematical objects as well as the
music, even with these. In the same way we take position in both
musical discourse and the discourse on music, we will use a speech on the
mathematics as much as mathematical discourse itself.

96We consider the actions of a musician closely with their perception and understanding of the
music; without these actions, the very idea of a musical relevance does not make sense. To resume
Vaggione words, "things like thesis , constraints, choices, and so on, would not
not musically relevant if they were devoid of implications relating directly to
issues of action and perception, that is to say, revealing a commitment to action that depends on the
perception as a supervisory body "(in V
H. [2001] Some Ontological Remarks ... ).
AGGIONE

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61
. The effectiveness and efficiency of links
When taking mathematics as more than a tool or a model
reasoning, the question arises whether it is possible to link workforce between these
disciplines, leading to an action musically noticeable (and relevant) both
on internal and external components to a work - which is not necessarily in
concerns an application or parallel. We will consider
the effectiveness of a link (or even its effectiveness ) will be built on its intelligibility, and
necessary here to distinguish between intelligibility musical side and another side
mathematics: of it, a link is effective if it allows us to grasp more clearly
mathematical concepts (or simply formal) that are present; of one, if
an effect on the perception or understanding of musical content, it enriches
listening. Of course, we seek rather the latter result.

The question of the effectiveness could only relate to the ability of the
Music to approach a topic like any other, but here it is not any theme. In
Indeed, given all the formal aspects that may be present in thought
97. He

music, the establishment of such effective and efficient link can not be trivial
however, already existed, at least in the past, sometimes become almost "mythical" and

97We are thinking here of the theoretical establishment prior to this link, sort of living conditions
history. The fertile use of mathematics is obviously more to prove, but must be
always rebuilt, hence the importance of theoretical inquiry. This is discussed by several authors;
include, among others, the texts ofICOLAS
N F. [2000] [2005a], M AZZOLA
G. [2005] and ANDREATTA
, MR.
[2005].

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Ancient Greece

98. For the Pythagorean school, the relationship between mathematics and

Music is immediate: the being is many, the relationships between sounds can only be
mathematical relationships. Later, with Aristoxenes, music theory is more
related to sensation and physical, understood as empirical discipline. These currents
seminal and contemporary relatives were taken in the Middle Ages (especially between
XI

e and XIIIe centuries, bringing Pyhtagore Aristoxenes of Plato and Aristotle), no

only as philosophical foundations of music, but also all

science. It was at this time that music and formed his theory as
were known in Europe for four or five centuries to come

99. Our culture

Musical therefore undeniably a mathematician heritage. However, other

elements more or less formal (or formalized), and among them those we
examine above, gradually are superimposed on this legacy initially
simple. The musical discourse becomes more complex and rich, but obviously it
This differs from a mathematical discourse.
This did not stop the music of the twentieth e century whose speech would be if we
believes the previous argument, as far removed from a really speech
mathematics, to often call the mathematics declared way up

98The
that follows
certainly
very thin,
we did notofwant
to Mathematics
do more than, just
flyover.historical
We referreview
in particular
to S isZABO
, A. [1977],
Thebut
Beginnings
Greek
Vrin
Paris, and BURTT
EA [1952], The Metaphysical Foundations ... also remember that C HOUVEL
J.-M.
[1995] The Physics and esthetic ... quote links in a past even more distant.
99It is interesting to note that this "opposition" between Pythagoras and may in some Aristoxenes
so end up several times throughout the history of Western music. Thus, it can be seen in
classical and pre-classical theorists who tend to follow Zarlino or Rameau, and to the choice of a
physical model of sound by the spectral school as compositional paradigm away from the kind of

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63
take up precisely as a direct source of enrichment and complexity
his speech, nor bring closer the results of a musical work results
mathematics, the opposite. A contribution of this kind is possible to precisely
through a link at least perceived (but we believe that here there was actually built
pragmatically) between these two forms of discourse, despite the distance. If we
Now consider that this call to another discipline is actually done for
internal developments in music and aesthetics, and that such development
can be done by adding external components completely with the terms
apprehension of them, it must be concluded that the ability to perceive (and higher
reason to build) a connection between music and mathematics has never ceased to exist,
in the Western tradition since medieval times.
By accepting this possibility, we accept simultaneously mathematics
and music can not be mistaken: there would be no meaning to perceive a link
that crosses a zero distance. The essential element for this perception is
precisely this separation, and how it evolves

100. This is again to

Within this space between the two disciplines, or more precisely over him,
that we can build a relationship. To be effective, it must be possible to
find one side and the other of at least homologous, in which it

serial algebra. Xenakis remains for us one of the only ones to have served without preference of both
visions.
100The deployment of this distance in time is critical to the ability to link us
seek. Indeed, it would require little than have anything to just be
different mathematics to be able to connect to it. We leave here a situation of relative proximity

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will build. Any complexity in the musical discourse to which it is possible to assign
a certain "logic" should be used as a starting a connection with the
mathematics because in our culture, in a logical sense is always
"Mathmatisante" we can approach any process where there are series of
reasoning with tools or logical-mathematical comparisons. However, we
readily concede the musical discourse logic (or even more), which articulates
together the various levels of temporal unfolding of a work and sets out to
virtually in real time at the hearing, the syntax of sound material used. Thus,
points to the establishment of a link between mathematics and a work
music exist, and at least these (because there may be others) do not depend
the period or the school to which belongs or will belong work. Such As
all musical works is at least part of the music, it is possible
to establish a link between mathematics and music.
Note that the effect of this relationship on music listening may be accompanied by a
effect on the understanding or grasp of mathematical entities and structures
involved, but this is not necessary, unless you want to make music
program or strictly mathematical theory. The contribution that can give
the musical representation of a mathematical idea (or more) is musical order
first. This is not to perceive in a room, building
real numbers or a Boolean algebra, but simply to give more to understand

which, by various influences on both sides, leading to a distance and an independence increasingly

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in a room in the component or by interpreting it: thus establishing a
effective link (as we dfinissions above) between music and mathematics

possible.

2.1 First definition

We say that there are musical representation of a mathematical idea when

it is taken as a subject for the composition or for the analysis of a work (or
a fragment). The mathematical idea or object in question is not taken only
as a tool or reasoning model, but also the basis for
metaphorical or metonymic operations or the musical objects

101.

This approach, although very simple, is already bearing fruit. It relies,

like the second definition we then give, on or near
symmetry that we want to collect between mathematical and musical thoughts,
rather than on mere supposition of a possible transfer of coherence from one to
the other, or a musical enrichment provided by a formalization. We believe in
effect musical thought is essentially formal: it sets various relationship
kinds of elements on many different levels of order and complexity, and
constructed from these relations, and relations between relations, as thought
mathematician; in both disciplines, questions of aesthetic guide
decisions on many levels. From another angle, the musical thought differs
radically mathematical thinking: it can not be complete disregard

great - but not absolute.

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any physical element, or be represented exactly by a discrete set of
symbols. The music is inextricably linked to time by the perception,
mathematics are less necessary. By following these intuitions we
have made any differentiable function is continuous (2001) and Princpio Cavalieri
(2002). These parts are directly inspired theorems (hence their securities), which are
represented in this first definition, at several levels of musical material and
its progress

102.

. Illustration: Any differentiable function is continuous

At the base of any differentiable function is continuous 103is a demonstration

of this theorem, fragments of which are written in French and other notation
mathematics. Among the various ways to achieve this result, we have chosen
one that serves many inequalities, especially gender inequality | xx
that indicates a neighborhood around the point x

0| <,

0. We then wanted to represent

musically these neighborhoods, primarily by oscillations around a "point"

fixed:

Fig.1: oscillation around a note

101In painting and sculpture, some works by Bernar V

ENETfollow this direction.
102The following comments do not naturally want to complete analyzes of these works.
We simply serve to illustrate the discussion.
103For soprano, baritone, flute / piccolo, clarinet / bass clarinet, horn, cello, percussion. View
partition attached.

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Fig.2: oscillations of heights, speed and intensity

The idea of changes in a relatively narrow vocal range is also extended to
sounds:

Fig.3: random variations in a harmonic field

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Fig.4: variations "close" to some sounds

The demonstration is also based, of course, on the definition of the derivative
a function. We took it literally, as it appears in the
demonstration, spoken or sung by the singers. But we also
used the most often associated with the branch image, the image of the tangent to a
curve, shown at the start of the workpiece by a glissando (linearly) cello has
the middle one note in common with an ascending-descending figure of
bass clarinet.

Fig.5: curve and right "tangent"

All these representations are in turn the other starting point

musical manipulations inside of the room. Thus, one finds the "curves" which

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share in common, and variation tone associated more directly
the text.

Fig.6: curves and their "common"

Fig.7: word "colored" by the instruments

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All these mathematical ideas are represented locally throughout the
room, none of them takes only a few steps at a time (although there
has reversals: the same inequality can be presented in many different ways,
for example). The sequence of these performances is free, but the following when
even the general form of the demonstration: each section of the piece exploits
inequality and the text of a demonstration section - follow the singers most
often the parts written in French, or comment on the meaning of technical terms
or geometric ideas in it, and interpret written those instruments
in mathematical notation. Thus, the insertion of this part in the clotting time
is the image of logical time given by the mathematical text: it becomes the
representation of a demonstration, only more fragments thereof. To
articulate this level of formalization, we inserted a second demonstration
the same theorem before the conclusion of the work

104. This serves aesthetic reasons

both musical and mathematical: it is a more elegant proof than ours,

and allows a drastic change materials while keeping the representations
previous.
These few examples already show how this passage
mathematics to music remains subjective understandable when a text is
absent. Indeed, there is no systematic link glissandi around a
Note to inequality, much less articulating a mode change to a

104My. 68 to 80. This is a demonstration ELLima, which are used as limits (see L

, EL
IMA

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demonstration change, if these are the words of the singers.
We are of the opinion that any transition of mathematics (or another discipline) to
music, which did not support a text that reveals the will as "imprecise" that
one, in that it probably will not come back to this music

which has been represented. But this does not diminish the value or utility of representation
in itself, in our case, this is what guided the selection and arrangement of many of the
musical material, to the overall shape of the workpiece. The compositional process
need not be discernible as such in the finished work: it is not
less determinant of outcome.

. Illustration: Princpio Cavalieri

In Princpio Cavalieri

105The representation is not based on the statement or

the proof of the theorem, but on its use. This is a result that allows
calculating the volume of a body from that of a body already known calculate
volume: both bodies have the same volume if their cross-sections in the same
height have the same surface.

106 Thus, the application of the principle of Cavalieri returns to

calculate areas on the cross sections of two bodies and to prove that they
are always equal. It is this similarity between operations on one and the other body
causes the joints of this piece: "reasons" rhythmic, harmonic or

[1992]).
105Snare, harp and electronics in real time. In the partition extracts
follow, the symbol* indicates a change in the electronic treatment for one of the instruments
or both.

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stamps as well as electronic transformations, and pass from one instrument to
the other, or come back in different contexts.

Fig.8: adaptation of the same material in each of the instruments

Similarly to the interest we have focused less on the theorem itself
on its use, the representation is made here with employment and changes
musical material, not with (or in) the material itself

107. Many times it is

thus the assembly of the two instruments with their transformations represents a calculation

surface and reappears modified in another context - or, more precisely, creating this
other context. (Figures below)
We are dealing with a mathematical idea of a different order than in any
differentiable function is continuous , further from the results that the Principle of Cavalieri
provides concrete (one volume, and along the way surfaces) and
somehow external to the theorem itself. This similarity that we want to represent
music between operations in each body is not specified in
the statement of principle, beyond an elementary algebraic definition (there will be questions
multiplications, additions ...) which remains also implied.

106We find the statement of this principle, taken numerous examples of its application and overview
History in L
EL [1991] Dimension e em Forma Geometria , SBM, Rio de Janeiro.
IMA

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Fig.9: rhythmic material and exposed stamp at the beginning of the play

Fig.10: The same "calculation" again later; real-time treatments are also changed
We meet nevertheless face extremely elements
similar

108In each sample application of this principle. This is because the

choice of its use is not trivial: we use the Principle of Cavalieri

"Build" knowledge volumes, building them from stronger
simple and known. Calculate the volume of a solid "new" with this tool therefore for

107The rhythmic and harmonic content are actually indirect references to Catastrophe UltraViolet [1974], Jorge A NTunes, Which celebrated this year its 60 years.
108As the actual use of the distance between the cross section and the base of the body, the volume of a
cone, the surface of a disk or ring ...

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often to repeat such a course, and that is the idea of the reconstruction that has been the basis
our representation, as we do not have a volume or a method
109It only remains that the repetition of certain operations, slightly modified
departure
each time, which should lead to an acquaintance, or at least new information,
on the relevant body.
This situation has led to the inclusion of metaphors and metonymies in
our first definition of a representation: we think in fact that the influence of
Mathematics is always present here, although no formal reporting tool. Us
make the changes and musical similarities "like" those that take place
in mathematics. This allowed us also to that room to add being
composition other representation, independent of the Principle of Cavalieri, and
was not in the original motivations of the piece: the intervals reappearances
some irregular gestures and objects allows us to say that this play "pass" by
some places several times, with different orientations, and that its overall shape
could then be comparable to that of a node . This is still a time of a
metaphoric comparison, we are here to serve any results of the extensive theory
nodes; However, this merger has influenced the arrangement of repetitions in
the room: it is a mathematical idea who participated in the form of the work.

109This is a choice, we could define a sound object as reference body. By eliminating

as the starting point, we are interested to benefit the operation of the building as its
result.

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75
. Traces of formalization
In a workforce such as Cavalieri Princpio , the issue of transfer
a material between the instruments can become a central element of the process
compositional. Indeed, the differences were not such in the harp and
snare they inevitably come into play in the definition of these
transfers, and in the electronic composition

110 - Representation is highly

constrained by the instruments, and this influence is spreading into retroactively

Construction of the starting materials.
This finding, though musically trivial, once again underlines the
difference between the mathematician and musical thoughts, despite their
similarities: physical stress, such as the characteristics of an instrument,
modifies the flow of musical thought, the consistency of any "language
musical "may be only in its nominal consideration. The language
formal mathematics employed by a well-defined grammar, and admits at least
semantics; for it to be formalized, the music did not clearly a
single grammar, much less a semantics. Despite this, the activities of producing
music and mathematics to produce at least this in common: their
results still exceed the physical evidence of them, which is their track
hardware. Thus, the musical work is not the partition or the support where it is

110For example, filters applied to the snare can add some harmonic content;
delay lines tight on a galvanized sound of the harp can the closer to a percussive bearing.

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recorded, and a mathematical theorem is not the sequence of symbols used for
write and demonstrate

111. Even if we consider as a concrete result of the activity

the composer of "Western tradition"

112 that the partition or later

magnetic or digital information on the carrier of an electroacoustic part,

which would already be a gross reduction, this encoded information, recorded in any
so out of time, carry within them the opportunity to be decoded to be put in the
time, several "readers" different in different ways. All
results of these readings is obviously not encoded on the sheet or tape
magnetic, but the definition of the possibilities of such a set is part of the job
composer. In addition, the significance of a musical work is not fixed by the one who
consists of: in the words of Boulez, "the author, as insightful as it is, does
can imagine the consequences - near and far - what he wrote "

113.

Similarly, in mathematics, the same theorem can be proven ways

different in different contexts, which aim to give different applications.
Each of these demonstrations and applications of these lights theorem in some
angles: they enrich its meaning in theory that the product or who employs,

But one family treatment applied to both instruments simultaneously may also participate
a morphological unit in the set.
111We will assume here that statement almost as a postulate, as it is beyond the scope of this
text deeply discuss what or where there is a musical work or a theorem. This is a
discussion could start with S
B. [1947] Introduction to Bach , and N ATTIEZ
, J.-J.
CHLOEZER
[1987] general musicology and semiotics , for music, for mathematics and around
WITTGENSTEIN
L. [1939] Remarks on the Foundations of Mathematics .
112We will call "Western tradition" theoretical corpus and practice of music as it
developed in Western Europe and its colonies (when there is direct influence of this music
European) from the XII e century.
113BOULEZ
P. [1963], Thinking music today .

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and deepen the knowledge of formal tools used in the demonstration. The
purely formal end result remains unchanged, and only enough to demonstrate a
theorem, but this complexity in ways of accessing this result can not be
given by a single application or a single demonstration. The wealth of a
theory also depends on the choices made for the building and, once built, the
choices made from it. However, all of these choices can not be completely

formalized114, And therefore can not be given within the theory.

A music formalization should participate in this multiplicity of points
Possible view of a room. More specifically, the representation of an idea
math, according to the first definition, presents the composer as a
additional way to understand the relationships it builds; She then leaves a mark on
these relationships, which will be perceived as such perhaps by the composer himself,
yet to act on the shape of the work. Other ways to represent an idea
Mathematics may leave marks more directly on the objects themselves, but
they will always tend, as here, to be steganographic: their presence
becomes part of the object, and you must know in advance to be able to spot them.

2.2 Second definition

We say that there are musical representation of a mathematical idea when

fragment (at least) of the musical discourse or the music has an internal organization

114V. W EGNER
P. [1997] Why Interaction is More Powerful than Algorithms , Communications of the
ACM, 40 (5), pp.80-91

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similar to the mathematical concept in question. More specifically, we'll talk
representation as soon as we can operate on the speech fragment like
a mathematical object: by taking care of its shape and its formal content.

115

Specific ways to formalize we presented above, applying

and parallel, not in itself, strictly speaking, representations in the sense of
our first definition: the application is too limited to be a subject,
parallel does not act on the musical objects. Nevertheless, they are approaching the idea of
indirectly manipulate both mathematics and music. To refine these
methods, we need to look more closely at the two "situations" that are thus set
relationship: each is a logic carrier links (possibly dynamic)
between its constituent parts; the choice of the tool with which the formal is established
Reconciliation is not trivial, it reveals and directs some of the goals and vision
from that formalizes (its shape can be more or less "compatible" with the so

116 the

wants to associate musically). In addition, we want to take into account the

relationships between the operations on one side and the other (that is with them, this time qu'auront
place metaphors and metonymy). These are the thoughts on the internal organization of
musical and mathematical situations that motivate this second definition.

115This definition is narrower than the previous performances in his senses will also
representations according to the first definition. Recall that in speaking of the form of a mathematical object
we believe the reports as it may have with other objects in its internal properties - cellesThese determine these, and vice versa.
116Note still just a set of applications fitted with an adequate metaphor
can become a representation - we think particularly to the formula speed = space / time applied
X ENAKIS
([1963]) to calculate glissandi, decorated in a gas particle image.

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The centerpiece here is the idea of operation: it is this concept that links
working with mathematical objects and work of musical thought when there
representation. To clarify this merger, we can try to understand what
means to work with a mathematical object: we must know its origins (from
What branch of mathematics it comes) understand some of its properties,
how it interacts with other mathematical objects and concepts (which
applies to him, to which it applies), and so on. We can say that all this
conceptualization of a mathematical object (which finally constitutes the knowledge even
this object) is operative nature we must know what to do with it

117. In particular,

this object is a "sense" that when math on an operation

any; it can only refer to other objects or ideas that have the "sense"
similar, or can operate with hers. Similarly, this is how we
want to work with the musical discourse and its parts, taking into account if
of "original" material, creates, or if it has been generated from other pre-existing objects (
"Origins" of the speech fragment in question); knowing its internal properties,
intrinsic; knowing what are the opportunities for interaction, processing and
action with, or on other objects. We want to know a musical object

117 This view follows the W

L. [1939] Remarks on the foundations of
ITTGENSTEIN
mathematics . Such a view was already present in this author, based on the sign (in the language)
in the Blue Book [1935], "If we had to name something that is the life of the sign, we
should say that it is his use . "(P.40)

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by operations which we can use and which may concern

118. Us

then will focus on the organization of such operations, the contradictions and
tautologies that may arise among them, with the precision that it is possible to extract
to talk about this object or handling.
Next to this, and in parallel, a mathematical object is often worked
through writing (or more precisely his writing, one that defines it). Our
representations thus realized also through operations on the writing, which will be
these cases in the heart of the mathematical passage to the musical. Parts a set
convex (2004) and Lema 1 - e parties primitive (2004) were written from that
outlook on mathematics.

. Illustration: a convex set

We say that a set is convex if all the segments connecting two
points of this set are fully contained therein. This notion of convexity, let
the homotopy (continuous deformation of a path between two points) are
represented in a convex set

119. We start with a melody inspired

Brazilian popular songs, and the idea of a texture made rapid cycles
notes, more or less long (the shortest being trills or tremolos ). Both
starting points before the representation itself, they give us the objects with

118This idea is present in V

H. [1995] Objects, representations, operations . It is to
AGGIONE
us to the base which may be a "composition-based object"; We shall return to
few benefits of this approach to the compositional work.
119Clarinet, accordion and suspended cymbal, or clarinet, accordion and electronic sounds; v.
partition attached.

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which we will represent the convexity and homotopy. On one hand, this is the set
these cycles, which are constantly used as background to the development of the melody that
we want convex. On the other hand, we find in the melodic line
intervallaires and rhythmic content directly from the songs, but not always
juxtaposed or in their original order; we want each of the lines written either
homotopic, in a sense, an original melody. Part cymbal and
120

electronics are not directly involved in the representation of these ideas.

to. convexity
For all the notes in the present cycle part is convex, it
necessary that the segment joining any pair of these rings is contained in this
together: it must appear in full in the music. We still have to define what
can be a "segment" uniting two notes cycles a and b: it will be for us a suite
ordinate cycles c

c have a maximum of 3
0C 1... C n, Where 0c= A or c n= B, such as c i and i-1

difference in scores between them (that is, if we take them simply as

assemblies such that | c i -c i-1 |, | C
i-1 -c i| 3) but also that c

c are close "in

i and i-1

instrument ", that is to say that the actions to perform differ only by 3
moves up and the keys or keys used in c

i are contiguous to

120One could say that they are trivial homotopy: all electronic sounds
come by continuous transformations cymbal sounds, and there are really only two sentences
to separate the cymbal in the score (the last action is a downgrading of the
first).

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those used in c

121 To ensure this convexity, we then built

i-1 .

suites cycles (mostly from a trill) following the close

therebetween. Thus, all cycles is already compound with the property of being
convex: each new cycle extends a segment that connects the previous; the
process of transformation or development of these figures is fully
presentation.

Fig.11: a "cycle segment" for the accordion

Here we have a mathematical idea that guides the work on the idea and the
musical material, not only in terms of notes; connectedness and convexity
"The instrument" are in fact often the cause of actions. All
cycle modifications involve physical movements in the "topology"
own of each instrument (in the case of the accordion, we could say that we
make continuous deformations of the buttons on course). The imposition of
convexity on all these movements (interpreters) generates operations
directly on the musical material. It also suggests how to consider the

121Most of the time, the distance between two adjacent rings is less than or equal to 2; us
recognize the distance of 3 driven by the passage of a trill to a sequence of a chromatic ambitus more
wide, for example. Note also that we identify octaves; This is somehow justified
the accordion, the different voices Registrations are overlays at different octaves;
we wrongfully extend the principle to the notes of the clarinet.

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convexity in the rating - it must indeed be represented in a manner consistent with
instrumental playing. The representation of this idea in the instrumental topology allows
the compositional work to operate the instrument in the same way it would operate
with the morphological characteristics of a sound material.

122

Note that, for precisely here that we wanted to formalize it can not
ensure an accurate perception of the convexity in the first place because what the
guarantee is not well defined. Indeed, how should be seen a musically
property originally on fragments of plane or space? The most picture

often associated with a convex set is that of a space "without spikes

beyond "(a circle is convex, a star is not), and in this sense actually
very little exceeds sets cycles only , as they are written. But listening can
integrate with other elements of the room before judging of any convexity: the
Separation of these cycles as a standalone set of objects makes sense when
writing, it can go to their inclusion in a broader context. We believe
including overlays of a cycle with fragments of a melodic line in
one instrument: these may give the object resulting "spikes" which
break the convexity.

122This idea is central to our compositional approach. It will be part of the formalization
General in the chapter on the geometrization.

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Fig.12: superimposing a melody to a cycle, you can lose the convexity listening
In addition, the segments joining the points of a set, mentioned in the definition
convexity are theoretically line segments

123; or the transformations

we propose does not necessarily suggest a sense of linearity. In

bringing this way a mathematical idea of music, we begin to
manipulate almost as much as musical objects we transform and adapt
the room needs. Again, the advantage of this representation does not lie
the possibility of detecting such in an analysis, but in the way
work it offers. It leaves a trace here into smaller objects written
the instrumental part and allows to consider a mathematical idea like material
compositional.

b. homotopy
The melodic lines and rhythmic patterns of a convex set
inspired by several Brazilian popular songs of the early and mid-twentieth

century, but especially Mscara Negra , Z Keti and Lamento , Pixinguinha.

Fig.13: Theme Mscara Negra , Z Keti

123In a more general vector space, that are combinations linear both ends.

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Fig.14: Theme Lamento , Pixinguinha

These, Tune appear in pieces into a convex set . The
fragments are transposed, stretched or contracted, but are not present in their format
original. The melodic lines nevertheless remain the benchmark for
representation of homotopy we chose.
If we have a path between two points of a set, we say that
another way between the two same points is homotopic the first if there is a
continuous function that transforms into each other while preserving their ends (this
function is called a homotopy ). We will take each of the original melodies,
and possible transpositions as a path between its first and last note,
by focusing instead on "components" of this path at its ends
(Fixed) intervals, melodic figures, distances, rhythms ... This is distorting
these gradually as we get homotopic paths
first. Unlike repeated cycles to represent the convexity, all
intermediate transformations between the original fragment of melody and its last state
are not present in the partition; Sometimes the reference is still quite clear when
we tend to a suitable homotopy (which is constant in a neighborhood of each
end).

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Fig.15: start and end of theme Mscara Negra as they appear in the score; between them, the
line of the clarinet is obtained by successive homotopy of the original theme
124At

If you notice tuned the reference to the popular song in these cases
no power probably identify the source, this relationship is much less
apparent when several stages of deformation accumulates on the melodic line
before it enters the partition. The play is thus not made direct references,
but remains evocative of this universe external to it. Naturally, this is not
the representation of homotopy that is responsible for this evocation

125But it gives

consistency in how to work these references, allowing to integrate them more

completely to the other elements that make up the "musical language" of this piece
(And our work in general). This representation is combined with the previous and helps
create logical links between different levels of instrumental writing. In
particular, certain transformations of fragments of these melodies approximate
notes cycles, the other piece of base material

126. This can further contribute to

blur the perception of a convexity in all cycles or that of a link

124There are only two in the score: my. 59 and 64, with raised.
125It would be possible to object that this representation suggested by operations are themsame fairly similar to those that might already be in development techniques
XIXe century, so the homotopy would be directly responsible for anything. While this may
be true locally, we could not achieve the set of transformations that we have
without actually used this reference to the "image" of a mathematical curve to the fixed ends
which is deformed.

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continuous melodic line with an earlier, but it dissipates reconciliation borders
between the tools used and instead puts forward their OF RESULTS (and thus the opportunity to judge
their relevance).
Unlike previous illustration, the overall shape of a set
convex represents no mathematical idea. In fact, only the clarinet parts
and accordion part in performances, and only at a local level; there
Cymbal part and the electronic sounds are independent, and are compounds with
sound and formal result of the activities of the other two instruments. Throughout
connection between music and mathematics (or other discipline, in fact), it
found on both sides of the aspects that are less "covered" by this merger, or
not at all. In the case of this play, they are not among the details of writing or
formalization, but are placed in the foreground as well as those who bear the
representation.

. Illustration: Lema 1
In short piece Lema 1 - e parties primitive

127 we chose

represent some aspects of the integration operation in calculus.

The integral (Riemann) is associated with both the calculation of certain areas and
the inverse of derivation, primitivation, through the fundamental theorem

126Especially in my. 32-36.

127For solo violin, c. partition attached.

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analysis 128. We are interested here in the organization and the articulation of
musical material, the interval partitions (used for area calculation) and the idea
that primitive of a function are in some sense more "regular" that
function.

The basic materials are a pace similar to that of a jitter:

and the game rating touched on the violin: "false harmonics" natural harmonics
and artificial. They only indirectly involved in the representation that we will
build: these special game modes place the instrument in its upper register and
shrill, and it is on this that we will work, by partitioning the image of the
the interval over which is defined a function to integrate

129; we give also to

the rhythmic cell the role of this function. These operations will be a way to
handling the instrumental and rhythmic material, do proliferate. The choice of
starting cell and game modes are arbitrary here: we take them for their
references (various connotations) to virtuoso solo violin repertoire; organizing
the part is also largely independent of the representation.
to. scores
To calculate the Riemann integral of a function, we first calculate its
are top and bottom on a partition (subdivision) of the gap where it

128If a function F: [a, b] has an integrable derivative, then F (b) -F U

bF ='(t) dt.
(a)
to
129Note that in the definition of the Riemann integral, this interval is always closed, so that
would probably be more accurate to consider "the extreme high register of the violin" as an interval
Open heights. We will see that this difference does not profoundly affects what to do

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is defined: each is a first approximation of the area between the curve and the axis
abscissa

130. Then we refine the partition (for adding points in its interior)

and we find that these are not stray (and may be closer). At Last,
we define the lower integral (respectively the upper integral) as
upper bound (resp. lower) taken on all partitions of the interval, the
are lower (resp. upper). A function is Riemann integrable if
these two integrals are equal.
A first partition of the upper register of the violin is given by the harmonic
natural and artificial; it is refined by adding these harmonic trills and
by glissandi harmonics, and finally by "false harmonics": notes

touched, played with tremolo or sforzato on positions that do not correspond to

natural harmonics, and that produce clusters more or less dirty in hyperacute
(These are actually several notes quite "far" in the harmonic series of the open string).
This construction provides a collection of dots and small intervals roughly
relatives, distributed throughout the register we want to address. Note that it
not necessarily occur in the order that we followed, sounds more
acute, but sounds that cover a range of increasingly large. It is on this
collection, taken without particular order, we apply the function to

on the partitions of the interval, but requires an adaptation of the representation when it
considered in full.
130These amounts are just the surface in a step function , that is to say, sums
rectangular surfaces: Am i(Ti-t i-1), Where m
i are the values of the levels of this step function and
t i the points of the partition of the interval. These bearings are the minimum or maximum value
Of[t
i-1, T
i] in
the integrand for the lower or higher amount, respectively.

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include: the basic rhythm (and some variations of this cell) is presented on these
register of share points.

131As these subdivisions and these rhythmic elements are

discrete, separable, the fact that the interval is open partitioned poses no problem
convenient for representation: we dots inside it without us
regardless of its ends (in fact we operate in a sub-interval). From the point of view
mathematically, this corresponds to the operations in one of the parts of the integration,
geometry; it may order these subdivisions from the simplest to the richest.
Musically, by cons, we obtain a material that has not yet
directionality

132: Harmonically, everything is given by the instrument itself

rhythmically, we have very little variation. Partitioning does not generate

alone, for this representation, a singular insertion time.
b. primitivation
According to a simple analytical insight, we can say that the original one
function f is another function that evolves according to f, whose rate of change is given
through f. Thus, if f suddenly changes value in a discontinuity, its primitive
change at the same point its growth (it will make a shift), but without

133,

necessarily make a "leap" discontinuous as f: in this sense the operation

131We could say, from another point of view, this is rather a range of game modes is
and partitioned, and on which we apply the rhythmic element as a function; but this is not
This interpretation has guided representation. The ability to set game modes intervals
reappear in the chapter on geometric.
132We'll talk about directionality of a material or object when following a direction and that it
is manifest in him.
133We again look constraints of the instrument as a material for composing.

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primitivation "smooth" the contours of a function, reducing discontinuities and
abrupt changes

134.

It is this image that we have chosen to keep to represent the integration

a function (again the timing jitter) on the high register of the violin. Us
take and characteristic fragments of the cell, reducing their salience
by links or increases to thereby obtain a new set
rhythmic elements (and therefore times); it is this new "feature" that we
will want to browse the extreme treble of the instrument. Here again appears after the
need to adapt the representation to external restraint to its formalization in
Indeed, how to cover everything registry violin if we can not even
define? We chose to take an approximation of that totality, suggested
by the representation of partitioning: the limit of scores more refined
is the entire interval as to the amounts on these partitions is full.
We then apply (almost everywhere) the primitive function that we have
build on the finest scores we had: one given by
"False harmonics," and we still refine by glissandi with this mode of
play.
c. development
The shape of the work is here again very little influenced by the performance:
the integration related transactions were used primarily to provide and organize the confinement

134Technically, the primitive F is more regular as it is differentiable once over f.

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musical material not deploy. The syntax was done first by seeking to
give some directionality to each of the two families of objects that
representation generates, independently: each side of the integration is performed
in a separate part. Other formal punctuation appear, also external
formalization, that link between the two sides and vary the statement of
speech, contributing to the unity and complexity of the work. The role of formalization
in this room is the one to allow manipulation of objects and to operate with
them as reference points taken from the outside of the music.

2.3 Types of representations

We said above that we are interested to consider any formalization
as a kind of notation, a particular way of approaching a situation and to
manipulate objects. In a very direct sense, then, is defined with a formalization
rules

135 governing such opportunities for manipulation. We can therefore

consider "rules for composing" and other "rules for interpreting" (or
analysis), sets that are necessarily distinct, even if they come from a
even formalization (and although they may still have elements in common).
The previous sections of this chapter have focused more clearly
question of the existence of musical representations of mathematical ideas, rather than
their multiplicity , illustrations for a constructive part of this

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"Demonstration" of existence. But these works, as well as examples are taken

also to review the plurality of ways of representing an idea: at any time
there is a question of necessity of such a representation - arbitrary decisions (so
substitutable by others) they are based. This also shows that, in a
Somehow, the finished work is among these multiple representations
possible 136; we could say that "what happens" actually in the works
finds a counterpart in the set of rules used to compose (all
those that interact during the compositional process and define).
Symmetrically, one work can be analyzed from different points of view, without
none of them really is comprehensive; formally, the rules we
can follow during a scan, or those we can assume, when we
analyze, the work "follows" does not fully make this work. Although he was
137We would not exhausted

algorithmically possible to find a partition

all ways to enrich their listening by analysis or, more generally,
interpretation.
We can say that when we set rules sets
to approach a musical work, we always have the following dips:

135That will or not a formal statement; we saw in Lema 1 indirect manipulation gesture
instrumental which were themselves not formalized.
136Under the terms that we introduce below, this is equivalent to saying that several formal spaces (or
simply compounds) can be obtained separate from the same modular spaces.
137Which, to our knowledge, is not yet possible (except trivially, of course, by a process
direct imitation): we do not know of "resynthesis" a partition that reproduces correctly
placement of dynamic, for example.

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rules to analyze

work 2 rules to compose.

138

It is intentional that we prefer here speak of immersion (or

for injection ) rather than inclusion in the strict sense (hence the sign

instead of 7) we

want to emphasize that the "rules to analyze" are represented or interpreted

in place by a set of properties that is their isomorphic, but it does
are not themselves; in the same way that follows the rules actually do the work

are not found in identical among the "rules for composing" but a sub
all of these can be associated with them.

139These are, among others, the interactive aspects

different actuations of these rules, the level of analysis and composition,

that prevent strict identifications through these levels.
The interpretation of such rules is between these groups and the work. To
arise representation of a mathematical idea through a formalization, analysis and
the composition and operating in opposite directions to achieve a work

140. This

138This pattern is reminiscent of the semiotic tripartition (see N

, JJ [1987] Musicology
ATTIEZ
General and semiotics , for example). Without fully adhere to a semiotic position
(Including, above all, in terms of the neutrality of a partition), we feel good to distinguish
aspects poietic and esthsiques music (although they may overlap) and to be able to consider
a separable object composer and its settings at least for an interpretation (as a partition
we can take for itself , for example - we prefer the term "immanent" for this
level of observation).
139Of course, talking about rules "actually followed" is problematic, at least because it is
difficult to define this term without reference either to the act of composing, or to the analysis (also
the problem of the general definition of neutral level in musical semiotics). We want
just keep in mind that a work exceeds its construction (even during it), in the sense
that even the composer may surprise. We return to these 'surprise opportunities. "
140By cons, if it is to formalize a music theory, both paths must be followed
simultaneously as a theory must be used to produce new works and study of works
existing. This is what we find for example in M
G. [2002] The Topos of Music and
AZZOLA
BAboni-SCHILINGI
, J. [2005] The iper-sistmica musica .

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defines two different types of representation

141Which also reflect the separation

between musical discourse and discourse on music.

. Constructed representations
To represent a mathematical idea, a composer must build a
work where this idea will be part of the musical discourse, at a certain level of its
organization. Although it may be local, such action always affects the work
in full, since all speech organization levels are linked and interact: at
listening, insertion into the chronometric time prevents complete separation
different scales

142; during the composition (inevitably also includes

listen) is the same organization that puts all processes related

representation is defined in formalizing the above work ready, it is

143. There

made at the same time as the set of "rules" that the composer is required (the
formalization in question is actually a part of this set) and it unfolds in
the work at the same time that it is written. We will speak in this case of a
constructed representation , including the apprehension by the listener can only be done during
listening to the work. The effectiveness of this representation depends precisely on this
Listening: it is not strictly independent of the formal framework through which

141Where we can separate a third subtype.

142We will see further forward than this corresponds to a decline in musical spaces (in a composable
logical time) on themselves.
143As said V H.
"There is no contradiction between attention to detail and comprehensiveness (...): the
AGGIONE
detail, thus understood, is everywhere and in every moment "([2000], Musical Composition and Resources
IT: Approach Questions ). This important development report and these interactions are a subject

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builds the representation (for one can imagine different formalizations more or
less effective on the representation of a particular idea), but it should not settle
on prior knowledge would have the auditor of the formal, or more
precisely the mathematical idea represented. Is a constructed representation can
to listen must register in various time scales of conduct of
the work not only of his writing.
If a formalization in the composition process, and in particular a
constructed representation, can affect only one level of musical discourse because
their interdependence, which is affected then the whole shape of the work, which is
collected at different scales simultaneously. Quote here the exemplary characterization
form of the concept given by Granger

144:

The notion of form at first seems inseparable from perception

space and therefore give first as empirical concept. This
it is, indeed, in its most obvious incarnation. However,
Gestalt psychologists have done in the same perspective of a
empirical determination, two discoveries that guide us towards a
more fundamental reinterpretation. The first is the extension of the concept
form non necessarily spatial perceptions; the second is
the essential role acknowledged the opposition "form-substance". One and the other
suggest the possibility of designing the shape as untied entitled to any
realization in a spatial perception, or even any perception.

On the other hand, the opposition-shaped bottom is reduced ultimately to

the purely logical opposition of yes and no, presence and

recurrent in this author, cf. eg [1997] Dealing with object networks and [1998a] Son,
time object syntax. Towards a multi-scale approach to computer-assisted composition .
144GRANGER
G.-G. [1994] Forms, operations, objects

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the absence that characterizes a border situation, a necessary condition to
the appearance of a form. Of course, there is no denying the role
played by predictive text input, spatial or not, a form as continuity,
continuity as it internally, but always correlative of a break,
a recess. As thinkable as a concept, the form is
precisely this correlation grasped in both perceived forms,
space or sound, or perhaps even falling autonomously
other registers of meaning, in the form of a speech (not
only its sensible realization), of reasoning, sense,
of a thought.
Specifically retain the ability to design the shape of any untied
implementation, and as internal continuity and correlation: it is this view that allows
to take this concept as operating independent of the figures which it may
apply and own operations defined by a context.
If constructed representation is the shape of a work or certain
objects inside it, then this is also the contents of a room options
contributes. All the musical discourse and interaction of the work with a situation
special music can be enriched. Such a representation enables new
without imposing contents, and its effect is thus first musical and perceptual place.

. Representations found
On the other hand, the analyst seeking representation should highlight the
a pre-existing musical text, fixed and therefore independent of the analysis or
representation in question. The result of each representation is then a
enrichment of listening possibilities and understanding of the work to a certain

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level of his speech. As before, this ends up enriching opportunities
listening to the entire room, but here it is given in addition to listen to the east
initially at a single level of musical speech, and then, for consistency
the work145Extends at other levels of the organization. The representation is defined
in this case a formalization which succeeds the work, so it unfolds in time
different from the work (and composition) and in a speech on music.
We will speak in this case of representation found whose apprehension
the auditor should begin to do before listening to the work. Note that the
results of such a representation for the perception and understanding are
possibly very different from those of a constructed representation: here we can
artificially isolate a time scale or fragment to study without taking
necessarily consider its participation in the overall shape. Furthermore, attention is
drawn to a mathematical character even if the contribution exceeds the listening
perception of the stroke, it remains dependent on its understanding. Such
representation suggests new content, and its effect takes place primarily outside
listening.
The choice of the word "found" does not mean that such representation is
less built by musician than is a constructed representation as we
have defined. Instead, we want to highlight a representation

145It is not a question of the consistency musical of the work in its all, but rather a consistency
just logic. Must be pre links noticeable between the various fragments

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found mostly depends on the analyst: in all research, all possibilities
findings is defined by what is sought or, more precisely, by way of the

look (in a certain sense, this way defines the purpose of research). Obviously, it
This is not to say that a representation is found completely imposed on a piece
music without dependent; but it is possible to interpret a work of infinite
different ways, so that all kinds of representations (which are established precisely
through an interpretation of the formal framework chosen for analysis) can be
"Found". These interpretations are not independent of the work, but they are
composer and formal setting (whatever it is, if it exists) that he established for the
dial. So find the representation of a mathematical idea in a room
Music does not indicate that the intention of this representation was present at
the composition, but this does not invalidate the analysis that makes it appear - you have
just make the reservation.

146To try to avoid too distant representations

it is assumed that the intentions of a composer, or what one deems valid

Music speech than the representation suggests passes from one of these fragments to
other.
146Include, as an extreme example of what can lead forgetting that reservation, book
,
V.HOUTEN
K & K Asberger M. [1992], Bach and Number . In this book, the authors 'prove' their
analysis of the work of Bach that he said in his plays, among other things also
surprising, the date of his own death. The "facts" purely formal presentations are clear: the
authors did not change the scores they study, and we can not deny the possibility of finding
numerical combinations they offer. Their interpretation remains unsustainable.
The rule sets immersions, we were talking about earlier, clearly taken by van Houten
Kasberger and as inclusions in the strict sense and deduction follows that if a rule applies to
analysis, it was used in the same form and with the same intention for composition. Okay
Obviously, if an analytic operation "on", it is because the structure of the work permits, and
So because the "rules" used for the composition actually generated this structure. But
the operation used in the analysis is not necessarily present itself among the "rules"
composition . Without it, we could also get in Bach references to John Cage (cf. P
,
ASCAL
e century
A. [1997] The number in the musical composition in the
twentieth
).

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to find a part analyzed (two distances whose evaluation is already asking itself
even reflection), limitations may be imposed as criteria almost
aesthetic simplicity of the idea represented, for example, or simplicity of the
representation (understood as the set of analytical operations that make
the idea perceptible shown).

. Mtamusicales representations
If we conceive a theory in which are represented ideas

mathematics, these representations must be first out of production

specifically musical, serving to support the thinking about music. They manifest
while a front portion of the formal sensitive, and act on this passageway rather than
formalization or musical material directly; perhaps it would be more accurate in this
cases, the name of the representations mtamusicales

147 of mathematical ideas. We

nevertheless happen that mtamusicalit almost immediately at the same musicality,

and the effects on the understanding of the music, because such a theory, for
consistent, must ultimately address the reality and the sound works, their compositions
and their interpretations. Thus, in a formal theory of music has, at
mtamusical, another immersion rule sets in the opposite direction this time:
rules [thinking] the composition

rules [thinking] interpretation.

147Here we take the notion of Metaconcept to G RANGER

G.-G. [1994] Forms, operations, objects
(Conclusion): "A Metaconcept relates, not directly to an experience, actual or potential,
but a representation of the experiment. "The mtamusical would be all the concepts in
a reflection on the musical experience.

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In other words, thinking about the experience of the composition is a case
particular reflection on the interpretation and understanding of music: the
composition is part of the identity of the work, and the composer, appropriating its
own musical past, is no exception to the interpretation of other works.

148

In fact, this immersion can take place only at the level mtamusical: if
affirmed during the approach to a work, it would, for the immersions set more
above, an identification of the composition analysis, and work to defined rules
for each of these processes, which would be a reduction of at least brutal
content of a piece of music

149. The representations of mathematical ideas in a

music theory are therefore established at a level different from those of the composition
and analysis put to work . These are then necessarily representations
constructed, since they leave no specific work (and therefore can not
be found ). However, they are only the candidates to be representations
found in an analysis in the light of this theory. Indeed, a composer

follow this theory, which would represent these ideas in mathematics

his work should reconstruct these representations in order to integrate them into the network
rules and interactions that it establishes itself to compose.

150 This attribute of the dual

148This scheme can also be read as follows: dial is a particular way of knowing a work. The
mtamusical level, it actually has more rules, strictly speaking, to analyze that to compose,
as it is easy to see in any composition textbooks. Note that this immersion is
mtamusicale, it excludes the reports to a particular work.
149It is also this error mtamusicale identify a relationship to a musical relationship are
, K. andAsberger
K
M, [1992], Bach and number .
V.HOUTEN
150This passage from the musician mtamusical practice is even more laborious than the theory
question is mathematically consistent. Indeed, this consistency tends to set "hard links"
between mathematical objects, which may hamper them in isolation, or divert (unless

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mtamusicales performances well above indicates that both the analysis and
composition, thus do not affect, in a first step, the potential
apprehension of a particular work. When switching to musical activity,
representations of mathematical ideas in music theory are characterized
either as representations (re) constructed either as representations found,
and can then become actually visible.

3. Meaning in a formalization

As we have seen, a musical work is always shifted

from the established formal framework to address it: she exceeds when analyzed,
and do not exhaust when composed. This indicates that although formalization,
whatever it is, is not enough to meet (and more so to determine) a
work. It is within this space between the formal framework and the room (or objects
same musical) it is possible to truly develop an interpretation of
rules play to then be able to contribute to listening.
It is also in the relationship established between the "materiality" of the work
(Taken as an object at runtime, but we also think of the partition or a
digital support) and different thoughts around it (which it should be concurrent
or not) that we can speak of a consistency in the logical sense, the musical discourse.

to be inconsistent, precisely). The limiting case of course, is a theory mathematics of music,

which "thoughtful musician (...) is here strictly cluttered" according N
, F. ([2005b]
ICOLAS

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If there can be no question of meaning in a formalization in music, or with it we
must indeed be considered a consistency somewhat "shared" between aspects
formal preceding work (and are the basis for the formalization) and those who
emerge listening. Naturally, some apprehension of form is unavoidable
when we are confronted with musical objects; this is the coincidence (even
partial) with prior formal framework is not always given a priori but must
be built.

3.1 Forth to "interpretation"

The different meanings of the word "interpretation" require some
attention to its use: it is a term that can be applied at two different times of
understanding of a work.
We first first understand the interpretation as
transition from an abstract object (a set of rules, for example) to a concrete object
corresponds to it (such as a partition, a text, an instrumental performance). There is
important to note that the terms of such correspondence are to be defined
along the passage itself, and which plays the role of a concrete object in a
particular interpretation may be the container of the abstract object into another: for example,
Partition is the "concretization" of certain rules when made; it
contains a set of rules to follow when played. Specifically, we

How musically evaluate mathematical theories of music? ). Note that in this case, the

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see in this case this passage as a share to and from an abstract, such as
building (creative at least in part, so) of a new particular concrete.
On the other hand, we can also hear the interpretation as
assigning meaning to an object. It is no longer here in the construction of a new object
concrete, but the establishment of logical links

151between parts or aspects of it

which is interpreted. These links can rely so heavily on phenomenal elements

the object (in the case of a sound stream, silences or intensity peaks, for example, or
fragments of repetitions) as a network of associations and interpretations
prerequisites. Again, the precise nature of these links can not be fixed in advance:
interpretation is in this second sense as a work around an object and from
he, who built a new abstract one object with meaning ; segmenting the object
interpreted, which defines the elements between which links can be established, depends
interpreter (and, a fortiori, an interpretive context).

. Movements of "sense"
When we bring these two uses music, they imply
two contrasting views on a musical work: the performer and that of
the listener. Indeed, we could simplify and saying that one follows rules
while it creates or deduced; and we assume the existence of a "sense"
in both interpreted rules (according to the first sense) and the result of

mathematical ideas are present in the theory , not just represented.

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interpretation (in the second). But if we consider that in both cases there is the
transition from one type of structure to another (from one partition to gestures, sound stream
a mental image, for example), this "sense" is not as localized, and we could
say that he gives himself entirely with this passage. From this point of view, the action

interpretation is always that of complete understanding, precisely through this

transposition (which is necessarily creative). We can not, of course
eliminate differences between the act of performing a partition and that to understand a
piece of music, but the two meanings of "interpretation" that we give to
if we move closer to the idea of sense: if we take it as a possibility
organize and activate a network of knowledge or gestures

152.

3.2 Intelligibility and understanding

When it comes to spoken language, we can differentiate a step that
above the same attribution of meaning to a sentence: it must be intelligible , use
known and properly spoken words. With this we can already judge whether it is

151Remember that we do not specify as the presence of formal deductions, just relations
abstract.
152A gesture is also learned knowledge, as it were "housed" in the body (therefore not
necessarily accessible or describable in the same way as knowledge "abstract", often
verbal origin); we believe such gestures of a musician, he organizes and involves
by a partition. To study the issues around representations of mathematical ideas,
Here we turn naturally rather the side of the verbal or intellectual knowledge, which can
more direct approach, it seems, syntactic, semantic and aesthetic issues that are
arise. Place the body in knowledge remains a vast subject, among other philosophy
and anthropology; we refer to the work of A
PEL, K.-O. [2005] The "a priori" the body in the
problem of knowledge and Q
P. [2000] complex messages through communication
UETTIER
gestural sequences .
Note that conversely it may issue "gestures" of thought (see X
I. [1963] Music
ENAKIS
formal (av. Introduction): "materialize movements of thought with sounds").

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syntactically correct, then further questioning on its semantic correctness and
meaning

153. This problem is very different in music, where we

do not always have "words" known to support a musical sense, and sometimes
not the equivalent of a proper pronunciation. One can not "go" from
the construction of a musical sense to the basic elements; more precisely, these
elements or collected in the segmented sound stream by the auditor are already only
liable to wear a "meaning".
The idea of interpretation, as we see it at the moment, is central to
think the intelligibility of a musical work. We will say that the work has a meaning
when you can "understand" when you can make meaningful connections between a few

at least one part of it, without much internal contradictions (it is interpreted ).

154

Which is well understood, the "meaning" of the work is the same logical network links,
which one can remember, we can "read" in memory. It is important to note
here comes in our ability (facing each individual work) to establish such
network, especially whether to make the entire work. Indeed, we could say that
the incomprehensible music is the impossibility or inability (sometimes
Temporary or just local) to detect a sense - that is to say, build it from
the sound stream. The question may arise about sharing this construction, between

153In particular, when we state that a sentence is nonsense, something provided it sets out
feel about it, the sentence is apprehensible that way at least. Nonsense can not be
unintelligible.
154We take precautions for all parts-related and the complete absence of
contradictions, as we believe that through the establishment of logical links between all the parts of a

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listener and composer: it is he responsible for all the consistency of the work,
what can it offer to the listener that ensures that the work will be interpreted? On the other hand,
the listener is not it, in the end, the only one who can assign meaning to it
hear? If a piece of music is always the result of a process of composition, and if
interpretation (ie listening) is also constructive action we are
faced with a transmission and reception (or at least apprehension), and we
can look at the transition between these two poles.

. Transmission of content
The notion of form is of course related, at least since the beginning of the period
classic, organization of musical discourse, and thus understanding.
as we said above

155 But

156, Classical forms have only syntactic scope

limited in musical writing: they do not consider the details (meso-temporal) and
may, as they have defined, emerge from any base material.
Although critical to the idea of form as a container , which may receive

157

work
without
contradiction,
have
understood
he has to understand this work, there
therefore
haveany
nothing
to hear it we
(andwould
not the
more
reason toeverything
listen).
155P cf. REDA
-SCHIMEK
H. [2003] A look at the genesis of the form of theories, between classicism and
Romanticism (1790-1845) .
156Sect. 1.3 Procedure in time (time).
157Indeed, we can detect an "almost sonata" in Threnos , K. Penderecki (1959): a
"Exposure" three "themes" contrast, the third is morphologically close enough of
first (which could also be seen as an introduction), and a coda that combines elements; a
"Development" of kinds of articulation of the second "theme" shaped cannon and with some
appearances of elements of the other two; a short transition (with new sounds in the room)
leading to the 'recapitulation' morphologies first and third "themes".
This interpretation certainly leads the definition of sonata form beyond its limits, not least
as the lack of tones in Threnos ; it nevertheless keeps to use dialectic of
material, which is central to this definition. This example also points out, more dramatically than in

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various content, comes relatively early

158The classic shapes remain points

mark for a long time: it takes the free atonality, and then
especially Webern, always forced to see and deconstructed. It seems
it is at this point that form and content are beginning to be inseparable in
practice and thinking of composers in general.
But this is probably Xenakis who first, asked the question specifically
the understanding of musical discourse, or simply sound events in
Under a global organization directly related to local arrangements of elements
discreet. 159 The central innovation of his thought, for this discussion, is for us to
treat organizational elements to a certain level for a scale or level
higher (logical or temporal) and the use of probability distributions or
mechanical throttle to define, from global behavior of large masses
sound, articulation and writing of the details that make them up.
Xenakis was especially busy (in what its formal composition tools
directly address) large sets of notes, with which it has been able to operate as
on "notes" of a species or a new scale.

160 We want to follow a

similar direction to think as a piece of music, locally and

Overall: not only we see the details of a piece emerges its

classic pieces that knowledge or perception of this form is not essential to

appreciation of the work or understanding.
158It is found at H ANSLICK
E. [1854] From the beautiful in music .
159In X ENAKIS
I. [1963] Formalized Music (cI).
160Of course, Xenakis was not indifferent to the question of the overall shape; the "sketch" of Pythoprakta
presented in formal music is clearly shown.

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overall shape throughout the listening (listening to the given object is the succession and
superposition details), but also that understanding and organizing this
overall shape is given by the interaction, listening and writing, several other
local forms (logical links networks, not just separate objects).
We come back to the possibility and the ability to assign meaning to what is
listening, this time considering "local insights" that can change
when faced with other forms that follow or complement. This
understanding constantly redefined course construction of the listener, but
responsibility of the composer to identify opportunities; more precisely, the process
establish the compositional, whether or not they part of the ideas or entities
consciously manipulated by the composer. The question may then arise of
Approaches to this "flow forms" to compose the intelligibility of a room.
Several approaches are possible, but we can use some
information theory elements to identify some issues that need to be
common to all. The attribution of meaning to a sound stream depends, at least, the
ability to detect there the "contrast"

161 to be able to segment the one way

any, and then establish links between well defined elements. Without
segmentation, the object is understood that atom in the etymological sense, inside

161Here we want the term in the broadest possible sense, we consider that the perception of a
change, whatever it is, has already caused some contrast.

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which can not build relationships.

162The joints in the sound flows

therefore the basis of the information it can carry; the links can be established between the
they define segments depend on the nature and arrangement of these points of
mark.
163The message most difficult to pass , that which contains the
According A.Moles
more information is also easier to make about because
it looks like the background noise: the receiver can not be aware of the intentions
the transmitter (no redundancy). This is the message the most fragile : the
lack of redundancy does not predict, so check, which will follow
From the above, the slightest error destroys the precise content of the message. In
Specifically, this message does not spontaneously captures our attention, it lacks that
Moles called aesthetic value . One can not be interested in it (and even more so the
understand) if it is said we priori it must be interesting, and we
need to know to organize (possibly providing effort).

164

The activity of the composer is imbued with these considerations when

considers the possibilities of apprehension and understanding of what he writes. Plus one
message is structured, it is intelligible; more it is redundant, the less original -

162It could be in relationships with other such atoms, but this of course assumes segmentation
prior to a higher level that identifies them.
163MR
, A. [1972], Information Theory and Aesthetic Perception . Recall that for this theory,
OLES
the amount of information objects to the amount of redundancy in a message: a repeated element
indefinitely is the message with the least information; the total lack of redundancy the door
maximum information.
164We are getting closer and by other words, the criticism of Xenakis serial music:
the effort to make sense of this music is too large, this effect depends too much information
Prior to listen, and this reduces the aesthetic value of the work.

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the balance is to be performed again in each room. As a starting point, we
can see that the absence total aesthetic value (according to Moles) can not
rarely happen in the case of a written music: like this exists as
Sound flows only through an interpretation or reading (an active process, so), it
can be properly issue of spontaneous attention. Furthermore, in a situation of

concert, we know (or assume) in advance what will be heard is recognized

like music, and this judgment in some ontological door so the possibility
other judgments, aesthetic.
However, some spontaneity of listening is inevitable, and must be taken into
account by the composer. Indeed, the landmark classes that are active for
recognize "music" and begin understanding, shall not prevent any
If the appearance of "salience" which, combined or alone, provide new
support for the direction of constructions. Moreover, we can not eliminate all
associations that make a listener, and are an inseparable part of its assessment
music: there is no limit to what they can cover, and may vary very
strongly between tapping a song.

165

The object that is hinted must withstand these actions of listening: if

the composer can not impose uncertain associations and links networks
logical to the listener, it may nevertheless provide a consistent set of landmarks,

165We could say that the absence of these variations between reduced interest in tapping the play: it
do revolves more with what remains to him outside. The size and organization of these associations is
discussed in SAIDE. [1991] Musical elaborations (ch.3).

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allowing the work to be entered in several possible ways. We believe that in fact
the composer is limited to this: to offer an object that is as readable as possible,
carrying an intelligible complexity. The idea to musically represent ideas
mathematics fits this compositional strategy: we aim the possibility of
build highly structured works while controlling comprehensibility.
The organization of information in mathematical discourse is our copy
in its "economy" in that it does not seek to eliminate all redundancies, but
build a structure with them.

. Meaning
The discussion on the concept of musical sense naturally raises the possibility
a musical semantics . Of course, one can completely separate sense and do

Semantics in languages, but the use we want to make these ideas

Music is simply to analyze, on one side, that is "provided with direction" and the other,
"This means something." Both ideas often overlap, but are
not confused (they can not be confused in music).
Beyond the senses as we have defined it, a work may designate any
something that is somehow "outside" to the network, it can return to contents
which precede or surround (text or context, for example). Us
associate "musical semantics" this possibility of referrals and designations:
the work has a meaning when one establishes links between at least some of its
parts and a consistent family of content. To build a perceived significance

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other than himself, the composer must share with his listeners not
only the family of content, but how to organize that supports
these links to work. Without this common vocabulary, it can not lead the nominations: the
associations of ideas are made "despite himself" in the interaction between morphology
the piece and the Auditor's memory (although they may coincide with the intention
starting).
We are thinking here, speaking of meaning, as simple judgments
to consider a work "sad" or "happy" or to a work which is
an aspect of nature: the composer can direct these understandings that from
when a reference directory exists for these ideas in music, and that all
listeners this listening base

166. The example for us the most striking access

Direct to the vocabulary of the listener is Richard Strauss: if he could write music that
effectively pretends to be sad (like the last part of Till Eulenspiegel ), it is because
it could be assumed that his audience would have in memory, at least passive,
almost two hundred years of tonal music, with its codes and habits. There is
Interestingly, this manipulation of the tonal system virtuosity appears
when it is no longer the only one whose composers have when already
pushed beyond its limits, and sometimes abandoned. Without this support on a "lifestyle

musical "widely shared meanings depend on other pre Associations

166Of course, a "shortcut" to represent an aspect of nature is to put the exact sound
directly into the work (through registration, for example). But this only bypass

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listening to exist - an explicit relation to a text or context, for example.
We return to this point in the chapter on musical poetics.
Note before proceeding that in which we accept these terms, is
remember the meaning of a work leads to recall at least fragments of this
work; this is not necessarily the case for its significance.

4. Arbitrary decisions

As we have seen through the comments on Lema 1 and a set

convex , the simple representation of a mathematical idea does not exhaust the process
compositional: many operations remain outside the chosen formalization.
This can of course be attributed in part to a kind of "incompleteness" of representation
(Other elements, other compositional operations might have been able to
part), but rather we want to support the idea that true wholeness in
sense that while the composition process would achieve representation is
impossible. We will address the issues raised by
formalization of music to study this passage from the idea to its representation
musical and decisions that surround it.

problem, not eliminate: if there is an act of composition, even this sample is placed in a context
which can change the understanding, away from this direct reference or at least complicate the reference.

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4.1 The ability to model music
When it comes to addressing the practice or music theory through
a formal schema, the adaptation of it about her is crucial. This adaptation must
be expressed by a certain quality in the interpretation of expressions and results
purely formal in musical terms. A perfect formal corpus would be one that addresses
all the music in its results, and the results all indicate a musical reality.
Of course, this description of a theory full and consistently brings us closer to
Model Theory. It just explores the relationship between theory , ranging
as a set of propositions (axioms, theorems ...) in a formal language,
its achievements , understood as sets in which the proposals of the
theory are interpreted. Model theory makes use of the word model which is
not the usual: a model in this sense, is an achievement in which all the
propositions of a theory is true. We will keep in this chapter (as
did in the first one) common usage, which includes a model as a diagram
formal (abstract) assisting in the understanding and prediction of concrete situations. It
This is not, on the contrary, to deny the contributions that can give an approach
model-theoretical points that will be addressed. We will also close to this
point of view, times. But the considerations that will occupy us as
rather aesthetic (or artistic in the sense of the practice) and will not target
necessarily integrate model-specific results (in the usual sense) the corpus of
results specific to the modeled object. For its part, model theory establishes a "

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double reciprocal connection: that of syntax and semantics that of

mathematics with metamathematics. It is their intersection lies the work

the theorist of the models.

167 It is the connection between syntax (in theory) and

semantics (in the passage to the object) that we do not always seek to establish.
In the study of musical representations of mathematical ideas, we are
led to observe, at least at certain levels, operation of a musical work
through a "prism" mathematical, either for analysis or for the composition.
This inevitably constitute the first step towards a mathematical model of this
work, which could be extended to other works, or music. Indeed, addressing a
work in this way is already making predictions and draw conclusions from
abstract results, external to the work, or at least compare these abstract results to
"Facts" music. Note that this is a common situation in many
Science: when trying an experiment in a certain resemblance to a
pure mathematical situation, in some data values at the expense of others whose
Leaving aside to constitute a formal framework capable of thought and comment
predict the results of the experiment. This formal framework is the origin of a
mathematical model for this experiment, and comparisons between structures
musical and mathematics may be at the origin of such a model for music.
However, the most famous mathematical tools (and almost all, actually) have not been
developed in order to model a musical work. Unless we develop a tool

167SINACEUR
H. [1991] Body and Models , Vrin, Paris

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specific mathematical for a work or group of works, the matching
model object must then either be through a judicious choice of the object (often the
case for the built representations) or by transforming interpretations
usual model chosen. It is in all cases to have a semantic
operational, a way to pass objects and ideas to those of the model of the object. This
passage is, as we have seen, in the heart of every musical representation.
However, a fundamental difference is noted between the models of

Natural Sciences and any modeling music. For those, which

is observed is Nature, or one of its aspects. The investigation focuses on objects
independent, somehow

168, Of the observer. Physics research share

principle that "laws" of nature do not change, regardless of the aspects

valued by a theory. Thus a physical theory can be rebutted by
experience or be restricted to a few special cases. In music, this is only
Obviously not. That is if "laws" strictly musical may exist,
they are not immutable, and are not discovered or verified through
scientific experimentation

169. They are composed , and therefore possibly subject to

all kinds of changes, including those suggested by the musical experience.

168We know from quantum mechanics, it is impossible to observe a phenomenon without

edit. We just want to say that this is not a creation of the observer or someone
that it would be equivalent as to the creative possibilities.
169We do not consider here the results of acoustics or psychoacoustics as laws
musical but physical and bio-psychological. Only use music, which requires at least
aesthetic considerations (and therefore unscientific) can be musical.

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This may, indeed, engage with the scientific experiment: development
Technology has always influenced the musical development.
This contrast between the two kinds of model is evident in the fact
semantics: it is necessarily less accurate for a model of the music.
Indeed, it is possible to associate a physical transformation to a formal
concept stock, as the derivative of a function at a speed, music the very idea
speed becomes vague, if we maintain the relationship between a definition of "distance"
traveled and the time to go: these "distances" and this time depend on
perception which is irregular, non-linear. A precise semantics for a model
mathematical music would address not only the perception of how
deterministic (which may, ultimately, be conceived), but also the contents
aesthetic. But these, at least in our culture where music is speech
individual , are inherently non-deterministic. We can not accept
the trivial existence of Universal Music (independent aesthetic content

the artist) to be established by a semantically consisting mathematical model.

This semantics must therefore be "inaccurate" flexible. A rigid description of the
Music by a model which describes the physical world (such as
mathematics) would place in the position of an alternative description, but valid,

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of this world, which also can not take place. In the words of P.
Manoury 170"The role of art is not to propose a precise definition of the world."
Work a musical work by the "prism" of mathematics going on
by the proposal of a mathematical model for this work. The choice of the branch
mathematics (or set of ideas within this branch) to serve
based model already shows how shall establish the interpretations of concepts
abstract in music data. It effectively defines a network of "preferences"
within mathematics: the importance of multiplication, for example, is
if we treat different topology or Arithmetic, and interpretation of this
operation can not be the same in a topological model in a model
arithmetic. It can also not be represented in one of these models. This
reinforces the impossibility (at least problematic) strict consistency of these
models: the operation is the same in both models (the importance it gets there
does not affect its definition), a consistent semantic always interpret the
same way. Once selected the model base, which is thus a refinement,
accuracy of the mathematical point of view adopted from the beginning, all the
interpretations are constructed from a selection of aspects of the work (or
music) that will be addressed by the model. It may be a level of musical discourse
a time scale, articulation between different levels or scales of these, or
yet the relationship of a work with other works or other disciplines that

170MR
P. [1991] Borges points of view , in Six Musicians Quest Author , Pro Musica,
ANOURY

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music (own mathematical included). It will be difficult for many of these
aspects simultaneously: a model is constructed indeed for a particular situation,
may or may not be generalized or will be integrated with models built for
other situations. The difference between a model of music and
scientific modeling appears here again: Mathematical models of
physical world are articulated and integrated at multiple scales (time and space)
and this through experimentation and observation. One can, for example,
address the movement of stars in a galaxy with very mathematical tools
similar to those of the kinetic theory of gases. In music such integration can
be discovered . It establishes that a decision of the musician. The organization of
all time scales of a work by the same "formula" is more
the exception than the rule171. Of course, the idea persists longer will it be possible
one day fully describe the physical world at all scales simultaneously,
by a deterministic model. But the natural sciences, the unity of purpose, aim
rather the integration of their models to keep them fully independent.
Finally, each interpretation of an object or an abstract property is to
Through the identification, in the modeled work object or musical properties
they are structurally similar. It is able to operate with these objects and
properties in work in the same way as in the model, or in a manner

Isle-ls-Villenoy

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close enough, and thus take the model as a tool for manipulation of these
musical entities. We stated above, it is during these interpretations
comes crucially, creative musician. Indeed, it is he who sets
musical manipulations, their relevance and applicability: the structural similarity and
operational between musical and mathematical objects depends on these definitions.
Mathematical manipulations in the model induces then a particular set
musical manipulations among those that may occur during the
composition or analysis. This completes the construction of a mathematical model of a
work (or music), which is formed by a set of mathematical ideas to its
base, one aspect of the work (or music) it addresses, and a way to associate
abstract operations of concrete operations (interpretation). We can say
a musical representation of a mathematical idea is a set of objects,
relationships or own structures at the musical discourse or temporal scale
tackled by a model which is based this idea, this set of operations is provided
and manipulations induced by this model.

4.2 The distance between object model

In modeling, modeled object and the formal framework as a basis to
preexisting model, separate, establishment of it. For the establishment of a

171In particular we believe in the work of K. Stockhausen, whose appearance integrator across all
time scales has been repeatedly analyzed. See eg R
IgoniM. [1998] Stockhausen ... a
spacecraft launched toward the sky , Millennium III Ed., Rouen.

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mathematical model of the music, the situation is no different: we
also observed in the first chapter that the distinction and distance between
mathematics and music are essential to their reconciliation, so are more

let alone the definition of a model. If music and mathematics precede

model and are independent, it can be seen as a way
operational manage the distance between them. Indeed, the multiplicity of choices to make
during its construction allows placing this distance, and sometimes minimize, if
is wanted. The various comparisons between the structure and the theory of the subject
(The work modeled, or music in general), and their respective sub-structures,
indicate "anchor points" on each side, as it were, for the most effective
interpretations for the passages between abstract and concrete.
From the functional point of view, a model is then a kind of formal language
describes the modeled object, which bears in itself the characteristics of the object on which
will be made abstract and concrete manipulation. This "language" manages the distance
between the abstract (himself) and concrete (music) by the content of its statements. A
Compared with the point of view of the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

172, L.

Wittgenstein, on the relationship between language and the world to which he refers us
will shed light on the distance between the music and its mathematical model, as
we understand it. In the Tractatus , considered the language is a formal language (logical)
in the strict sense: it consists of symbols devoid of meaning and denotation

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intrinsic, which revolve around a well-defined syntax. Its goal is accuracy, "it
that can be said in general, can be said clearly "(Preface). A difference
important is established between words (specifically, with the language) and show (without this
language), "which can not be shown can not be said "(4.1212). This language contains
So the possibilities of precise knowledge of the world, which are identified by the world
himself: "The limits of my language mean the limits of my world "(5.6).
Wittgenstein asserts, however, the existence of proposals out of his formal language, and
an "off-world" on which nothing can be said (which therefore can not know
precisely): "It is the peculiar characteristic mark of logical propositions

their truth can be recognized in one symbol, and this fact contains in itself all
philosophy of logic. Thus, it is also one of the most important facts that the truth
or falsity of the non-logical propositions can not be recognized in the
one proposal. "(6113); "There is certainly the ineffable. This shows , the
Mystique. "(6522). As part of a mathematical modeling of the music, we
initially have a formal language of mathematics. The "world"
it refers to here is the music, or more precisely those aspects of it that
models, with which a comparison (conducted by the musician) established similarities
structural. The limitations of this language are so much those of this world will be found
no more than formal properties (those that language could express) in objects
musical than mathematical objects which they are interpreting, and by the

172Originally published in 1921. We follow the German-Portuguese bilingual edition, Edusp, So Paulo,

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very construction of the model. Nevertheless, precisely fitted interpreting
abstract concepts in music, we can make proposals non-logical
(From the point of view of language considered here), in the sense that it is impossible to recognize
their truth or falsity within the formal language alone. Proposals for
where such a judgment necessarily involves evaluating properties musical
(Thus not mathematics) may be set out in the formal language (in
altering the functions of meaning to signs, for example), but they show
beyond its borders. This indicates that the world described (specifically) by this language
may be related , but it is probably not convex : it does not always contain
a "straight line" drawn between two of its points

173.

The Tractatus ends with the famous aphorism "about what one can not speak,
one must be silent "(7). We believe it is necessary to understand that here on what we do can
say anything specific, we should not try to say something specific: the result
would be nonsense. This, of course, from the point of view of the book, for which a
proposal is interesting (possible even) for knowledge if it is
says. In the case of a model of the music, two forms of knowledge is

out: that of the model (mathematical) and that of the object (musical). Can therefore
do not be silent about what we can not say anything specific for any of this knowledge ,
the result which can be assimilated by the other. Music is obviously not the language

1994. The following quotations of this text are followed by the number of the aphorism where they are.
173We also believe that this non-convexity is the general case: what is beyond the limits of a
language may be shown from the inside of this language, proposals to incomplete meaning or

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its model as the world is the formal language of logic, according to Wittgenstein.
It is, at most, a part of this world

174And the language of his model, with its

interpretations in this small part of the world, is not strictly formal. Topic
who thinks and represents music through a mathematical model is a
position contrary to that of the subject Wittgenstein who "do not belong to the world, but
is a limit of the world "(5632). It is the world of music, at least through the
changes his perception will cause, and its limits are much broader than those of
musical world. In addition, "the world is beyond my control," says
Wittgenstein (6373), but the music is fundamentally dependent on the will of the
musician.
The distance between the music and the model appears to us as something
dynamics of thing, as opposed to the fixed distance between the world and logical language:
"In logic, process and outcome are equivalent. (So no surprise) "(6.1261).
This distance is divided internally by the opposition between propositions "logical" and
"Not logical" contained within the model, incompleteness interpretations,
the dependence game and independence between modeled musical aspects and those
that the model does not address. The will of the musician not only changes the music
itself, but also the meaning of mathematical ideas in the model:
model the music is much interference on music materials on

misinterpretation, for example, which generate successive approximation of a point "surrounded" by the world
that describes the language, but do not own.

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employed mathematical tools. A compositional and analytical process that arises from a
mathematical model, or generates a dynamically operates in the
possible structural identifications between music and mathematics. The result, by his
static characteristics

175, Can only be remarkably different from the process.

4.3 Decisions to make to model

We saw in the first chapter that any rapprochement between music and
mathematics through external choice thereto. In the particular case of
the establishment of a mathematical model of the music, the independence of these choices
is underlined by the abstract possibilities of the theory and structural wealth
the object. The founding act of the possibility of such a model is likely to want to
use of pure mathematics. By itself, it already marks the arbitrariness of modeling:
this decision naturally can not be dictated from within the practice
mathematician or musician practice. Without taking into account the will
Initial, we would be led to consider an immanent and necessary link between the two
practices and thoughts. But even in this configuration, the active judgment
musician, and, accordingly, a network of arbitrary decision, is inevitably

174But rather we would defend the idea that only part of the music in the world described by
logic.
175A musical work and analysis are not static all perspective - their interpretations
and the influences they may exercise demonstrated - but fix , once completed, these
reconciliations and structural identification.

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present in modeling

176: In the choice of mathematical ideas that will serve as

based model, and those that will abstract object manipulation

concrete (musical); Also in the selection or the composition of the special features
this object to be manipulated; in selecting manipulations effectively
carried out finally that rarely deplete all all manipulations
possible 177.
A difference should highlight here between modeling
music by mathematics and another by physics. We have compared a
mathematical model of music with that of physics: the opposition is now
between two different models (built on different theories) for the organization
musical. Some similarity between the two is inevitable, given the context
theory in which we treat the physics itself, which is mathematical. Thus
a reconciliation between physics and music will certainly make use of tools
mathematics, but applied directly to the physical only . Relationships
will be established in such a model, between musical objects and physical facts, not
"Facts" of mathematical ideas. Freedom in associations is then
immediately distinct from that found in a mathematical model:

176Unless considered immanent link the strict inclusion of music in Mathematics:

if this one is a proper part of them, the idea of modeling is meaningless. This is the
perspective implied by J
T. [2001] Objects Found Mathematics . The composer
OHNSON
supports the idea of a music objective , as opposed to music "happens subjectively and ideas
personal feelings. " However, we believe that the results still bear traces of decisions
arbitrary, non-mathematical, in particular as regards the arrangement of notes in time and
in height (as the breaks in the catalog Agreements and heights chosen for Rational Melody
No. 14 ).
177The decision to use all theoretically possible manipulations is also arbitrary.

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sound phenomena are subject to the restrictions of the physical world. Thus, when
struck a chord, and that vibrates its half, we always get what we
call an octave. Here arises the problem of interpretation in the model, and
the necessary distinction between mathematics and physics in this context we have
identify a natural phenomenon, mechanical, musical phenomenon. If this

identification may seem natural, and lead to an identification of the octave with the
Report mathematical February to January, it's probably because we keep this in
mind the shared rope image into two equal parts. But the visual relationship between
distances, which can be established through this rope and disappears when the octave is obtained
singing, or a wind instrument. The physical relationship between the frequencies of
sounds obtained is perhaps still the same, but we can not say that a relationship
purely mathematical or to the origin of the understanding of the played musical interval
or sung, or at least not necessarily proportional relationship that between
them the numbers 2 and 1. We can not accurately measure and compare these frequencies
only with instruments for physical experimentation, so extra-musical and
extra-mathematics, then to get the ratio of 2 to 1. A comparison between the
sung notes and those produced by a stringed instrument for indirect
the image of the division by two, as is arbitrary: it presupposes similarity
(Physical and / or aesthetic) between the production of sound by voice and by a rope
justify the passage of a proportion of one instrument to another. Thus music is
is always accompanied by a physical fact, but its interpretation is not given a

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priori in the fact itself. In our culture, a mathematical interpretation
is required because all our modeling of the physical world is mathematical. Us
find again the importance of a prior commitment to use mathematics
as a tool for knowledge of the world: the interpretation of an octave as the ratio
between two numbers, the combination of a sound spectrum to the Fourier transforms of
periodic function is only possible because we seek a priori a
mathematical consistency in physical phenomena we observe. In this
context, identifying the association (required) is a musical with a physical done
association with a mathematical idea would affirm that the organization of the world
physical self is necessarily mathematical

178.

This separation between these two models of music does not,

However, using the mathematical understanding of sound phenomena (physical)

as part of a mathematical model, in particular to define the interpretation
musical abstract manipulations. Thus, digital manipulations can
be interpreted, for example, as manipulations on frequencies expressed by
real numbers, the derivative of a function as the stiffness of an attack. The model
physics can then offer musical performances for a few relationships
mathematics it fits between model and object, as part of the network of associations
not mathematics that make this passage from the abstract to the concrete. Note that the

178Such a claim is metaphysical, and it is not within the limits of this work to propose
the discussion. Simply specify that this is not our view: we believe that this statement

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physics, and the relationship of sound phenomena in physical-mathematical model of
world and becomes part of the arbitrariness in the purely mathematical model: the
choice to make use of these relationships above operations and manipulations
ready model, motivation is therefore outside any formal constraint.
The intervention of the musician on the distance between music and mathematics while door
Also on weight (possibly zero) that must have for his model and effectiveness
its analysis or composition operations, the distance between music and physics.
Specifically, this means evaluating the distance and differences between his and
music , or even between hearing and listening . It is interesting to note that considerations
these differences will often arise in music, prompted by different approaches
the sound phenomenon and its potential significance. This simply inserts
more mathematical modeling of music in all collisions
possible theoretical (and valid) its organization or understanding.

4.4 Cross the distance between object model

If a model can serve as a tool for manipulation of a concrete situation through
an abstract framework, it is because it acts on the separation between these two poles, as in
providing a cover by comparison and structural identification. The

arbitrary decisions accompanying the construction of a mathematical model of the

music and give shape to the distance between these two disciplines. These

is reducing as much as the physical reality of mathematics. For a discussion of the evolution of

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remain separate, but interpretations and established links make this distance
any more. It becomes "populated", so to speak, ideas and associations
non-musical and not mathematics which alter the perception and understanding.
We have seen that distance, and deployment time is needed to
approximation of mathematics and music. We can refine this
statement, adding that its deployment to independent directions
it separates disciplines is essential to a reconciliation that seeks to be
operational (as one who seeks to form a model). Without this independence,
Distance is "empty" and impassable: cross effectively means it
assign a content expressive , which just creates the possibility of linking between them
structural characteristics and interpret the non-musical (here purely formal) in the
musical 179.
This content, as arbitrarily assigned by the musician, is it possible to
know that distance, to assess the similarities and contrasts that
interpretations highlight. However, the knowledge and control of the distance between
an object and its model are what can make sense of this: a model all
Points identical to its object is not a model itself (it would be a
also great card and said that the same ground that it represents). Differences and
similarities not only allow to obtain operational simplifications and

these ideas in physics, see EA B

, op. cit.
URTT
179Note that this expression can take many forms, depending on the model which implies:
mathematical expression, metaphysical, aesthetic or religious.

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significant gains on interpretive aspects covered by the model (and
selected from those present during its construction in the subject), but
Also, and here again affirms the difference with a model of the physical world, they
allow to enrich the musical forms and relationships that do not exist before the
modeling. Using a template is always address only part of the object
modeled. In the case of music, this portion is changed by the modeling: the
reduction of a musical situation (potentially an inexhaustible complexity by
formal means) the only items that will be formalized generates new elements,
she grow to its interior the modeled part of the music. The distance between
mathematics and music, when so invested with creative possibilities
music becomes the very relationship between the two disciplines: cross is a process
art , either by calling or by analyzing, with what it implies judgments
aesthetic, philosophical or scientific. These judgments are also present
regardless of the distance to travel between ideas or structures in the relationship
model. The musical object on which it operates through abstractions
Mathematics may be structurally very similar to that abstraction, or have
with it a common trait: the transition is always an operation
a musical mathematical operation, and this passage is nontrivial.
Note that this view excludes the possibility of discoveries in the
field of music, at least through a model. In physics, an experiment
suggested by the mathematical model strengthens or dismantled: it acts on the model.

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In music, follow the suggestion of the model leads to create new materials and

new musical relationships: it also acts on the object. One can find in
because physical experimentation objectively reveals the physical properties of
world (as the model can address). She can not reveal the properties
music of the world because they are subjective and depend on appreciations
aesthetic. You can discover the sound properties (they are physical), but they
become musical that at their job. In the words of H. Vaggione

180,

"The musical sound (...) is always what happens after a composition of act."
In the instrumental field (acoustic or electronic), for example, new
stamps arise from experimentation (with new game modes or
new instruments, for example): they are purely aural discoveries, which
may subsequently be used musically

181. A simple "catalog" of

stamps or sounds can not be a musical work. Also for analysis and
representations found, we will not talk about discovery is changing the
model, establishing in theory and in its transition to new concrete
relationships or interpretations, it is possible to emerge something new
in a room already over. So here the model is modified or enriched, it is not

180VAGGIONE
H. [2000] Musical Composition and IT Resources .
181A note must be made about improvisation, understood as composition in real time .
When the experiment is possible in an improvisation, and to discover new
sound properties simultaneously with the composition, it is only by means of a decision
compositional beforehand that controls and limits. Composer in real time requires knowledge
deep sound and musical possibilities of the instruments used, so that a "discovery"
Sound is predictable in many ways, and is always preceded by a judgment on its relevance
time work where it should fit. If improvisation makes use of experimentation, she said associates

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only objective properties of the analyzed work, but also, and above all,
by what the subjective perception of the analyst adds, that in no way is there to
the origin. This lays as equivalent, at least from the point of view of efficiency
or a model the possible correction the analysis (and a fortiori interpretations)
seeking to approach the intentions of the composer and those who seek
no. All are subject to the arbitrary aesthetic decisions that their under
predicate, subject to change and revaluations

182.

4.5 An irreducible distance

Many times, the musical structures that we approach by modeling
mathematics appear to us as extremely wealthy formally, and very
close to the mathematics used in the model. It is tempting to say, in these cases,
that there is between music and mathematics more than a metaphorical relationship,
an independent association of any model between the two. While recognizing the
possibility of existence of such a link 183, We believe it is important to consider
its potential consequences. Could it indicate the closest works
mathematics than others? Would it be the measure of a certain "correction"
mathematics of the work? In many ways, mathematics is a

immediate aesthetic content, and a musical object thus obtained is not a discovery, but the
result of an act of composition.
182We believe such different interpretations "correct" Baroque music who have seen
e century.
day throughout the twentieth
183We will not be placing, however, the only formal level, as we stated in the first
chapter.

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theoretical corpus consist "ideal" for the universality and immutability of its statements.
And bring a piece of this formal structure could lead us to judge
by purely mathematical properties rather than musical. We must then
also ask if such properties when they are perceived in a room, not
not just the strength of the model used to address it. Note first that
Mathematical modeling is needed to perceive: the comparison between
structures of musical origin (audio or written) and mathematical structures
the fact arise. But we have seen that the arbitrary is always present in the passage
a mathematical operation on a musical operation, regardless of the
structural differences or similarities between ideas and objects put in contact. There
Compared to other mathematical entities may arise other properties
formal or even inconsistencies. Moreover, other comparisons (which bring into
relationship of the different elements) are often possible with the same mathematical idea.

Any property of a work has a musical component that can not be completely
ruled out and is interference on the "purity" of the relationship of the work to another
discipline as music. So we can not speak of "correction" in mathematics
music without a significant reduction in the scope of this concept.
The distance between music and mathematics, though it may seem to decrease with
A particularly consisting model is irreducible and beyond a certain
Limit: one of the choices for modeling, arbitrary decisions (who can not
deduct formal operations). Ultimately, all music is also

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remote mathematical ones than the others, it may be no more music
"Scientific" or more "natural" than another. More contact between a workpiece and a
mathematical formalism, in the form of suggestions or formal influences,
does not indicate more proximity between this piece and mathematics. At most
can we talk about the "success" of a particular model, if it is reasonably free
mathematical contradictions, or if it is rich in interpretations that propose
new musical relationships, for example. Obviously, this success can not be measured in
turn, as compared to the intentions of the composer or the analyst models: the
Quality is always sought musical first. There or a model is
formally correct in its interpretations, another may be more musically
fertile, accepting larger differences between musical objects and
mathematics. Some "mistakes" Mathematics is then justified in a
modeling of music as "mistakes" counterpoint can find
place in a room. Again, the modeling process for the
composition differs from that for the analysis. The composer dynamically sets
as well as their rules ruptures, the analyst must accept the exception to a rule
he proposes for a work, or change the rule. On the other hand, an analysis
can be quite simply from general rules and goings of a musical use
common, like, learned to conservatories, tonal harmony or

serial contrapuntal manipulation, while a musical work, as simple as

it can not be born of those rules alone "teaching". But analyst and composer

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interpret purely formal rules musically relevant rules when
use a mathematical model, and this firmly maintains the separation between
mathematics and music, which can be reached only at the cost of choice came from
Outside these two disciplines.

4.6 The need for arbitrary decisions

We have established throughout this chapter some conditions for the
construction of a mathematical model of a musical work, or an aspect of
music. Against arbitrariness of several decisions to make in this sense, the question
could arise if such a construction is valid if the formal approach of
musical phenomena should not be done differently (logic or
philosophy, for example). Indeed, if the connection between mathematics and music
is limited, and there is no purely mathematical operation in music, what is the
Depending on the choices of the analyst or composer trying to establish a connection between these
disciplines? This question leads us to consider what distinguishes the work of these
musicians a fully technical and formal procedure. To answer this, we must
then turn to the non-linear and interactive aspects of performance production
musical or musician.
The internal organization of the work allows the listener and analyst
explore it as "relief" they perceive it. A starting point and a method
to monitor its progress (time or discursive) are sufficient to develop a
interpretive trail of this work. The multiplicity of possible interpretations indicated

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not only the richness of this structure, but also a sort of resistance
the work to a definitive interpretation, which would exhaust the expressive resources. This is
this introjection of the work that the composer develops: the "reality" is internal
the more stable and capable of explorations it is self-consistent, what is
184. The composition is thus envisaged the creation or

Free intrinsic contradictions

organizing a musical world in some way separated from the "real" world (which,
fact, contain), in that the constraints are different for the exploration and
understanding of each of them (and not necessarily higher for the music world
contained in the "real" world). This creation (the process and its result) is responsible
possibilities of apprehension of the work by an auditor or an interpreter (also
listener, as the composer himself). Freud compares this creative act for the
literature, the play of a child

185:

[E] ach child playing (...) creates a cleaner world, or, to speak more
Rather, he arranges things in his world after a new order,
his convenience. It would be wrong to think as he does not take this world
seriously; on the contrary, he takes his game very seriously, it commits to
large quantities of affect. The opposite of play is not serious, but ...
reality. (...) The creative writer does the same so that the child
plays; he created a fantasy world that he takes very seriously (...) while
clearly separating it from reality.

184For literature, this issue is addressed by T

TolkienJRR [1964] On Fairy-Stories . See also
H. VAGGIONE
[2001] Some Ontological Remarks ... , for the relationship between substance and reality within
of a musical work.
185FREUD
S. [1908 e ] Das Dichter und das phantasieren ( The literary creator and fantasy ).

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The comparison extends to music: the composer creates a world to be
explored by the hearing. If the consistency of the world depends on its internal coherence,
Mathematical modeling can strengthen it, and can then allow a wide variety

exploration (interpretations, analyzes ...). Arbitrary decisions accompanying

this modeling are of the same nature as those that guide the music listening: they
reveal the expressiveness of the composer or performer, they are the expression
notions of coherence and musical depth of these and the listener. Judge and
make independent choices of a deterministic formal system is essential for
communication through music. The transition from a discipline other than mathematics
(Such as painting, sculpture, literature ...) to the field of music would require
also independent decisions of his theoretical framework. The challenge of modeling is
always similar: a distance between "model" and "purpose" is to cross, one way
which is given in one or the other, but built in the collection (and
apperception) of the relationship between them has one who crosses.

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II - G

EOMETRISATION

Take care of the senses and the sounds Will take care of Themselves.
- Lewis Carroll, Alice in Wonderland

In this chapter, we will use a geometric vision of the concept of

form as it is configured from the appearance, thinking mathematician of
non-Euclidean geometries. This is to consider the form rather than as a

something intrinsic to an object, but rather dependent insertion into a context.

Specifically, we will, like mathematicians, geometry as a
work not on objects but operations on objects; accordingly, the
form (geometric) be loosed objects in themselves and depend on these operations. Point
of view of music, so let us also be interested in operations, and
properties defined through operations; and we will examine to what extent it
can untie the form (music) of the objects that suggest to take
a musical space as a formal object.
We want with this we look more directly on manipulations
(Ideas and material) that may occur during a compositional process,
which may aim to representations of mathematical ideas. Again, it is the
of maths as a conceptual benchmark, alongside reflections

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musical, which will be the focus of our theoretical elaborations. Our objective remains
As always thought to be a framework in which to evolve with precision, rather
a comprehensive and rigorous formalism; the accuracy of formalization, when it
is present, is not provided a less important part of the consistency of this
frame.

1. Figure and forms

The distinction between figure and form is crucial in geometry: it is what

allows separation between the operation and that on which we operate. This complete separation
the independence of geometric reasoning in relation to the senses, and thus moves
center of the geometry of the study of objects ("inherited" the concrete world) to the study of
areas where objects are located.
This is precisely what we want to transpose musical vocabulary we
so we will look at some aspects of these notions of mathematical side
then look for their musical relevance.

1.1 Non-Euclidean geometries

The origins of geometry

186We find as the science of measurement

land (hence its name), completely linked to material objects. But very

186The following historical overview is intentionally brief. We refer once again to the work of
SZABO
, A. [1977], The Beginnings of Greek mathematics , but also to S
, M. (org.) [1989]
ERRES
Historical background of science , and
G G.-G. [1999] Thought of space .
RANGER

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quickly the concept of geometry will move to a more abstract discipline, which
give birth later to the Elements of Euclid, which deals with certain figures
"Ideal". These figures are certainly always directly inspired by the experience
sensory, measurement and proportions, but they are increasingly taken "
itself "gradually loosened material constraints to be studied only
for what to call their shape . This set of properties associated with an object
but in a way, transcend matter, and constitute a kind of
abstract generalization, will be placed increasingly at the center of attention
geometry.
But the link with the perception remained quite strong during a period very
long: the geometry objects were much abstract and studied for themselves, but
always supported by intuition, by physical objects that were
(Platonic) imperfect representations. We can say that it stands Euclid
the first of a supremacy of intuition on reasoning, striving to
and axiomatically formally demonstrate results that are obvious. But it is
there, from our perspective, a project that confirms this "geometric intuition" rather
it renews: validation no longer dependent on direction, but it confirms the
widely

187; Euclid does not care to show (or even study) which, in

itself is wrong. In fact, when it comes to Euclidean geometry , we are not talking

187In terms of the geometry and the objects at that time. This investigation rational has also
always used to warn against the inaccuracies of the senses in general - we do not see necessarily
things as they are (in several senses of that word, throughout the history of philosophy). To

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only theorems actually demonstrated in the elements , or five
axioms employed there, but we also sub-along very often
adequacy of this geometry to our sensory experience, our inclusion in
space.
We can say that this relationship is manifested through the history of geometry
in the attachment of the notion of form to a face , or more precisely in the idea
that the geometry objects are in direct correspondence with figures (even
they are these figures)

188. It was not until the "discovery" of non geometries

Euclidean, and in particular of projective geometry, to be able to dissociate and form

figure. Indeed, if we can build a consistent geometry on
transformations do not keep figures (as the projection), and if you put in
highlight properties that remain unchanged by these transformations, we must
rethink the subject of same study, and the idea of shape. This can not be the figure, which was
until this visual support to geometric reasoning, which loses much of its
force for the invariance operation . This is what real change
paradigm that is reflected in the words of F. Klein: "projective geometry took
birth than when one is accustomed to consider as completely identical to
primitive figure and all those who can deduct in projection, and state the

classical geometry, we can say that it is usually similar to the assertion that there was
actually a distance (platonic) between object and idea.
188Even if they are never exactly representable: it is the uniqueness of this correspondence
which is crucial here - a triangle always has the air of a triangle, there can be no doubt that this is not
no hyperbole. This geometry remains the science of measurement on a "field", admittedly abstract
but whose properties are those of space as we know it with our senses.

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projective properties in order to highlight their position vis--vis independence
changes made by the projection.

189

Fig.16: an ellipse and a parabola have, in projective geometry, the same shape.
When this is defined as an ellipse or as a pair of straight
parallel has more the appearance that we are used, without this leading to
contradiction, we must broaden our concept of form and separate from the appearance of
objects: that "is" a pair of parallel or ellipse will well be the following
certain rules relational and functional, which is maintained through some
operations, rather than what can be represented in a figure an example of respect
these rules. These operations actually define a context in which the figures are placed, and
in turn defines how to approach these figures: this context is the space where they are
listed, and each well defined space can cause a different geometry.
As discipline, the geometry ceases gradually being the study of objects and
their shape (intrinsic) to become studying this surrounding space and
different forms of spatiality
as support for the form

190. This implies a change in the role of intuition

191If the two figures above seem to indicate

a difference in form is because we look a Euclidean eye (they have the

189Quoted byRANGER
G
G.-G. [1999, p.71] Thought of space (our emphasis).
190On this concept, cf. yet G RANGER
G.-G. [1999].

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same form in projective geometry, but are in fact distinct forms in the
Euclidean geometry). It is this habit that must get rid of, and the task is
not least the notion of figures distinct or similar makes sense to us
according to a Euclidean model. The form, as we must consider in order to speak of
different geometries, must be independent of any figure: these are the figures

that somehow "will" shape of the geometric context of space in

which they are taken. In other words: a figure has no form in itself, it has the
given shape by the geometry in which we see, for the use that
fact192.

1.2 Musical figures and musical contexts

This is of course in a musical context that we want to project these
ideas: we aim to achieve as a way of speaking of form in music (several
scales) highlighting its operational aspects, which tend to some independence
objects. The idea is again that such an approach can lead to more
precision in the treatment of this subject; In particular, we believe that over the concept of
shape will be removed from material constraints (objects

193 sound or music in

191This is also what is apparent from the form definition given by GRANGER
G.-G. [1994] Forms,
Operations, Objects , which we quoted in the first chapter.
192We are getting closer and the relationship between words and their meaning proposed
by W L.
ITTGENSTEIN
[1935] The Blue Book and brown notebook . Again, we will take this idea for music and
a "sense" musical.
193We want in this section, as in almost all this work, keep an approach
somehow naive of "object" (especially if it is equipped with the "musical" adjectives "sound")
without making the text definitions certainly philosophically more accurate and complete, but less
nimbly manipulated. We just take it as a 'grammatical' class: what we

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this case), the more it will be discussed as a part of which is a direction
music (we still see that the limits appear to independence). This
Role of the form (local and global) in intelligibility and expressiveness of a work we
particularly interested.

194

. Figure noted
We can, in a certain light, compare the musical work done with our
traditional notation to that made with the figures in geometry, as we quoted
above. Indeed, the rating is supposed to represent the musical objects and allow them
indirect manipulation. But it also allows for a better understanding
these objects, even though it still shortcomings and inaccuracies: it can be, for
example, easier to recognize a melodic demotion or reversal of a

complex agreement in writing that listening. Thus, we find the concept of operations on a
object that are inspired by the possible operations on its representation (and sometimes limited
thereto). In addition, the rating is being established as a simplification of its
instrumental to a few selected characteristics, it excludes certain manipulations:

refers, that is manipulated, which is what we work; we will clarify further the distinction between
sound and music that we will use. This position is also consistent with the importance
we want to give to the study of operational aspects in the process, although they may vary
their objects.
Further discussion of this definition is proposed in the work of V
, A. [2002]
ILLA
[2003], and SOATUU
DIASA. [2005].
194We will return when we discuss the modular and composed spaces.

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those that remain confirm the "intuitive" Input music

195, As the

Euclidean geometry confirms the apprehension of space.

We see thus that there is risk of identifying the subject of study and work
this is on the partition

196: It could be limited to the knowledge that gives

writing our object. It is precisely the incompleteness of the notation that reminds us
the existence of other functions and properties, excluded from the partition, which is attached to
noted.197 Not only they are the basis of the change in the rating, they
also used to capture the relationships between them can maintain different
writings (eg at different scales).
If we can call a musical figure is obviously not
only what is on a partition, the two things could at one time be
least conceptually separated today (a musical figure could be
"Sufficiently good" shown in the score). But we must consider what is
as shown , and which could be other ways, as the real object on which
the job is done. In fact, we already have a grasp of what can become a
musical material before writing, and this apprehension is not fully

195
it was at the
at least;this
butreport
we could
argue athat,
after
scoring
wellAsestablished
andtime,
expanded,
continues
longeven
time:
it will
probably be the twentieth e
century concrete music for failing to note a musical idea yet clear,
understandable.
196That is if it is always a risk, properly speaking: the music has been a material
Theoretical enough to accept this type of approach - we think including motets
over forty voices of the early Renaissance and musica mundana the Quadrivium (although it
predated our rating as we know it). One could say, a radical perspective
pragmatic, that the object works a composer who made a partition is that this partition
even (and therefore the figures around) - but that would be to deny any reference to an instrumental gesture.

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covered with writing

198. As we said in the first chapter, the idea

writing is related to proofreading, and thus a symbolic device that allows

operative approach (particularly articulate phrasal manipulation and
paradigmatic); but any symbolization imposes a distance between the symbol and
it achieves indirectly symbolic device relies, by definition,
on a level sub-symbolic that it can not exhaust.

199 It is not a question here of a

any "resistance" of the object symbolization, but simply because a

formalization (and any notation) focuses on some aspects of this
it addresses at the expense of others. We can establish different
symbolic approaches a set of objects, adapted to the needs or point
different view, and it is the presence of a common sub-symbolic level that binds
all.

200
It is precisely this sub-symbolic level that we would like to place

musical figures, then the distinction between figure and form that we

197Incidentally, this underlines that, although a full notation was possible, it would not
necessarily useful.
198We believe, for example, the classic commentary on Wittgenstein sound of a clarinet, we
know it without being able to describe or describe this knowledge. (Cf. W ITTGENSTEIN
L. [1949]
Philosophical Investigations , aph.78)
199The term "sub-symbolic" gets different meanings depending on the discipline that employs; we take it here
simply indicate which is not directly manipulated and which exceeds or does not exhaust, in
sense, a symbolization. A very thorough discussion is in V
H. [2006], Symbols
AGGIONE
signals, music operations .
200See the comments of H. Vaggione during maintenance "Schoenberg-Wittgenstein ', OLOMOS
in S , MR.,
SOULEZ
, A. & V AGGIONE
H. [2003], Formel-Informal: music-philosophy . We could
question the uniqueness of this level: do we always speak of the same sub-symbolic when it "guesses"
symbolisations behind different? Can we accurately communicate this substrate? Reply
adequately to these questions beyond the scope of this work; we adopt the view that it is
possible, at least enough to adapt his vocabulary to communicate on this substrate
as if it were unique.

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did for geometry: equipped with a spatial intuition, we built a
geometrical figures (and, originally, shapes) that attaches to this intuition,
and may later deviate without loss of consistency between the very figure of its
invariance under specific operations; similarly, equipped with an "intuition
Musical "(which we could then take as the apprehension of this level subsymbolic) we would build a writing that was suited him, and who could depart
apprehension of the original, for example by suggesting new materials, separating
and the object manipulation it undergoes and its integration in a context
particular. However, such a project can succeed completely: even if a write
adapted to this "musical intuition" is possible (that is also the reason for a
writing), the separation between the object and its manipulations or context is only ever
partial music. Indeed, if one can distinguish easily figure and fitness
mathematics is also because studied and manipulated object is always abstract
physically absent: it can be represented by one or more figures, it has
properties that give it its shape and can be written without using the figure. In
music, objects have a concrete existence, phenomenal: one can not help
therefore assign internal properties, intrinsic (specific characteristics
which apply to perception). Additionally, their definition (and their manipulation)
often depends on aesthetic judgments, it can vary; it is then sometimes
impossible to write or describe an object without presenting himself

201.

201To changes in the definition of the object are added here the case where the object is defined so

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We can say that a sound object is always in a context from

when it is perceived: our categories of apprehension are never neutral, they submean analysis of this object operations, the interpretation of a phenomenon as a
particular vocabulary; the same identity of an object, the separation of which can
surround, is subject to change, since it can "lose" a sound object in a
particular environment

202. When we invest in our listening a set of

sounds, we insert thereby in a context we already impose on it a family

operations (and we therefore exclude others). Thus, it is inevitable to consider
the properties of a sound object that are external to musical contexts where it can
meet, it is nonetheless essential to take into account the operations
used to enter these properties.
We nevertheless maintain a distinction between what is inserting
in a musical context and what is somewhat independent of the insertion.
This is possible (and useful) if we take the idea of a figure associated with
notation or in writing. As we noted earlier, geometry proposes
to separate the form of one of his presentations in a figure to consider it rather
as a family of invariants according to some operations, and this leads to study
the space that define these operations, which can find objects. Taking
musical figure as something that is noticed, we can see how our

overwhelming sub-symbolic, as when taking its concrete or direct work on

waveform.

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form of idea is related to this notation, and start to separate; Moreover, we can
and begin to define what can be a musical space from doing operations
only on written material (and then consider more situations
abstract). This approach allows us to consider the properties of the figure itself,
internal relationships that composes such as rating or write: Figure
thus truly taken as a "drawing", like arcs in
Poincar half-plane, which are or are not "straight" in this space, though still

identified visually (without relation to their function or properties in

the space in question) as arcs. By combining the figure to a level
only symbolic, it is easier to separate both its form (use
that in fact) and the object it shows (once established, the figure is fixed and has
its own attributes).
to. illustration: as a melodic line
Identifying we often make the shape concept to figure
denoted appears in a simple example built with operations on intervals:
we usually think of as having the same shape melodic lines
are graphically superimposed by translation or by symmetry with respect to a straight
(Vertical or horizontal), which corresponds to the transposition operations,
reversal or intervals demotion. If we add to these operations
"Retain shape" the multiplication of intervals 5 modulo 12, we get

202We think of a glissando in glissandi frame, or to change that undergoes its

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new figures have the same shape without being graphically congruent, and we
have a new geometry and melody lines.

Fig.17 If the increase in intervals of 5 modulo 12 retains the shape, these two figures are
melodically isomorphic.
By wearing the kind attention to the manipulations that we subject
objects, so we are seeing the space where they are. The multiplication operation
5 by modulo 12 gives a characteristic space intervals where are
these melodic lines: it informs us about the behavior and organization of
intervals, not on the intervals themselves. Similarly, if we
rather interested to symmetries with respect to a line, we inform us on
graphic behavior (in terms of the score) figures, not on figures

itself: thus we observe another space than the intervals. The same figure has
properties (and thus the possibility of manipulation) different depending on the area where we
consider: his form is on this context of operations, it is extrinsic to it (and
stronger extrinsic to the object it says).

. Link to perception
Naturally, this new geometry of the intervals is not supported by the
perception of directionality, our "intuition" indicates that these forms

when the attack is hidden by that of another sound.

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different: it is a reaction comparable to that aroused by the elimination of the fifth
Euclidean postulate geometry (we have parallel that approximate or no
parallel lines at all). Note that other transformations that maintain
geometric shape of the figure on the partition can also break the geometry
intervals usually perceived: symmetry (graph) from a straight
oblique, for example, may transform a monophonic line in an agreement. This will
indicates that the geometry of the melodic lines to which we are accustomed
is not in fact given by the graphic partition space, though many
operations are historically emerged thanks to him

203But by the

operations we choose to be classified as those that retain shape (or

the change of a musically acceptable way). The question would then arise if
this removal of "intuition" caused by the addition (or removal) of certain rules
purely formal poses a problem to the composition. Indeed, if we present
isomorphic as very distant objects to material properties, we impose
may be a direct transfer of the consistency of written manipulations on the material
sound - if the formal manipulations are equivalent, then the understanding of
objects should be too. This confusion between composition and listening (between poetics and
aesthesic), which is, in our reading, in the heart of the criticism of Xenakis music
serial

204Is naturally avoided. But we must not necessarily rejecting these operations

203This is the case of certain types of counterpoint, such as guns and demotion
inversion.
204In X ENAKIS
I. [1963], formal music .

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which may upset the usual associations and identifications, neither the research
consistency: it is not a formal tool that is defeated, but its use for
as it were improper - that identifies two different families of isomorphisms. On this point,
remember that the rules are added to a "usual geometry" of our
apprehension can be precisely choose for this particular impact they have on the
perceptual result of relationships of "equivalence" written participate in building
listening for connections that do not have to be of the same type. Again, the
formalization should enrich the possibilities of listening: it gives more to hear, without
having to specify what is thus given.
This approach to break with a sense strictly related to geometry, for
get new listening relations, is often that of Xenakis himself. In
Indeed, as indicated Hoffman, using geometric structures in "spaces
not the basis of our daily space experience, "Xenakis could
"Perform geometric manipulations that led to his musical imagination
new solutions and sound unheard, or by defining a formal calculation, either
supporting its intuitive ideas . 205 The geometric formalization (whether or not serve
a calculation formalized) thus serves well the material result, although formally avoids
some of its constraints. The idea to deviate from what is directly sensitive to
generate a concrete musical richness is also not new: the counterpoint
Double is not really noticeable as such before the voices are reversed

205HOFFMAN
P. [1997] The abstract space in the music of Iannis Xenakis . This emphasis.

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actually - morphological properties of this counterpoint naturally
present from the beginning, but have a sound and musical impact after an operation
further to reveal them. In a way, the true form of counterpoint
Double appears only when this inversion when exposed the function of
features that were already there yet as a phenomenon (in the sound object).

. morphological eidetic
This observation raises an important question of terminology: If the form
appears only when it fulfills its function (or more precisely, if the fact
able to fulfill this function), can we talk properly properties
morphological which do not appear, which have no functional impact? In
Indeed, the common usage seems to associate the term "morphological" to features
intrinsic to an object, which would be a constituent part of and therefore define the
interior; the "morphology" of an object is somehow which resists
multiplicity of observations that can make and remains as a common core,
as it predates these observations - which remains almost finally subsymbolic . But the etymology of the word refers to "form" (

) we want here

extrinsic and operative, strongly dependent on the context of apprehension

and particularly in the case of music at least, a symbolization. In addition,
"Isomorphism" in mathematics refers both to that which maintains understood form
operably two algebraic structures are isomorphic if one can pass
to one another while maintaining the operating characteristics of each side. In

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Somehow, the current use of "morphological" refers to what we call here
the figures : it is in these that we identify separate properties
contexts where we can place them (two different designs on the page can have the

same shape, the same pattern may have different shapes

206). We believe it is

useful to maintain the association of "form" in operations and "Shape" on

ability to abstract from one context (at least one), so the adoption
an end to the different etymology seems necessary. To stay in a field
Semantic close

, we propose the term "eidetic" (from

: form ,

Figure but idea or kind ) for what is relative to the figures. Naturally,
certain precautions are necessary regarding the musical use of this term already
present in the vocabulary of philosophy. A primary motivation for this choice,
prior philosophical, is the origin in

suffix -ode ,

"Resembling" the figure is what remains similar despite the change

context or function (so that is independent); geometry we identify
Figures visually, so by similarity criteria. For against, in the
Husserl's terminology, "eidetic" means the phenomenological understanding of
species in general, regardless of the existence (the eidetic reduction ); Plato
Rather, it refers to something that is independent of sensory experience,
"Immutable form"; Aristotle, the "eidetic" is related to the phenomena by

206A music sample appears in the shape node Cavalieri Princpio ; v. illustration Ch. I,
particular fig. 9 and 10.

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need to observe in order to know the essence, the essential truth .
jobs are closer to the meaning of "typical" or "idea", but we can still
see the use we offer as a special (and very short) thereof:
if a musical context is a particular sensory experience, or a framework for
such an experience, a figure well in the sense that we take the term independent of
that experience (again, it remains beyond the context); similarly,
the existence of a musical object occurs only in a specific context (at least
that of our apprehension methods), and we can consider what may remain
apart from that context. The same figure does not exist in these "types"

207 These

special. Naturally, perhaps we force in this manner using

philosophical eidetic , but we want to rely mainly on its etymology
musicological for this use. Indeed, we are not here in the presence
of "ideas" and separable representation or objects that carry them; the
figures that we consider, although separable from certain contexts, remain
largely symbolic. We can not actually have attributes absolutely
eidetic, even in the sense that we take this word to suppose that it was possible
to grasp such features of an object, we could not do anything with it before you wear
previously directed gaze, so inserting into a particular space. More
Specifically, we must keep in mind that in a compositional process, subject

207These considerations are naturally not want a summary of the positions of these philosophers, but
just a general benchmark that allows to direct our terminology. We refer to
a little more discussion, to B works
, A. [2004] Introduction to
ARBARAS

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and background are built simultaneously and interact: there is no real
Figure formless, of "context-free" complete. The interest of our differentiation
Morphological and eidetic precisely is the ability to take these words
relatively, and possibly nested at multiple levels into each other: one
clearly differentiates what holds the musical space where we work and what the
beyond, keeping the option to change repository and reassign those adjectives.

208

. Objects
The foregoing discussion should not prevent us from speaking further objects
sound or music. On the contrary, we can see an object as something that
"Exceeds" always a figure and a form: in each context, it will have
characteristic eidetic not morphological (which have no role in this
context); on the other hand, a figure can be a carrier of properties that the object can not
not have in itself (such as a graphical appearance), and it can let represented by
more distinct figures.

209In addition we can now make a difference

Simple terminology between object and sound musical object: we will talk about sound object

when it is no question of eidetic properties, therefore unrelated to other objects

or a particular context and musical object when these reports are taken into account.

, L. (ed.) [1989], Plato himself , and R ODRIGO

P. [1995], Aristotle,
philosophy of Husserl , G
UILLERMIT
eidetic and phenomenology .
208This sequence across different scales between object and context, content and container, and all
party, was already treatedCHAEFFER
by S
P. [1966] Treaty musical objects .
209This is reminiscent of the report of a work for a formalization approach: it is always
"Shifted" compared to this formalization - she exceeds in the analysis and exhausts by when
composition (see cI).

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Again, if we somehow ignore the context for
the first apprehension of the object, with the assumption that it is shared as a
"Maximum context" that would be as general as possible and contain other
as special cases (for adding rules or constraints).

210

Of course, thus defining the sound by eidetic properties, we must

be careful not to identify its figurative or symbolic representation - we
do not do here that oppose the musical and morphologically. Indeed, on a partition
or a waveform editor we can sometimes regarded as the eidetic
graphic properties (they may not have musical role). However, for
they were the properties characterizing the same sound, it should be considered that
this partition or the editor are the most general to seize and understand
objects; we prefer to take the course as a way to more
handle.

211We maintain the distinction between the object and a figure representing the

precisely because of the uniqueness of it and its modes of apprehension.

Thus adding properties (locally) eidetic objects, a
symbolization, and a fortiori a rating, suggesting them as properties
Morphological; more precisely, the space where they feature a symbolization of the sound is

210We can think of the eidetic characteristics of the sound object as what gives it its shape
in this "maximum" space . The question may naturally arise if this space is truly unique,
and even if there at all. We will simplify the discussion on the assumption that we can
as reasonably share the ways of understanding the objects defining the contexts in which they
can be inserted, and therefore we can consider at least a position of apprehension
local maximum (containing the contexts of interest).
211Without this identification, we can nevertheless take into account the reversibility of some
symbolic systems, where it is possible to switch symbols to sounds; this is the case

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Musical immediately because it is functional. We can say that
eidetic, at all levels, is the "salience" of the object: These are properties that
emerge in certain contexts and which exceed by offering larger and
this as much in the composition process of analysis and listening

212; we can

initially refer to an object, and from that the handle, by its

salience.

213

Recall that, in all cases, which is given to listening is a set

of objects (or, even more surface level, a single object - the piece of music).
It is up to the listener to grasp the patterns on its own, to assign meaning
(Interpret). Again, we assume that there are ways of understanding
common to the composer and the listener, which allow advance construction
some salience; but listening, ultimately, that will define locally,
different scales and morphological eidetic.
In this discussion remains the problem of defining what makes two objects
different: what characteristics (morphological or eidetic) that
distinguish them, are they separable properties of figures and
symbolization themselves, and to what extent? To clarify these differences, or

often publishers waveforms and spectra. This reversibility is also discussed by

VAGGIONE
H. [2006], symbols, signals, music operations .
212The musical use of "emergence" relatively recent drift (and differentiated) from that in
cognitive science. The fallout from this idea of spontaneous overflow of a context are manifold;
we are interested here in its operational aspects and "morphophoriques" (generators shapes). A
depth discussion is proposed and initiated by S
M. [2005] Notes on the concept
OLOMOS
of "emergence" and Agostino Di Scipio .
213We practically find a methodology of work and from the salience among Horacio
Vaggione. See eg V
H. [1995] Objects, representations, operations .
AGGIONE

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to measure, we will use musical variables : the elements, aspects or
properties in which we operate, and that truly allow us to enter a
object.
As we observed above, consider the operations that can undergo an object
amounts to considering the space where it fits: knowing the variables and their
associated operations that define a space, it is possible to say what is proper to
it (which will be the basis of morphological features) and what belongs as
feature, a figure. This process of isolation , somehow, the distinctive features
214We

objects is not unrelated to the construction of qualia Goodman

precisely aim the possibility of ordering or at least organize, qualities that do
not always bend to definitions, let alone action, strict.

215

2. Musical spaces

We are led by the distinction we want to do between form and figure

to take care of the spaces where the figures found that we take to handle
sound and musical objects; we are defined by operations: they will
characterized by what can be done with the figures (and therefore indirectly with

214V. GOODMAN
N. [1966] The structure of appearance . Although we were operating, both for composing
as to analyze, actually that through these variables, we do not want here to identify an object and its
qualities we keep still open, as part of the same musical thought,
ability to change contextualization, therefore set of variables, as often as desired. In
Specifically, we believe that within a compositional process coexist several "game
language "among which it is possible to oscillate.

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objects) within it. We are not far from the concept of space as
Wyschnegradsky 216, The course of a continuum pansonore (he kisses all
sound possibilities), but mostly seen as a space pattern of thought . Motivated
by the above discussion, we can think of that would be an elementary operation
just to get from one figure to another that it is similar in that

space this would compare figures who have close forms, for example,
or observe the changes of shape undergoes a figure by "moving" in
space. But to do this, we need to define and estimate these similarities and
variations - in an example like melodic lines, we take do
account that the sequence of intervals, but in a more interesting musical context (and
more realistic), the focus is on several aspects of both. The musical action
(Compositional or analytical) is also guided by the perception, and it is not
generally focused on a single point.

2.1 Dimensions and parameters

To think these qualities,

217we start from the idea of handling, operation

on something, and we all used to compose operations

(An object, a section, a room, according to the scale at which we place ourselves). Us

215Unlike qualia , musical variables are directly (and only) operative, and
acquire meaning in the process of composition and interpretation: we do not seek to
studying the conditions of existence but the working conditions.
216Presented by CRITON
P. [1997] sensitive areas .
217The following considerations are made from the viewpoint of the composition, but the constructions
adapt to the interpretive process.

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Also consider the set of all that can be manipulated according to these
operations: it will be the musical variables . Note that these two sets are
compounds, and they influence each other. The variables therefore constitute what is manipulable
in an object (continuously or not): it appears that, 'where' and 'how'
one can take in the compositional process.

218In a way, they are

all that has covered in the object, and can be identified (operatively in
processes) it to the state of his musical variables. It is important to emphasize that,
although by definition an operational category

219A musical variable can

consider also give physical (harmonicity a spectrum)

provided that they are subject to compositional operations.
Where, in a process, a musical variable can vary independently

all other musical variables considered, we say that it varies according to a

musical dimension of space where we situate (eg if to compose, we
believe that it is possible to change pitch without changing anything
else, we can talk about the size of heights). Note that
the independence of a variable in relation to others is not an intrinsic quality:
it depends on the choice (overall) of all of the variables, and a

218The vague definition is based on the fact that all operations to compose a piece
is necessarily limited (and usually discrete). She says the organization (also
compound) in this set of similar transactions families, and in particular by the choice of
musical dimensions among the variables (below).
The similarities between operations could also be a qualification (as opposed to a
quantification), but there is enough here to consider that one can differentiate operations without to look
on how this is done (for the reasoning that follows, we simply need operations, and the
variables, distinct).
219On this concept, cf.AGGIONE
V
H. [1995] Objects, representations, operations .

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organization of this set (ie operations that are done). What and how many are
these dimensions and also depends on these choices. In particular, there is no
necessarily only one possible set of dimensions among the selected variables
to work (several sets can be taken separately as independent
their complement).
We chose here the terminology of variables and dimensions not only
for association with the vocabulary of mathematics, but mostly for power
differentiate with parameters in music. Indeed, we often see
References to "sound settings", indicating as high-intensity-all
stamp-term measures such as the spectral density, or simply
numeric attributes of a MIDI note. We want to distinguish purely controls
digital, that could somehow associate with a single potentiometer, those
which depend on a judgment (musical) to be defined. Thus, in a modulation
frequency, modulation index and modulating frequency are parameters whose
change primarily affects the timbre of the resulting sound. Similarly, we
intensity as a variable (and possibly one dimension) music, but
the amplitude as a parameter. Indeed, it does not always act primarily on

the perceived intensity: in additive synthesis (rich enough), the change

amplitude of a component once again affects the stamp before a variation
intensity arises. Of course, some situations can identify a parameter
a musical variable (such as indexing midicents to height), but we believe

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This distinction is relevant: it takes into account the role of our perception and
our understanding in defining the elements on which to build
operations of a compositional or interpretive process. We could also say
a musical dimension, even in isolation, already evokes a certain existence
music, which is not the case for a parameter: it seems that saying " C sharp "
or " high , "or even" at this point , "provides more information on something that could
these attributes that saying " the modulating frequency is 220Hz "or" amplitude is 0.7 "; this
are in any case, for us, the best starting points for the construction of an idea
musical.

. Illustration: a first musical space

We begin by considering what is manipulated (musical variables)
and operations that we can use. Note that these two categories are
composed mostly simultaneously - you choose what you do and with what. There
variable list is not meant as a simplified example and is not exhaustive
for real musical situation (for both variables for operations):
heights (nominal); transpositions
fundamental frequencies collected; additions, multiplications
intervals; inversion, retrograde, additions, multiplications
harmonicity; distance / approximation of a theoretical harmonic spectrum
register; transposition
Register on an instrument; change travel
intensity; increase / decrease (continuous or stepwise)

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dynamic

220; increase / decrease (continuous or stepwise)

spatial localization; displacement, permutations

temporal location; displacement permutation
duration; multiplications, additions, subdivisions
speed; increase / decrease (continuous or stepwise)
rhythmic organization; combinations, subdivisions
"Stamp" (as the identifier of the original sound) Reconciliations /
removals, fusion / fission "stamps"
order of appearance; permutations, demotion

As part of the composition of an instrumental piece, we could isolate

among these variables thereof, which allow to indirectly treat the other without (much)
influence each other:
Register relating to an instrument
dynamic
spatial location
duration
order of appearance
"Stamp"

We have built a musical six-dimensional space (or more precisely

eight if we decompose the spatial location into three independent dimensions). The
operations on each of these dimensions can help us to define distances or
a way to "measure" in this dimension. Other musical variables we

220Here we distinguish between intensity and dynamics: it rather refers to the gesture of the player
that sound result. Thus, the move to a score high on a violin with a mute lead

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consider may come into play here as well: for example, one can choose to subdivide

Record each instrument according to a tempered chromatic scale, measure and

subdivided into multiple durations of a fixed unit, or to organize the stamps
available according to their harmonicity. Soon it will be seen that it is very difficult (if not
impossible) to obtain a set of musical variables from which it is possible to extract
truly independent musical dimensions and still take into account
all variables (in the above case, the "patch" is not entirely independent
relative register, for example). But this does not prevent us to design
independent manipulation of these variables - and it is this independence
operations of interest for the definition of these dimensions.

2.2 Directions and fragments of space

A first feature of the musical space in which we work is so
operatively given: its dimensionality (quantity and quality of its dimensions).
Other characteristics emerge within each dimension (sometimes their
definition: how to measure it or "move", for example), or involve
several dimensions in an operation (as defined distances in space
in full, or transformations of space itself - rotations, translations,
reflections ...). This, again, is made with and by the set of operations
unused. Musical variables that have not been considered independent evolve

probably give an intensity similar to that of a note mezzo-piano without muted, but

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according to those that indicate the size and form of directions
particular in the space in question; they are of course also manipulated
directly, and a change depending on their direction implies a change according to
several dimensions.
The dimensions are directions that define and enable somehow
to reconstruct the musical space any action in or on this space affects
(Directly or not), and they are sufficient in order to specify an object. But this construction

an object from only some of the musical events can be also

221In the example above,

from another set of independent directions

we could get an object by choosing an instrument (a "stamp") and

pitch, intensity, rhythmic organization and spatial location, instead of the dimensions
we had initially chosen; the result could also be written by them.
We thought the musical variables associated with the musical objects and
sound, yet they were used to characterize the spaces. This is how a space
proving to be a particular possibility of objects

222: These are sort of

"Pieces" of space, state (or family of states) special variable

musical in. In a compositional process, it is the space that allows us to
see objects: the operational categories that allow us to capture or call
the object must precede the already defined (at least implicitly) a space. Us

with a timbre, articulation and significantly different energy

221This is the equivalent of a base change in linear algebra.

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can therefore have many different spaces that coexist in the composition
of a work: each is derived from a family of operations, a set of intentions
compositional .
To listen, we have the opposite situation: objects somehow there
preceding space; more precisely, it is perceptible only by objects
presented to listen. The musical space which is thus made clear is that the
objects completely fill: there listening choice but what is
indeed the case (it is "might" not listen to anything other than what it was
listened). All geometry is given by the inserted objects in time,
operations that define it are those effectively levied on and each other. Of course,
with the progress of the work, these operations (or at least what is included) is
change and multiply: the space in which the entire work is part, the one she
completely filled, is redefined continuously. Consequently, for listening and

interpretation

223The organization of the musical discourse, its logic (whatever that is), do

can only be immanent : it's all joints (and their sequences) that
presents all the "rules" actually followed; This is where one can emerge
musical sense, as we dfinissions above. In a way, if there is a
any "musical grammar", it should always be done or redone in

222We could say that in this sense a musical space is a logical place , as Wittgenstein takes:
"The logical location and the locus agree in the fact that both are the possibility of
existence. "( Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus , 3411)
223Our argument is based on listening and sound phenomena, but the reasoning extends
quite easily to the interpretation of a score (taking itself): space is also given by the

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setting is .

224We come back to the need for the composer to make clear

and perceptible a certain organization, make interpreted his work. Us

could say that it is the trace of these local redefinitions of musical space
(Resulting in the space of the entire room) to be able to organize in the memory
the listener.

3. Musical objects as functions

We now return to the view of the composition to address the

direct manipulation of the material or musical ideas in and with a space. Us
want to highlight in our approach the passage of independence
musical dimensions when composing an even empty space to their
inextricable bond in a compound object, especially when the latter is inserted into
time, but already when we consider just relationships and transactions
the inside of his own time.
If we think of music as objects inserted into a space with
musical dimensions, it can be useful to represent and build these objects from
of them. We propose a formalization for the construction of a musical object,
relying primarily on instrumental music and for periods rather

objects, there are no inherently substitutions. It is possible to change a partition

if you can borrow, at least in part, the views (and often also on the context) of the composer.
224Even, perhaps especially in the case of tonal music: although the "grammar" above
several works, it was rebuilt and exposed again in each of them, and could be

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meso-temporal

225But so easy to generalize. Our goal is

to arrive at a description of a musical object O according to its 'internal' duration,

O = O (d), or O: DEspMus,
where D is the set that defines and articulates internment the total duration of the object and
226). Us

EspMus is a musical space (such as those we have defined above

then want to insert the object in the course of the work, and at a time
specific:
O = O (t0, T) after this insertion,
where t is the time course of the work (continuous and irreversible), and t
we place the object.

0 when

227

3.1 Sets of variables

Each musical variable we choose to handle, we can
constitute an assembly with its "values" possible: these are the elements of this
which together define the musical object according to each of its dimensions. We want
naturally our formalization permits the insertion of a musical object in the
time, but also that manipulations are possible off-time , so slender in
constraints of continuity and irreversibility. This is why it is interesting to

deducted. Historically, it is from works (and not before them) that such "grammars"
settle.
225In general, a note to a short sentence.
226More precisely, it is a space composable . We will introduce precisely the distinction between spaces
composable and compounds in the following section.

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taking any subset (sometimes continuous) "values" as a single element,
especially when we work on quantified durations discrete: a

By

example, is a change in dynamics, but we want to apply this

variation in a "note", without being obliged to consider shorter durations
this note (or another selected unit). To do this, we will consider
sets of parts , rather than isolated elements collections; but we will write
often, by abuse of notation and for simplicity, only instead of ENS
2 ENS or (ENS) (the usual notations for all parts), for a set
ENS variables and x instead of {x} for an element x "ENS giving {x}" (ENS).
This detour also has to introduce as the empty set element benefit |, which we
may associate in each set, different meanings without undermining
the consistency of formalization.
Some of the variables that we take in this section are likely
slightly different from those we have introduced above; we think
particular game modes and the position on the instrument . We can of course
take these aspects of instrumental gesture as variables, since we
manipulate effectively in a compositional process. But these are variables
that seem more attached to a particular instrument at a general musical space,
one might well hesitate to take them as candidates for a musical dimension. Us

227Note that this implies immersion D

2 T, where T is the time of the work, which corresponds to
Operations passage (temporal and others) off-time to on-time operations. We return to
this immersion.

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see that despite this particularity they keep global interest, and it is possible
easily circumvent attachment to a single instrument.
We do not claim, of course not an exhaustive list of variables

used in instrumental music, the sets we construct below

are at best sufficient for a compositional process. Nevertheless, they illustrate
peculiarities of certain variables, and can be the basis for a more formalized
encompassing.
to. instruments
To clarify our reasoning, we limit initially to
specific variables only instrumental music. The first set to define
is probably one of the instruments used:
TRG = {violin, cello, flute, accordion, piano, voice

228, ...}.

Here too, though this set is discrete, it is interesting to take all

parts: this will allow us, for example, to treat as a single instrument
several violins or more different percussion instruments played by a single
instrumentalist, or all brass of an orchestra. We will work rather
along with
TRG = {violin, cello, string {}, flute, clarinet {}, piano, accordion, voice,
Percussion {}, ...}.

228In what follows, we will consider the voice as an instrument; must be well understood
instrumental almost always as instrumental and / or vocal .

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Here we take the party to consider a partition as a set of instructions
given to performers: what the composer wrote is always instrumental gesture ,
such is the partition semantics as we consider here. We will build
then a musical object from the behavior of instruments; assemblies that
follow are designed with respect to the actions of the performers in the manner of
compose these actions. 229
This vision is directly applicable to certain environments composition
computer aided We believe in particular the separation between "partition" and
"Orchestra" in CSound language. The broader idea of a "virtual" instrument,

defined by a set of behaviors in operations or actions, or

simply an organized and navigable sound materials, inserts
Also in our formalization.
b. game modes
Each of these instruments defines a set of game modes that are
individuals. In all parties, we can identify the empty set to
"normal" mode (the one that is understood by the notation "ord." in a partition). Okay

229Here we find the position already in the work Lema 1 and a convex set (and
who will be present also in weak topology ) instrumental gesture is taken as a matter
elemental compositional. The concern to take the score overwhelmingly like writing
an action of the player also has experience as a composer and performer: the
traditional considerations of vocal range and possibilities / General technical impossibilities are
now largely insufficient to employ the full potential of an instrument - address
aspects such as the comfort of a gesture, physical and intellectual effort to provide the preparation time
and transition between gestures, habits came from a classical training, etc. can extend so
consistent instrumental expressiveness (the opportunity to convey musical ideas, even those
call for expanded gambling opportunities). We will see how a general notion of
Continuity can participate in this.

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Sure, we can also take a combination of several of these sets and consider the
Common modes of play to a whole family of instruments:
MDJ flute= {Ord. (|), Wind, flattz, {with more and more air}, slap, tongue ram ...}
MDJ voice
= {Sung, spoken, whispered, shouted ...}
MDJ snare

= {Ord. (|), Rubbed on the edge, with different wands {} ...}

MDJ strings
= DJ
violin> MDJ alto> MDJ cello > MDJ bass
Ord = {pos., Arco ord., Sul tasto, sul bridge { spostando arco } legno tratto behind the
easel on the easel, legno + crini ...}
We still consider, for reasons of continuity as we explore
later, the set of all game modes, all instruments:
MDJ = C Instr "INSTR
MDJ instr,
where we take care to differentiate (by adding new elements if necessary) a
fashion "ord. "For each instrument (we can note them by |
example). This union also possible to work with a single set of modes
game for all instruments.
Naturally, this assembly is not directly relevant for the modeling

instrBy

the behavior of a "virtual" instrument, for which there is no gesture

230.

instrumental strictly speaking, let alone different game modes

However, if the virtual instrument "reacts" to families organized settings,

230We do not place the sampler in this family of instruments: the gesture performed by
the musician who plays it has no impact on the resulting sound (except at best in its envelope
amplitude) and is therefore not an instrumental gesture as we understand it here.

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we can consider them as so many "gestures" virtual, adjustable in
different "modes".
c. heights
Some instruments can produce defined heights, and we can
therefore consider all these heights. But when we turn to parts of this
together, to take into account, for example, glissandi or agreements, we
include hence continuous sets of heights, which can be taken
simultaneously (unlike the glissando , which orders), which is very close to the
definition of a white noise band, and two problems arise. First,
when we consider a continuous set of heights, the tools we have
for manipulating closer frequencies: continuity prevents all
index by names, which also affects the reference intervals, and
elementary operation with heights as transposition, is thereby very
Limited231; the problem arises to define the extremes of this set
Furthermore, when we make sets of heights as singular elements
the order of these heights throughout a period is crucial, as the comparison
between glissando and white noise shows - yet we can not trivially
include durations in a plurality of heights.

231Transposition always corresponds to a translation, as in the case of staple heights,

but we can not have all the transpositions defined as before.

232. In

232
In most
a discreet
it could
have
set the "most
note" the serious Sith contrabassoon and "
Note
acutearea,
"in an
artificial
harmonic
violin,serious
for example.

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The first problem is solved in part when we can identify
the hills of fundamental frequencies perceived and work directly on celles233The second problem really arises when we work with
thereof.
discrete periods: a glissando is reduced to a single height at each moment when
we can take these moments continuously. Over periods that a unit
minimum, we can assign a "height" { gliss. } to a unit that is already
deployed in an ordered time. But this does not take into account the glissando
Conversely, neither resolves the difference between a glissando and a cluster on the piano. Us
return to this problem from another point of view, which takes into account the gesture
the musician and also a sense of musical gesture first or indivisible. For now,
keep all the fundamental frequencies perceived and denote by HTR all
its parts, admitting that in our list of elements there may have
redundancies if we have more of a { gliss. }.
HTR = {... if 1 do 2 do Y2, D 2, ... if 2, ..., { gliss. }, {chords}, {} spectra, white noise, ...}
In this set, we can, if necessary, combine the empty set (|) to silence
or an inaudible frequency; we can also consider that "white noise" is
other than the set of frequencies made stationary at the time. Note that when we
taking into account a continuous set of heights, it is possible to include spectra

233However, we are taking a serious risk to identify frequency and height, it will of course be avoided.

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(Even inharmonic) as elements of HTR, and we can thus associate
elements of the package even for indefinite height instruments.

234

d. positions
On several instruments, a same height can be obtained in more than one
way, and this is still more complex functional description of a gesture
instrumental if we limit ourselves to a nominal value or frequency
define a note, we do not always have a clear gesture. In addition, these
achievements produce separate patches and require different efforts. Us
take into account while, in parallel with different game modes, position "on
the instrument "
POS = {} positions on the instrument,
in which we can identify | the "at rest" position. This will allow us not
only to distinguish one of the first open string of a cello in the same
Height played on the top rope, but also formally address the continuity of
instrumental gesture235. It is also by looking at this instrumental position
we can define the action that produces an unstable MULTIPHONIC, a sound
indefinite height, or even a glissando any.

236

234This is certainly necessary if we isolate the work on heights recognize or break it

specter of a snare drum or cymbal does not give a defined height. However, it is
important for the rest of our formalization to define generally the behavior of a
instrument and for this it is necessary that there is a sense (formal) to such an association - the limiting case would
without associating any instrument height defined | in HTR.
235This continuity was the basis of the representation of the convexity in a convex set (cf. cI).
236This is probably where the voice is distinguished as the instruments themselves: all
"Positions" of the voice are defined within the body of the performer, and it is difficult for a

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In some cases, as for bowed instruments, the DJ sets and
POS may be sufficient to define or heights that are produced; for the
same correspondence in brass, for example, should be taken into account in
POS lip pressure, which may be more or less convenient
Redundancy POS compared to HTR has a special meaning if we consider

237. This possible

as an instrument (formal) separate each voice on a polyphonic instrument, or

each instrument one performer who plays several at once (as in a set
percussion), or each performer playing the same instrument (such as a
piano four hands): The position functions (item) for each of these we
allow to keep within the limits of the possibilities for implementing a single
instrumentalist or a single instrument. But in the general case, it is irrelevant that there
or without redundancy: the position variable serves more considerations of continuity,

composer to design their topology (unless it is also a singer). To our knowledge, there is no
matter of these positions when learning a singing technique; Once learned, they are
rather designated by the resulting effect, or as a special game mode (as boca chiusa ).
We keep the idea of a set POS
= {| ("Resting"), "active"} especially completeness.
voice
237We indirectly wrote this aspect of gesture in trombone parts of open path-connected
sets (2002, for soprano, mezzo, baritone and two trombones), indicating a fixed position of the slide
for more notes:

or by imposing changes barrel for a glissando (which thus keeps pressure

lips):

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fluidity or comfort as a possible musical dimension. We can not
not consider POS to the definition of a musical space and keep this
set for the definition of the topology of other variables (including MDJ and
HTR).
As for game modes, the idea of position does not apply directly to
a "virtual" instrument; we can still closer once by
families organized parameters with which the instrument responds. In recital
Such "virtual positions", it becomes possible to think of distances (and
consequently a topology) in all these "gestures".
e. dynamic
We still have to consider the dynamics with which the instruments

can play. In this first purely instrumental approach, we

limit the indications that can be given to instrumentalists:
DYN = {...

,,

,,

... { cresc. }, { Sun },

, ...}

This assembly is once again composed of the subsets of the set of all
possible dynamic that is continuous, but we'll use as a quantity
over these parts (although some of them are continuous) by indexing

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often by the common symbols (, ...). Here, too, we can use de |
identifying it with a silent gesture

238or the beginning of a sound in the silence.

Note that the definition of this set is directly related to the construction
an instrumental behavior : dynamic symbolic indications may
not be understood in the same way in music without instruments or voices. In addition,
this information can have very different results depending on the instrument that the
runs

239And it may be useful to index by instrument symbols:

Of course, part of DYN lets Order naturally, it is considered

with or without the indexing.
f. times
Finally, we will take a set that allows us to process times and
to articulate them. We can first imagine it as all
segments of a temporal flow

240Which would take us even after all

parts:
Ryth = {duration, rhythmic cells {}, {durations accell .}, ...}.
Strictly speaking, the only rhythmic cells that we can have in such a
all are those formed from all different periods: there is no repeat

.
flute, gong, piano

element in a set. However, we must be able to operate on rhythmic cells

238J. Antunes noted that replacing the note heads by " ? ". See A
NTunes, J. [2005] Sounds
para os novos Sopros e as cordas , Sistrum, Braslia.
239This is a classic point of divergence between composers: should write the resulting sound or
intend to play? The answer often depends on the context in which it arises.

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182
as simple as

. Moreover, the evidence we have here are sets

unordered, and it is impossible to differentiate

from . To work around this

problem, we will introduce two operations on Ryth: the first is a simple

addition, and gives us the elements of the same set. For S, T "Ryth we
define the S + T element "by Ryth
S + T = {s + t | s "S and t" T},
where s + t denotes the usual addition times. The neutral element of this operation is
the empty set, and (Ryth, +) is a monoid. The second operation is that of
concatenation , which is no longer an internal composition law: we get chains
or ordered sequences of elements. The set of such chains are finished is denoted
Ryth

*: This is the free monoid on Ryth whose operation (internal, this time) is the

concatenation and the neutral element is the empty set (the chain with no element).
This is in Ryth

* we find all possible rhythmic cells

241, Along with

or without repetition.
For purely instrumental music, Ryth (and Ryth

*) Is the

often with a symbolic identification: traditional rhythmic values. But

must be emphasized that this is precisely where a marker in part (organized)
these ensembles without insertion into the clotting time (by the choice of a
tempo, for example), a white or a quaver do not indicate a duration. Us

240This set is identifiable

+Or +> {0} if we consider the zero duration as element in
each term is a number. Algebraically, it is a monoid with the addition of durations as
operation and zero duration as neutral element.

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183
can in fact when the time scales involved permit, set Ryth
as the set of rhythmic values (replacing the operation + by bonding
notes, for example) and build on it to get a free monoid all
rhythmic cells that can be noted. Of course, this approach is not used if the durations
(Individual) you want to use does not fall within that proportionalities
can approach the traditional notation. In all cases, note that the operation in
Ryth induces the opportunity to act within a sequence in Ryth

*We

can replace the ST fragment by a single element, S + T, without altering the "duration
total "of the sequence. Specifically, this operation will establish a relationship
equivalence in Ryth
length .

* from which we can speak of the same elements

242This not only allows the rating simplifications, but

243 This is

get new sequences "close" a starting sequence.

Also with these operations we can consider several "layers"
organization: from the superposition of two equivalent parts of Ryth

*,

we can get a new, more complex chain.

We will as well as "duration" of a musical object string
D "Ryth

*D = d d D ... , With each of

1 2 n

i"Ryth. These elements are still

241Even if limited to a sequence of durations all equal to that of a sample, which can be
considered a "rhythmic subdivision" underlying any digital music.
242Two elements will be equivalent if it is possible to pass from one to the other by such substitutions
successive. We can note D
1D 2 when D 1 and D
2 thus have the same length. Note that this
term is usually used (in the context of a free monoid) for designating the quantity
elements in a chain; we turn away here because this particular little seems useful to
musical reflection we offer, and to keep "duration" associated with the entire chain (v. infra ).

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184
algebraically manipulated, even if they are ordered or directed (that is, for example,

a series of rhythmic cells, or families of such cells). The term is not so

not for us merely a "segment" neutral time, but rather a set where
244. Of course, it is

exist relationships (or operations) between the elements

inevitable to think a rhythmic cell already equipped with an order, but we want
keep the possibility to switch or reverse this order, for example; each immersion
D in particular the time of the work set a state of the assembly (and thus fix
a form).

3.2 Features
For each instrument we consider each of these sets of
variables allows us to define a function, that of the "value" of this variable
along the length of the object we build, for this instrument. More specifically,
for a set of variables VAR, we can consider the function
var: INSTR (D; VAR) and noted var (instr) = var

instr: DVAR,

where (D; VAR) is the set of D functions VAR, VAR also noted

D. By

example, mdj violin(D2) Indicates violin playing mode on the second element of the
duration D.

243This equivalence relation may, ultimately, be used to define a distance in Ryth

*, To
from, for example, the amount of substitutions required to move from one item to another. He
should nevertheless generalize this measurement at different lengths of elements.
244The "neutral" segment remains a possible case limit, as for a time measured in samples.

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185
We can define a function of "behavior" for each
instrument (we keep here as three sets of variables to simplify
notation):
comp: INSTR (D; POS_MDJ_DYN)
and note
comp (instr) = comp instr: DPOS_MDJ_DYN,
comp instr(D) = (item (d) mdj (d), dyn (d)),

where in fact we mean pos

instr, Mdj instr, Dyn instr. We will say that when comp

(D)
instr

is defined for all d "D, it's already a musical object (duration D), we can
Note comp instr(D).
To create more complex objects by combining behaviors
several instruments, we can think firstly a simple union of these
elements:
O (d) = {comp instr1(D), comp instr2(D) ... comp instrN(D)},
or simply
O (S) = C i "INSTRcomp i(D).
This idea is, instrumentally, the overlay sound results
different gestures. From one point of view, this is actually what happens if
several instruments play together, but it may be interesting to note in this
superposition relationships that may emerge (for also build). If we
write O (d) as a matrix, the organization of each of the sets of variables
induces an organization to the "inside" of the object:

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186
(d )
pos
instr
1

pos
(d )
instr
2
O ( d ) =

(d )
pos instrN

mdj

(d )
instr
1
mdj
(d )
instr
2

mdj
(d)
instrN

dyn

( d )
instr
1
dyn
(d)
instr
2 .

dyn
( d )
instrN

This arrangement allows to highlight not only the behavior

an instrument according to the musical variables (that the function comp was already), but
also the relationships between the different instruments in a variable, throughout the
columns. We can also think of the progress of O (d) throughout D as
a succession of such matrices, which further leads to consider the relationship between
instruments and variable depending on the length (and its components).

. Indivisible actions
With this configuration of juxtaposed matrices we can better
consider the possibility of holding an object in several sequences of the same

length at a time. Indeed, our rating may suggest that we do

account where the same chain D "Ryth

* underlies all

behavior: a homorhythmic or the existence of a common subdivision (a

sequence more "fine" for the greatest common divisor of others). Yet
that the latter is in general a possible approach, it eliminates one of the advantages
choosing parts sets for our musical variables:
mdj functions, dyn and pos are certainly discreet because they indicate the elements
isolated and are defined on a discrete set, but these elements may be themselves
continuous - that is the case for any change recorded in a single symbol, as a

or

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187
glissando . Always take a finer time sequence as for
behavior of all instruments in an object can lead to subdivide a
glissando if superimposed on sixteenth notes, for example.
We want to consider actions that do not admit such a subdivision,
because they are essentially continuous : assigned to an element of "D, such
245We must

behavior can not be attributed to a period s + t, although s + td.

therefore include the possibility of life as either a single chain of Ryth

but a set of the same length strings (we always denote D not
weigh na notation). The ongoing behavior (indivisible) provide
decomposing the network into its smaller "relevant parts" that are not
necessarily submultiples of other parties; we will name the gestures
first (alluding to prime numbers).
We can see these "blocks" constituent of duration in succession
O matrices (d) as representing different independent elements
variables for each instrument if an indivisible action is superimposed on
finer segmentation function behavior "crosses" the matrices of this
refinement. We can actually represent and polyrhythms in several
directions (even in the behavior of the same instrument).

246

245More generally, we can consider actions that admit only one sequence as
duration, to the exclusion of all others that are equivalent to it.
246The following diagram is intended of course not be readable just like a partition: it is only
an illustration of a topology of polyrhythm.

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188

Fig.18: A provision of O (D) with multiple segmentations duration D.

All together, the "Plans" are the finest sequence equivalent to D, but not all intercept
not all behaviors; for each thereof (at a variable and an instrument), a term
different of the same length that D is given by the intersections that occur.
The idea of working with longer indivisible elements that the greatest
common divisor periods involved also used in a digital environment where
yet everything is necessarily mensurable by the length of a sample. This
generalized discretization does not eliminate the multiple integrations of listening, which
emerge units and continuities, let alone the possibility of thinking (and therefore
composer) of "gestures" indivisible, as dynamic variations, glissandi,
or global behaviors of granular synthesis.

247 These are

Incidentally, if all the variables of the same instrument follows the same period, a two projection
dimensions of the object (eliminating the distinction between the variables) is equivalent to a rating
proportional.
247The total discretization granular synthesis is just a tool to work great
detail continuity: a large number of spot sounds easily becomes an open set (which
not contain its own border), and so lets turn individually by imperceptible steps.
A thorough discussion specifically on the articulation techniques based on grains sound
is in R
C. [2002] Microsound .
OADS

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189
associated with much longer times that a sample and possibly articulated
them, below which the object is somehow distorted.
Note that the matrices thus "traversed" by behaviors
incomplete, in isolation, they do not provide information on all aspects of
248 The absence of an element in a matrix (namely the absence
the object.
articulation, according to at least one variable on an element of D) does not indicate a
inactive instrument for this segment of time. Do not act (or not play ) is a
this behavior, we can note comp

instr(D) = (| |, |) written silent

in a partition requires a deliberate and precise gesture, just as a note two gestures are not essentially different. This presence of silence
such conduct has the added advantage of including it in the considerations on the
continuity of instrumental gesture throughout a musical object.

. Integration time
We still consider the duration D as an ordered sequence, thus already
designed with a certain temporal orientation in mind. It remains, however,
handled internally (not least by rearrangement of the first elements).
In addition, its inclusion in a clotting time can be done in several ways:
we can see O (D) as a figure that can take many forms depending on the
velocity (or speed variations) to which it is covered. As part of the

248This reminds us that we can not avoid taking into account the duration of the object; there
no "instant" object, no time to speak of.

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190
instrumental music, this is trivially at different tempi (or
changes even continuous, tempo); but we can consider how
similar figures in electroacoustic music, manipulated beings inserted before

in a clotting time and adaptable to different speeds.

249

It is during the insertion of an object over time in the game in the work qu'entrent
dependency relationships between musical variables. Indeed, although we have already
considered "independent" directions in a musical space, and also
ability to accurately define an object in only a subset of the variables
used, high mobility remains in their treatment. When all deploy
simultaneously, subject to one temporal direction, we lose the ability to
handle them separately - because they are not necessarily perceived so
individuated. By operating off-time, the variables are separable, and we can (at
least locally) ignore their interdependencies to address fragments
our musical space (subspace). Crossed by the time this space is
somehow folded on itself around the directions, listening, protrude as
major or relatively independent.

250

249This is the case, for example, in the micromontage: we can define figures from extracts
samples, then to swap, lengthen or shorten (or without changing the pitch of sounds).
Algebraically, the situation is very similar to working with notes, although the temporal scales
can be much smaller and so here we have access to the interior of the new "notes". A tool
copy for such manipulation is the software IRIN , C
C. [2004]. Note that we
AREAS
Here are freed of proportionality between the elements of duration D, present in scoring
Traditional.
250Of course, the definition of these directions there, and understanding as a landmark in space
musical, is no longer in the hands of the composer; it is a set which can also vary
along a listen.

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191
3.3 Continuities
The sets of variables are the basis of our definition musical objects
as functions, and providing them with certain operations or properties Us
can approach the continuity of these functions. Indeed, we can understand a
continuous function like bringing in elements close together on
close elements in another set.

251 So if we can organize

sets of variables to be able to speak of proximity or neighborhood between

elements, we have the tools to think the continuity of a musical object.

A simple way to define proximities appears if we can measure

distances is the case for groups such as HTR or DYN, if we take it
isolated elements. But it is difficult to accurately measure the distance between two
instruments or two game modes, and an alternative approach to proximity in
musical variables is required. What seems most musically relevant is
to take this judgment of neighborliness between elements, largely arbitrary and
oriented perception within a specific work context, to make neighborhoods
formal, of open subsets of the sets of variables. This defines a kind of
topology of each variable, a classification of elements according to the criteria, it is
possible to choose and to vary, familiarity, manipulation, sound result,
Comfort or more. Note that, when the set of variables is provided with a

251This is a "translation" of the mathematical definition: we say that a function f is continuous

at a point x if for every open set containing f Y (x), it is possible to find an open set
X containing x such that f (X) 7Y.

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192
precise distance, we can define the neighborhood of a simple item like
all elements whose distance to it is smaller than a limit.
We will say that an object is in a continuous variable if, from a
D element to the next, we always stay in the same vicinity of this variable,
or in neighborhoods which overlap. We observe and the function that defines
the small object to a variable and an instrument.
More generally, we can restrict the function of several ways:
an instrument, a variable, or a subset (or a single element) duration D.
We can then consider a whole musical object topology, given by the
topologies of different variables. In particular, it is defining proximities
between functions associated with different instruments that we have an approach
continuity which takes into account all of the interactions within an object.
Note that with a topology or a neighborhood system in POS us
insert in our thinking compositional some instrumental usability: the
adjacencies or proximity keys and positions on a rope or ropes

adjacent fingers more or fewer movements, changes

instrument, may well be part of which leads the construction of an object and
its continuity. 252

252We take this continuity of instrumental gesture, considered from the point of view of comfort
the performer, a true compositional material.

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193
4. Modular spaces, made space

By defining our musical variables, we have seen that the ability to enter
different objects, and in different ways, leading to the existence of several
distinct musical spaces during the composition of a work derived from intentions
compositional variety. Each is a context manipulation and evolution
objects but remains at its simplest definition, empty of such objects: it conceals
forms (potential) it precedes and therefore defines a family morphologies. In
compositional process, we will say that such a space is composable : we can
operate on its contents without changing itself, it is "open" and manipulated.
To dial, we build spaces from variables
musical preceding the construction of sound or musical objects. In some
so we work on space as a particular type of object
itself provides the means to operate on sound objects (these two kinds of operation
overlap and interact in a compositional process). But what is
itself perceptible , it is the musical objects: it is through their deployment that
can manifest musical variables, and accordingly the dimensions of
space (and the space itself) where they operate. Variable is a musical, listening,
a trail left by a musical object

254: Space to talk about a work already

made, it must be considered as " irreversible space , determined as

253Who we are

253On this idea, v. GRANGER

G.-G. [1999] Thought of space .

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194
number of dynamic relations, while having both "permanent World"
that it is, in all its diverse scales of magnitude determined by the thesis
which is manifested in the "compound" of the musical work "

255. This space is indicated

by the musical objects (rather than defined before them), on which no longer but that
is reconstituted during listening, we will name composed space .

. Several temporal directions

This distinction between space and composable composed seems important
because it allows us to pose the problem better time as a (possible)
Musical variable. Indeed, a musical composition is in delayed time and we
can be considered by dialing term temporal location, proportion, speed, and
many, like so many musical variables, so manipulated in the same way,
even in the same way that the heights or intensities, for example. It is thus
possible to have a musical space several different directions (or even
several independent dimensions) that have to do with time. However, in
space made time itself as one dimension , to which other
is somehow subject: if a variable is seen as traces a path
time is necessarily underlying and all these routes are simultaneous in
listening. What becomes different temporal variables, they spend
composable the compound, and how?

254In our formalization, we can identify this trace in the image of the duration of the function D
associated with this variable, var (D) itself inserted into the time.

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Perhaps we could say that the space is composable "spread" (because it
is empty): nothing irreversibly binds one dimension to another, they are all
truly independent. The composition of an object in this space connects
of "segments" of these dimensions, but it is only with the passage of time
the object space folds on itself as each relationship (at least). Yet
Once again, we perceive space composed only through the object, within which
there is no possible independence between variables - what comes to listening only
can only be analyzed. The only differentiation in the time that remains is effective
the time scales: the folds of composable space manifest themselves
joints at various scales, that every time a noticeable effect on
several different sizes at once (but along a single time). Thus,
short heights cycles can bring up by accents longer cycles
play modes; very varied rhythmic and quick joints within a
all sufficiently large instruments can build a global stamp. Even if
writing occurs (because it is symbolic) in a space to the dimensions
independent and "whole", which finally is in writing (or, more
Specifically, creates) a space dimensions "fractional".

. A dimension "extended"
The question may then arise if the space made is unique dimensions
that characterize (even if they are inextricably tied) are they always

255VAGGIONE
H. [1998b] The composable space .

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196
same throughout the same work for several works for several plays, a
same work? Several spaces distinct compounds co-exist (listen)
as can composable spaces? Any answer to these questions must, in
our view, be based on the single dimension necessarily "extent" of

the composite space, time. Indeed, the "spatial" properties are made
exactly those that emerge by the perceived relationships between (and including) the objects
musical. However, the definition of these objects, their identity to listen, time dependent
and a particular time scale: the network that brings together multiple constituting
a single object, which contains the cutting or may be formed in various relationships
inheritance and polymorphism

256 that turn according as they are observed in

closer or further. Attributes specific to a dimension, at a certain scale

time, can affect another dimension to another level

257; units that

appear separate, individualized by their internal morphology may participate

the definition of a morphology "large" (in another time scale), and be
well together in the closing of a musical object. All this can only arise in a work
musical that at as it is heard, and we could say that space
compound is unique to each moment - he constantly redefined by what is heard
then being put in touch with what remains in the memory of the listener.

256We find this theme at V

H. [1995] Objects, representations, operations .
AGGIONE
257Examples of transactions made on time but having effects on perceived space are built by
VAGGIONE
H. [2003] Decorrelation microtemporelle, morphologies and spatial representations of its
musical .

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197
But the immediacy of the space compound precisely the result that
"spaces-in", those previously collected but especially those levied on other scales
than the entire song heard, accumulate in the memory of the listener,
forming a complex network of different spatiality and not always consistent (to
the image of the various modular spaces several times folded on themselves by
inserting objects over time). From a certain overall length, the need
arises power "to hold" these inconsistencies in a general organization
yet understandable. Recall that we have defined as a musical object
as a set of operational attributes, managed within a particular space.
We can take this idea on a time scale and wider sense for
think what would, from this point of view, as a whole work.

4.2 Locality and globality

This accumulation of subspaces long duration, culminating in a single
space composed given by the entire work, suggests that we consider
characteristics of the entire room (in the global space where it fits) or
own only a segment of time which is inside it (local properties).
Ideally, we would consider local which can be separated from one context
larger, keeping a certain identity and autonomy.
Locally, the space compound is nothing other than a composable space
crossed by the time, but the whole composed of the work involves simultaneously
more spaces. This is actually the simultaneity spaces that characterizes all

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198
whole, be it an entire work, merely a section or even a
object. We might be tempted to say that it is local or global scale dependent
or temporal logic which we are, but that would only be partially
Correct the problem for us. Indeed, although we may
redefining multiplicity and unity each time scale, it could have y
resort, as we understand that on isolated points in space made - yet it
no such points

258 because all the modular spaces (therefore all

temporal scales) interact throughout the space made: overall, the space
compound is nothing other than the articulation of all the modular spaces, it is
always connected.
To formalize this joint spaces, algebraic geometry vision
may again be useful: it is to integrate several areas in one system
operations, making each of them a special case of a "general" space or
then a part of a formal of a higher logical network.

259Naturally, such

network or a space such as "general" should be composable, and his writing is done
simultaneously and interacting with that of all the communities (this is what allows
integrating all time scales in the same formal process). Us

could appoint the global composable space .

258Their possible concrete existence is irrelevant: they would anyway not discernible.
259This "logical nesting" space (and hence geometries) occurs especially with geometries
projective and Euclidean. SeeRANGER
G
G.-G. [1999] Thought of space .

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199
If each composable space (local) is defined by a set of operations,
are operations on these operations , or the relationship between them, which
define an overall geometry. The problem is that these operations, that
we now want to take as objects, can be very diverse nature (to
because of the diverse nature of their own objects) algebra that can take them all
account does not seem to be trivial. One of the first obstacles to
formalization of the space as a network composed of modular spaces or as
insertion time of a single global composable space is precisely the
transposition of all logical time lines to a single timeline
physics.

260

4.3 The form of a work

The whole "the greatest" in a compositional process is of course the
of the entire work. Thinking the form of a work thus involves thinking about both
geometric system that can articulate all spaces that appear throughout a
processes (listening or composition) and the geometry in which the work is registered
whole thought as object . Indeed, the work itself is a fence, manifest
"Salience" and singularities by its internal operations, and must provide
"Efficiently" to listening operations. As an object compound, so it builds

260According
to MG. [2002] The Topos of Music (ch.47), the theory for this formalization is not
AZZOLA
yet established.

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200
the space in which it operates, as well as music objects give
perceive the internal space of the work.
There is therefore a superposition (or confusion) of these two forms of
spatiality, that the work sets or reports (compounding area) and that the
characteristic of the Interior (the overall composable space). A piece of music listened to
would be its own space (which she would be the only object). Specifically, we
can consider a family operation or manipulation (with this time on
composable spaces) and all that they allow to manipulate (we
could appoint formal variables ), to define a new formal space , which
is itself a particular possibility of existence of the modular spaces. Thus,
these spaces are not arbitrary, but also have a form that arises in
formal space.
Immediately, a problem arises: the formal space is itself a space
composable, and we face the classic paradox of the sets that
contain themselves. It is in fact a vocabulary inaccuracy to which he
be careful: the formal space is composable because it is handled in the
compositional process; but it is not of the same nature as the other spaces
(Sound objects) we have named composable because in these the
time can be multiple and be all equivalent, while in the formal space
Time course of the work stands out as special and important. In addition,
formal space is unique (by the uniqueness of the work): he can fall back on itself

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even when it is crossed by time; but the operations on the form of a work
(At least some of them) must carefully consider a chronology, a
organization of modular spaces throughout the work. We are then led to
that formal space will not fold with the passage of time, because this time is
already enrolled in full - it is well made identifiable in formal space, the
the entire work indicated at the hearing. In a way, this is equivalent to saying that
all that is offered to the hearing at all scales, is part of the form of a work
(Or, more precisely, made this form); or that the whole of the joints
between all the possible sub-spaces of a work creates the logical (or geometry) in
which these same joints should take effect.
Once the work is completed, the deployment of all musical objects
will allow us to apprehend the spaces where they "place". The spaces we
actually hear are the ones that define objects, define and give
heard. We can think abstractly dimension of heights, develop
ranges and tones; if in a part (or fragment) are present only 4
heights, they are good all the space (any size) from the heights of this
musical object, and define the topology. Other notes would add to
those ones modify this topology - they would redefine the composite space.

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III - P

OETIQUE

MRUsical

Adults are allowed to collect and study anything, Even old theater
paper bags or programs.
- JRR Tolkien, On Fairy Stories

It is always with great curiosity and some healthy suspicion that we

have heard the term "musical poetics." Indeed, we find in the
the most diverse speech, relatives or not our music, or music in general,
rarely explained and used in very different ways, incompatible,
and sometimes on the edge of contradictory lack of precise definition. We do
can be denied that we ourselves around this expression
associations that suggest, albeit vaguely, a real center of our interest
musical, any content whose study could be significant.
In this chapter we take a critical look at this notion of
"Musical poetry". We will try first to obtain a definition
sufficiently large and clear, and then we will discuss issues that may well
arise: the poetic leads in music, questions of meaning, intention and
meaning, but also to the ways of doing , strategies to achieve these senses
and meanings. Finally, we will project the discussion on weak topology , one of

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works created during the development of this research and which includes
elements of our answers to these questions. All this study can be done by
ongoing dialogue with other writers and composers have always questioned us
and influenced visually: this is finally within such a multiple network
interactions and interpretations of musical activity that takes place. As elsewhere in our
reflection, we want to address these issues with a look and a vocabulary influenced by
mathematics and accuracy.

1. Definition (s)

To better understand our own relationship to the multiple meanings of "poetic

musical, "we will try to illuminate the surroundings of this expression as
appears in everyday language and then in the musicological and critical vocabulary.

261

We do not follow a chronological order in the authors whose remarks were

discussed, but rather references the critical path itself.

. Everyday language
A first naive approach the content of "musical poetry" would
naturally look for a non-specialist definition, which could indicate the "sense

261And assign importance to non-technical vocabulary may seem inappropriate in a search

like this, but we believe that its semantics often interferes with that of a language that
wants more precise: the current use of an expression is involved, ultimately, this can be for us
the gasoline itself, and thus affects the opportunities we have to redefine or change the point of
view on it. By taking into account the influence that we can best get around it.

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common "this expression. But this approach gives us a general sense of
"Poetic", without considering the possibility of qualifying musical:
poetic : nf (...) 1. Compendium of rules, conventions and precepts relating to
poetry composition and construction of worms. 2. (for ext.) Theory
General nature and destiny of poetry. Theory of creation
literary literality.

262

We can adapt this definition to our research in the field of music

taking "musical poetic" or as a collection of rules, conventions and
precepts relating to the composition of music pieces and the construction of sentences
musical , or as a general theory of the nature and destiny of music , a
theory of musical creation, musicality . However, we remain far enough
an association that can be done easily when speaking of "musical poetry":
the reference to the adjective "poetic" and so all figurative meanings (thus more or less
waves) of "poetry". The current use of the term then also serve to
say "poetic musicality" (or " the poetic music "), a formulation that could
make sense but never appears, to our knowledge.
to. music as a "text"?
This association with poetry, and therefore with a text and possibilities
interpretation and meaning it offers, we seem to be at the heart of the difficulties

around the phrase "musical poetry". The vocabulary of musical analysis

Traditional is indeed often extremely vague, and it seems that this

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205
imprecision also take place when it comes to poetry. A collection of
vague definitions in the analysis is documented by JJ Nattiez

263Which states that

based in fact on a quick analogy between language and music.

Precisely because the "meaning" music can not be compared to
linguistic meaning, it is futile to look for musical equivalents
the phrase or morpheme.
Indeed, the ways to understand a text, to abstract it is,
essentially different ways to assign meaning and significance to
musical work when it comes to semantics and correspondence between sounds (or words)
and ideas; but despite this we speak (and often fairly accurately) as "sentence
music "or" form of carriers "elements. The question of the meaning and
expressiveness thus remains posed by this parallelism in common usage; we could
might even say that it is a set of preconceptions about "musical manner"
communicate that leads to the comparison with poetry. This brings us closer
second part of our naive definition: a certain expressiveness can be heard
as a part, at least, the nature or fate of the music, or as the
defines "musicality" and "musical poetics" and to deal with those issues. What
Regardless, these links are established within everyday language so sometimes will refer to
ways to, sometimes the desired content or music necessary, sometimes a
"Function" communicative music.

262REY-DEBOVE
J, R EY, A. (org.) [2002] The Oxford Dictionary .
263NATTIEZ
, JJ [1973] Foundations of a semiology of music (part 2, Speech Musical,
pp.255-279).

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206
. Stravinsky
This is the side of the first of these definitions, perhaps, that place Igor
Stravinsky in his Poetics of Music in Six Lessons

264. Indeed, there is a question of

method execution correctness (and thus for the author, writing), positioning
in relation to the history of music ... Though sometimes make considerations on the
nature of his activity as a composer (when he mentions the writing context
his works, for example), it seems to be in the music, Stravinsky, other
poetry that the good work of the craftsman (composer or performer). It is not a matter for him
theorize creation, but especially the practice; his thoughts are clearly has
posteriori . 265
In addition, Stravinsky voluntarily loosens the musical expression of the report to
any text, even as seemingly innocuous or honest as the title

266. There is no

for him to musical expression itself (the music can not say anything, nothing
express), but stresses the need to respect (almost as prescriptions
Medical

267) Imposed by the partition interpreters or the composer is required

itself; all content is given by a just execution. In this sense, poetic

Musical Stravinsky is also a theory of the nature of music, and
musicality: its reduction to how to make converges all these subjects.

264STRAVINSKY
I. [1942] Poetics of music (in the form of six lessons) .
265"The theory does not exist. It can be deduced from some compositions. "(In C
, R. &
RAFT
STRAVINSKY
I. [1959] Conversations with Igor Stravinsky ).
266"The title of a play becomes an excuse for Free reinterpretations. "( Poetics of Music )
267"[The Creator] must ceaselessly refine his taste, or run the risk of losing insight. "(Id.)

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However, the Requiem Canticles are not immune to generate all kinds
significant associations (even when the text is not graspable) and Petrushka

actually accompanies an extra-musical activity, emphasizing and supplementing

Message, if that narrative ballet.

268 So we do not want to follow

Stravinsky strictly in its definition of "musical poetry": it seems more

close to a poietic (the same composer's confession). And although it is
effectively linked to all poetic, we are on that instead of the notice of Backs:
"Recall (...) that the poetic is to study processes is a challenge many
the meaning of speech, the expression on the message.

269Now we just

able to tackle these words, knowing how the composer or analyst can
work on and refer to it appropriately.

. Schoenberg, Dahlhaus
We find in an article by Carl Dahlhaus

270clear indications of its

how to take the phrase "musical poetics"; we see it as the same

occasion what it means, he said, and according to this definition, in Schoenberg.
The position is again taken downstream works: it is only with the work ready
it is possible to theorize. The history of music is to Schoenberg

268We intentionally include different periods of the works of one where Stravinsky presents its
musical poetics conferences: his vision of the subject does not exhaust nor the works he had already composed or
those which consist again.
269BACKES
J.-L. [1994], music and literature. Poetic comparative test , PUF, Paris. Us
return to the words of this author.
270The musical poetics of Schoenberg , in DAhlhaus C. [1997] Schoenberg , Contrechamps, Geneva.
The following quotations, unless otherwise indicated, are from this article.

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208
as a process highlighting and making it evident that, in the
own music nature is sketched and sketched as a possibility just waiting to be realized as a process whose vector is genius
infallible composer. Since this is the genius who decided, the theory is
a cura posterior .
But note a crucial difference from the point of view of Stravinsky:
the theory is no longer just seen as emanating works in general, but
as the dependent of a historical situation and a composer. In particular, it is
can no longer maintain such musical poetics which held that role until the eighteenth
(And what largely adheres Stravinskian neoclassicism), namely systems

e century

rules. For Dahlhaus, "any attempt to develop musical poetry from

e and XXe centuries must be limited to descriptive and
works from the nineteenth
individualizing rather than prescriptive and generalizing, "and the poetic must be
theory of an individual work.
The main focus remains on the study of the production of works, but poetic
271In

music must now be reconstructed from the interpretation of the works

interaction with theoretical about the composer on the meaning (and perhaps
meaning) of these musical works. In this sense, Dahlhaus includes poetic
music of Schoenberg as
an attempted compromise between postulates that the unfortunate quarrel
musical aesthetics between formalism and affect theory makes

271For Stravinsky, we should have instead built from the interpretation of the poetic, the way
whose work had been done.

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contradictory, namely the requirement of a compelling expressiveness at all
instant and seamless consistency of the musical event.
The expressiveness is thus part of the speech as well as the consistency (for
formal speak, according to rules); more specifically, the expression is made possible
by the coherence and aims to convey. The musical work becomes a kind of
Sound thinking , hardware implementation of a network of relationships between ideas - it is so
almost a speech itself (non metaphorical sense).
The presence of meaning and expressiveness in the discussion raised by Dahlhaus
indicates a particular vision of the "musical poetics" that takes the
communication and intelligibility of music as important elements for
composition. A workpiece being literally made and multiple, that is the consistency of
Overall, at all levels, who can guarantee understanding

272 and higher

reason, his expressive impact. If it is not a question of what would mean the
composer, is not, however, deny the music the opportunity to say something

273.

. Nono, Antunes
In contrast to this focus on how to make the term "poetic
music "is often taken to indicate clearly intentional content
the composer or to define a role (aesthetic, social, political) of the
music. Thus, we often find in Jorge Antunes direct references to

272"Schoenberg (...) regards as incomprehensible and does not tolerate what is isolated, which is sufficient in
yourself. Understanding of detail depends on the logic of the whole.

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210
274,

political climate that receives his works, either in texts and titles ( Inutilemfa
reference to the staff of the armed forces or Trs Impresses Cancioneirgenas

275Where

text phonetically stops on "AI-5" institutional dictatorship ended

Brazil), or in his writings on music published in Brazilian newspapers

276Either

still in the same sound material (loans to traditional music in

Dramatic Polimaniquexixe

277, Horns protesting in Sinfonia das BUZINAS

278). There

"Musical poetry" to Antunes is indeed what he is talking with his music, and
why he does it: the music is a poetic political music. That said, we do
should not avoid taking into account, at least when a text is absent from the inside
parts, a whole paratext which contributes to the political dimension to these
events. Indeed, the situation in which they occur is often crucial (for
political rallies, for example), as well as announcements that precede or
follow them, made by the composer, and that direct listening to content or meaning
specific; otherwise the effectiveness (or even the existence) of the message could be reached.
Concerns of a similar order are at Luigi Nono:
political commitment openly marks a large part of its production; there is

273Again, it is said emerges from within the discourse, coherence: "Unlike a

very widespread prejudice, expressiveness is also in no small measure, context feature.
274For trombone and piano (without piano), 1983. Analysis by trombonist R. Feitosa is in
TO
NTunes, J. (org.) [2002] Uma potica musical brasileira e Revolucionria .
275For flute, viola and cello, 1977.
276Particularly in the Correio Braziliense . See also the preface to A NTunes, J. (org.) [2002] Uma
potica musical brasileira e Revolucionria .
277For clarinet, cello and piano, 1985.

278
For choir,
instrumental
electronic
200
cars,
The 'Sinfonia
composerdas
himself
commented
on theensemble,
composition
and the sounds
creationand
of about
this piece
in
A J.1984.
[2001a],
NTunes
BUZINAS 'o sublime useful eo na fronteira between o medo ea Ousadia .

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211
Also in this composer titles, text and sound materials loaded
a specific meaning.

279 But "poetic music" at Nono

(Or applied to it) can take a broader sense, especially if we return to

the association of music with a text. Indeed, several works of his last
period 280employ special way of text, up to let only
on a purely instrumental score or referred by Title

281. The textual material is

sometimes taken directly as sound material, for direct cutting the sound of
words (as in the opera Prometeo ), sometimes as a source of the associations
composer only sketches (as in the string quartet). But these approaches
are not designed to remove the original meaning of the text for a sense of "purely musical"
that may arise as well, but to use it in a new way. In his study of
Fragmente - Stille , Doris Dpke

282actually points out that

The key is rather to make fruitful, the composition, the reports

between the phonetic sound equipment and semantic content. (...) The
division of the text into phonemes and the simultaneity of several texts have
not 'exorcised meaning, but by cons have developed in a figure
phonetic-semantic service of musical expression. "
Thus, by deconstructing the phonetic organization or placing to the
pages of his quartet, for they are neither read out nor taken as the subject of

279Include among many other Intolleranza (1960), Il canto sospeso (1956), The fabbrica illuminata (1964).
280This division is usually made from a string quartet (1980) and his work studio
Sdwestfunks in Freiburg; we follow here.
281As the quartet or No hay caminos, hay que caminar ... (1987).
282DOpke, D. [1987], fragmentary reflections on musical poetics of string quartet Luigi
Nono , Program Review-Autumn Festival, Contrechamps, Paris

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fragment which they entitle or even may be disclosed to the auditor is to Nono
infuse poetry he cites his musical discourse, may treat as
treat a poem. We could say it done this way the representation
a musical poetic idea

283; a similar approach is also in

pieces for choir Antunes as Cromorfontica (1969) and Proudhonia (1972,

tape).
For these two composers, "musical poetics" is what we
"Speaks" (or we want to talk) when making music. The choice of the verb
here is not trivial, because it is good for them to send a clear message
immediately understandable (at least when it comes to political commitment).
But we keep in mind the comment Betsy Jolas

284For whom

communication through music has perhaps afford to be done in terms

as accurate:
Will we (...) allow (...) that music has nothing to say since the
death of the tone? What other words, it would only make sense that through
well-established codes of this system, which we agree to think today
it refers ultimately to extra-musical meanings, using
a powerful network of agreements known and accepted by all? (...) [There
Music communicates with us through an endless stream of pictures
sound, the role (...) is to evoke and to relate some
lived in the world, the composer, with all of us. Otherwise

283Dpke cites the effect of direct parallel between text and music: mirror games, oppositions
agitation and calm ... The fragment associated with worms is "a symbol of operational possibilities and
human. "
284JOLAS
B. [1993], pictures and sound musicianship , in UCI
B -GLUCKSMANN
, C. & LEVINAS
, M. (org.)
[1993]. Note that the author does not speak explicitly of musical poetics in this text.

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is, if the music expresses, we manage to say something, it is through
an extensive network of representations .
This way of constructing a meaning or musicianship through
evocations and put in relation seems particularly relevant here because
it allows, among other things, to observe the musical poetry we have cited

previously from another angle: if it is question of representations (precisely,

to re-present an experience of the world of the composer), we can direct attention to
the composer's attitude towards his work. The "musical poetics" could then
reference to how to wear face the music and the compositional act, which prevents
the discussion around the front more or less just a possible message.

285

. Backes, Ruwet
So far, the different meanings of "musical poetics" that we
were able to articulate emanated parts of one musician at a time, and therefore dependent
a particular practice. To our knowledge, very few works address this issue
generally or without submitting the study to the presence of a text set to music; this
we find most often seems to be focused towards this "poetic musicality"
we mentioned above - the musical properties of a text or how such
piece is as such a poem (what we might also call a "poetical"
musical).

285This is the version of the expression that we think back in works such as those of
MR
B. [1989], Olivier Messiaen: a poetic of the marvelous , and M
G. [1999] A
ASSIN
AGNIEN
poetics of the unexpected .

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214
Independent ways, Nicolas Ruwet and Jean Louis Backs do not hesitate
not reporting to the literature, but do not associate their research to speech
sung (they avoid Likewise, most of the time). As they do not place
as composers, their approach is more general: the term "poetic
Musical "takes on a role rather than strictly musicological practitioner. There
poetic definition proposed Backs

286 is very inclusive indeed, and quite

remote associations that we saw in previous authors:

Poetics can be defined in a very modest way, such as
presentation and critical analysis of the terms used in the studies
literary and even in musical studies. The outlook remains (...):
clear, correct knowledge we can have of the reality of
literary and musical events.

These authors often refer to the language without

apply it directly to musical analysis: it is mainly in that it is investigating
the construction of a sense

287 (Or his apprehension ) that this discipline is used

as a reference plane, which reflect in music can approach or move away. There
"Musical poetics" so understood is therefore occupies the ways makes her
understanding of music: how to give coherence, unity of a work,
internal and external references, especially the relationship between practice and theories

286BACKES
J.-L. [1994] Music and Literature. Comparative poetics test .
287Again in the words of Backs (op.cit.), "The study of semantic interpretation is perhaps not
to recognize the meaning, but trying to find out how it is built. "This clearly echoes the
About J AKOBSON
R. [1963], General Linguistics Essays : "The role of the poetic is not as
it is believed too often dispel illusions, but to try to describe how some occur
representations.

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surrounding it, which would aim precisely to build this understanding. The opposition
between way (s) to make music and function (s) of music disappears in favor
a point of view which is intended purely analytical (fully posterior therefore) and not
normative, which would have no direct impact on a compositional act. Though
Stravinsky and Schoenberg can not define their "musical poetic" that result
works (their own and other composers), their efforts remain no less
oriented composition, therefore upstream of new works. The concept of
"Musical poetry" based on language takes the contrary all activity
musical understanding as a subject of discussion.
It is however important to note that, in the work of Ruwet

288, Research

the music (and musical) are clearly separated and interact very little,
the author speaking only rarely "musical poetry". For our discussion, his
literary comments are important as much or more than music, who turn
often rather to a semiotics of musical

289. These are his thoughts on a speech

articulated, provided direction (or liable to be), we want to link music

and organizations - and that is just "be provided with sense" that can cause problems.

Indeed, for the author as much poetry as music are filled with meaning,
naturally, but this meaning is not constructed in the same manner, and thus not
tudiable with the same tools. If this position is of course not refutable in itself,

288RUWET
N. [1972], language, music, poetry , Seuil, Paris.

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216
However Ruwet leads to evacuate some meaning opportunities for music:
almost all the musical sense has syntagmatic relationships (discussed
especially sense , and no semantics or meaning, in the sense where we ate
the above terms).
For its part, Backs also the question of the possibility of obtaining
Semantic only with instrumental sounds, to "speak" the music:
"Is it really possible to make the music speak without using paratext title,
comments, programs, various notices, or sung text? "Whatever arises
Always separation between literature and music, he is led to the assignment of meaning to
music by text, present or implied ("a known melody and provided words
proliferated imagination "). But we do not see a musical discourse
taken into account; although the unity of a work, for example, be considered by its
internal correlations (and shortcomings of these), the very idea of a "musical discourse"
is usually discarded (it is, for the author, "a metaphor that it is good
monitor "). Now we want (or we) speak well of joints, links
logical, referrals ... a material that "speaks" not in the sense described above.
It is all that we want to place under the term "discourse".
This approach of "poetic music" oriented language seems
quite fruitful also because it indicates precisely how to present

289The paradigmatic analysis, and much less contrastive analysis that extends (v. V
[2003]), is indeed essentially a work on signs more or less complex, "cut" in
music by whoever analysis.

OisinF.

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217
some problems related to the definition of a musical semantics.

290However, it remains

relatively far from our position, which can not ignore the issues and choices
own in the composition.

. A position
Among this multiplicity of meanings of the term "musical poetics", we
retain the first link to a poietic : the composer viewpoint,
ours, all poetic is primarily a poetics , it can not be
sense of expression or construction without a thought on how to make
music, action on the act and the compositional process.
On the other hand, as do we mean in what is retained below
above, we also maintain the link to the expressiveness and meaning for
fuzzy matter the definitions: as we see it, a poetic depends on
expressive intent , a report layout (or at least its intent) with a network
meaning outside music or at work studied.

291

These two considerations are closely related to the role of memory

in listening to a work. We indeed consider two types of memory
game: an internal memory , associated with links between the elements of the room, their
organization and how it contributes to the construction of a musical sense; and

290Other authors also address a "musical semantics", however, without correlation

with a (or the ) poetic. See eg B
, J. [2005] The iper-sistmica musica and
Aboni-SCHILLINGI
MR
G. [2002] The Topos of Music .
AZZOLA

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218

external memory , which is built by references to other objects or ideas as

present in the work. A recovery or a variation, recognized as such, are
Simple examples of internal memory in action; a literary quote or allude
the political context can only take place through an external memory at work.
We could summarize our position by associating the term "poetic
music "to a poietic oriented towards building an internal memory and a
external memory to a work.

2. Poetry and poetics weak topology

In 2004, we had the opportunity to work for a month with the New
Ensemble Modern, for which we have made weak topology .

292We will here

an analysis of the room, not in the traditional sense, but to highlight the
ways in which we addressed in practice some issues related to the poetic
and expressiveness. In most cases, we will follow the order of composition of the work, which
coincides generally, but not always, with that of its progress.
Here, we also prominent effects on the listener we
Wanted (especially in terms of understanding and attribution of meaning) and
how to include them in the results of the compositional process (locally,

291We do not exclude and to consider parts that offer no relation

outside the music. Instead, we can now speak accurately of a poetic
musical "truncated", which removes these expressive intentions.

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until the complete works). Naturally, this involves the presentation of views
very personal aesthetic (if not entirely idiosyncratic), so unjustifiable in
itself; it's not about them we want to build the discussion, but how
to put them in. Many times we will refer to American Lessons Italo
Calvino 293A text very much in our mind when composing; the room was not
written as an application of these principles, but they have directed several decisions

in the writing process.

2.1 Clotting time and time felt

One of the concerns that have guided the composition weak topology was
294We wanted

get a room that seemed to last less than it actually lasts.

and of course act on the comprehensibility of the work, but this time contraction
that we find in several rooms that have marked us

295Has a value for us

aesthetic in itself: it is always a rewarding source of surprise, as we

perceive afterwards (discovering the actual elapsed time during playback) or
in the course of the work (in a sudden redefinition of the form we
believed collect).

292The NEM is a chamber orchestra of 15 musicians in residence at the University of Montreal, led
by Lorraine Vaillancourt; weak topology was composed on the occasion of their Forum in 2004 (v.
partition attached).
293CALVINO
I. [1984] Lezioni americane . Unless otherwise noted, the following references to this author
indicate this item.
294The order for the Forum asked a room from 15 to 20 minutes, that have considered a period
relatively long.

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The room is organized into five sections (introduction, three central areas and
a coda), each designed this compact as confinement in connection with
parties that precede it.

. An inspiration in literature
This "implosion" of musical time is not unlike what offers
Calvino when talking about speed , large content presented in very few words.
Of course, here there is no question of small amount of "words", but rather
concepts : If a musical discourse fragment lets represent in our memory
concepts with little, if we can reconstruct (or what would be the "essential")
from some logical links, we can consider that it "takes up little space," and
the time it seems to have to be fully understood is reduced.
The example Calvino takes to start his presentation on the speed is

Charlemagne legends bewitched by a ring; he detects a verbal link (the words

"Love" and "passion") and a narrative link (the magic ring) that provide
juxtaposition of the chain of events and founded the economy of this concise narrative.
We see compositional strategies we can transpose music
thinking of them as a material link and shapes or features link. More
Specifically, a certain economy of the "narrative" music can get links

295We believe including the Sonata in B minor by Liszt, the Don Quixote of Richard Strauss at Concubia
e R. Schumann symphony or 3
e
Nocte J. Baboni-Schilingi but also to certain passages of 4
String Quartet H. Lachenmann ( Grido ).

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established between the different forms that are similar figures (or the same
figure), and links between the various figures who perform similar functions.

. Phrasing and integrations

Over a period provided around twenty minutes, the first decision
Compositional to reduce the time was felt to have an introduction
could be somehow forgotten formally , that would prepare what could be
felt like the "real" start of the music (or at least a new beginning in
zero.) This is an action on what we call the phrasing of the piece:
assigning meaning to a concatenation (ordinate), so that each element plays a
role in obtaining a unit (the sequence being understood then as one
"Object") in this position and that order . In other words, the phrasing is all
functions of each segment, a position and a special order, which
emerges a form that includes.

296

Thereby separating the introduction (mm. 1-70) the course "principal" of the
room, we chose the first part of a musical space relatively
"Narrow" and in great contrast to what follows: it is immediately characterized
a predominance of his noisy on the stable sound; heights, they appear
the strings and piano, are still in the Mith spectrum of bass.

297

296We will take this definition also for pieces smaller than the entire room.
297Notes written for winds indicate that playing positions that filter wind sounds - a
pipe fully open or closed, or greater or shorter length.

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With this general uniformity of timbre and harmony, is the dynamic activity and
rhythm that articulates the shape of this section.
For it to lead to this new beginning without being simply a
contrasting part, we wanted to bring the introduction of a proper consistency
(As if the room promised change completely in this space) and a
directionality (which allows it to go somewhere). These two aspects are of the form
here linked and interact 298They allow the integration of contrasts and joints
section in a single "object" and provided greater meaning.
to. in the partition
The first instrumental gestures generate a continuous texture, rather smooth, which
occasional salience only appear mostly as traits
ascendants (still wind sounds). These climbs punctuate the material; each
appearance they allow to close a unit of "meaning." Thus giving an identity
common (through their profile) at different times segments, we pay already
possible condensation of musical time. Moreover, the pace (formal) these units
mark can be used to renew the listener's attention.
The first time this object appears (mes.6-7), it is followed by a clear break
Texture he comes ( ram tongue dry, interruption of all wind sounds, first
entrance of the piano). This cut mark that precedes such an accomplished frase and

298This is not necessarily the case: we can say that gives directionality (some)
consistency, but not the reverse.

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This gives rise blasts the role of "end-of-frase"

299; two repetitions

souffle- the object ram tongue before resuming the starting texture confirm this. There
second appearance of the line upward (mes.15-17) is a variation, it is more
long but still happens after four texture measurements (more articulate than internment
the first time); the recovery is quick, and the input of piano still follows our
punctuation. A much longer segment, which explains the different components of the
complex wind sounds preceding the third viewing this object, made with the same
figure that the second time. The immediate left with a previously exposed material as is,
and develops, participates once again to the consistency of the piece: it "knows" in
somehow what to expect.
The fourth case contradicts the established behavior which the
above: the times grew on each occasion the gesture, but this one is shorter than
the third, and also follows a shorter segment of the smooth texture; again, we
move to a more pointillist texture, accompanied by noise-notes (mes.38-50).
The deviation is temporary and establishes a new standard for really a
redefinition; return to the previous situation confirms this. It is at this time of recovery
a previously established standard that is completed for us the impression that the room
whole could develop in this particular space. In addition, the accumulation of these
ascending lines, which is added to the accumulation, faster thereof, short
crescendos on the ropes and suspended cymbal (my. 63, 67, 70), reinforces the perception

299Incidentally, it also redefines the very first step of the play, which takes clearer sense

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a process which passes through the entire section and leads to the second part. The entrance
it notes with "real" clear and regular rhythmic articulation, and

much stronger dynamics, redefines the process that precedes and in fact,
indeed, an introduction.
b. "Lightness"
Family stamps and joints used in this first section
still involved in the making "formally forgettable" by characteristics that
closer to the light given by Calvino, especially facing the densities
follow the course of the play. We can find it, somehow, the
accept that the author gives the concept

300" a literature of language , through

which meanings are channeled through a verbal fabric almost imponderable up

take that same consistency rarefied "; "Narration of reasoning or
psychological process that involves subtle and imperceptible elements ,
or description which includes a high degree of abstraction "; " a figurative image
lightness that takes an iconic value. " We do not, of
obviously true meanings channeled directly by the material used,
but the economy in stamps leads in fact to a rarefied consistency of the material
sound. On the other hand, the directionality of this introduction is based on elements
actually subtle (which must overlap to be perceived) and dynamic

of a pickup.
300This emphasis.

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sweet and the omnipresence of the breath sounds close may refer to a
certain "sound lightness".

2.2 Internal and external memories

In the composition of this piece, we used a memory
External only as poetic resource, to represent what we evoked the
Title: objects or vague concepts without clearly defined beginning or end, and whose
definition may seem difficult or doubtful. This is the case in these melodies

background (2 e part, my. 109, 132, 162, 178; and 3

harmony borrowed from Bach in 4

e part, my. 271 and 284) and

e part (my 361-448;. it is the sarabande of

the sixth suite for solo cello), but other aspects of the work involved in
this representation without using this way to memory: dtimbrs sounds
the introduction, agreements dal niente and out of phase with the attacks (throughout the
room), and even the opposition between a static harmony and rhythmic articulation
very varied.
On the other hand, it is structuring internal memory to the work we
we wanted to build the consistency of speeches and opportunities for integration . There
internal memory of a room are in the links that can be established between its parts and
its scales: if we hear something that brings us to another party or
Another aspect of the same work, this is possible thanks to the internal memory (plus
Specifically, this reference is the internal memory).

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The first way to organize the internal memory of a work is to establish
of norms of behavior of the material which are evident. We have in
weak topology of local rules, valid in a section (or subsection), and
some global standards which remain for the entire room. Once an established standard,
becomes a landmark for listening: it is followed or contradiction, it can be
depart to return. The presentation of such benchmarks seem useful to us
Since we no longer have a framework that we can consider shared
all listeners and would allow these movements 'conceptual' speech
(Functional punctuation, proximity or distance of a recognizable state ...). In
Somehow, we are talking about musical spaces (compounds): the tonal system was
an area known beforehand, in which we could put objects and make a priori
assumptions about their behavior (and the impact of these behaviors on
the intelligibility of the music); without such a landmark, it is for the same objects
present the space in which the workpiece is registered (the space that it is , in fact - that

Registration fills completely). The establishment of a standard is a way of

make evident the topology of this space: if we can assess distances, we
can think about continuity.
It is of course possible to redefine a standard throughout a room: it implies
a new allocation of meaning to the game elements in listening (redefining
these, in fact), or simply a change. But this change does not erase
obviously not what precedes: geometrically, it is not simply the

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transition from one space to another, but the immersion of a first space in a
Second - this is the global topology that redefines a local change.
In each section weak topology we can identify several standards
that characterize local (even when these standards are momentarily thwarted).
Surface of the joints, which punctuate the overall shape, correspond to
redefinitions of local standards: if enough is redefined, we
a sufficiently significant change to be perceived as moving to another
section. Note that "significant enough" depends on integration over time:
for a standard to be effectively redefined, not only opposed (by
process that moves away to return to it), it is actually a new standard
is established, and this takes time. If we see these standards as spaces
the room occupied or sets in giving to hear, we can say that we
find a neighborhood of this space to be able to judge its topology; the more
neighborhood is extended, the better you know - but you may not know it by one
dot or a few isolated points.

301

301In a way, this redefinition always takes place continuously (see Chapter II), but here we
consider the possibility of a change "locally discontinuous".

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C CONCLUSION

No sou nada.
Nunca serei nada.
No posso querer ser nada.
To leave isso, tenho em mim todos os sonhos do mundo.
- F. Pessoa (lvaro de Campos) Tabacaria

We tried to follow throughout this text, faithful to our reasoning

compositional approach and thus to study its theoretical peculiarities. The choice of a
light filtered by mathematics has allowed us to focus on the study of
shape of the elements of this thought, and relations between them and the
define.
When formal thought is thus placed in the foreground, we run the
may move away from physical constraints of the music and
perception. In Granger's opinion, "the transcendental attitude analysis we
leads to the recognition that mathematics are always further away from perceived.
We sought to support, despite our affinity with this author, an attitude
Instead of analyzing immanent , which allows us to see a relevance of mathematics

302GRANGER
G.-G. [1967] Formal Thinking and Human Sciences (p.11).

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302

229
taken as a tool of thought, especially when the perception and understanding
are at the center of reflection.
Indeed, it is the insertion of the musician in his world that shapes its
music: it can only be a reflection of the relationship of the individual to its exterior.
The study of reasoning (and not just perception) involved in a
compositional process is actually at the heart of what we might call a
theory of the composition . Moreover, as the role of the visual arts has never
was to give to see exactly what the eyes perceive the world, that of
Music is not to suggest that the ears perceive: a
exceeded "habits" is essential to the perceptive musical expressiveness and
an abstraction research can eliminate or question its possibility. Yet
the composer chooses to follow strictly mathematical operations
compose, there is in the music, in the final analysis as musical rules.

. Mathematics, a metaphor for the composition?

If it is still possible to establish a relationship between mathematics and music,
form of this relationship and its musical consequences are not given a priori in
one of these disciplines. It is the action and the perception of a musician (not a
mathematician) who carry this form according overwhelming musical interests. He
no sense "material" in mathematics without interpretation, and there
So no relationship between mathematics and music without arbitrary. However, a

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report is still there, we just have to ask the question of its existence to do
pop up.
Whitehead 303 says that there is "discrimination desires, according to a
standard adjustment. The reason the country is doubtful, vague and obscure. But

exists. " This imprecision is the same space within which unfolds arbitrary,
the choice of the musician on the significance of structures (mathematics and other) game
in listening. This "wave territory" is actually also present in mathematics:
we can say that the mathematician deals overwhelming elegance and
clarity of his speech, the economy and the accuracy of the means employed; he directs his
Search by personal taste or trends in a group where it fits, and there
puts his "accent" staff; short, there can be no mathematics research
without properly aesthetic choices. On the other side, the composer handles
abstract forms which, although they can be inspired by elements of nature, do
often refer to themselves; it seeks to articulate intelligible speech from
a complex symbolic system; he must insert his research in continuity
historical, or deliberately choose to break or change the route and points
mark.
Our work is composed of several of these ideas representations
mathematics; we could say that is the musical representation of an idea of the
Mathematics.

303WHITEHEAD
, AN [1929], The Function of Reason , Princeton University Press.

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o 2

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H. [1996] Towards a transformational approach in CAD , Proceedings of the 3
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Informatics

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(Available

th
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TONNEXES

We append here a few scores of pieces composed during our

research, and have shown our words in this text.
A brief overview of mathematical ideas represented in more centrally
each piece before its partition. These introductions can be skipped without loss of
Content for reading works.

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1. a convex set

Convexity
Let E be a vector space.
For A, B "E, the line segment ends a and b is a whole
[A, b] = {(1-t) a + Tb; 0't'1}
A subset X of E is said convex if
a, b "X [a, b] 7X

Homotopy
n, With the same
Are : [a, b] X paths throughout X7
domain [a, b] and the same ends, that is to say (a) = (a) and (b) = (b).
A homotopy between and is a continuous
H: [a, b] _ [0,1] X
such that
H (s, 0) = (s) H (s, 1) = (s), H (a, t) = (a) = (a) and H (b, t) = ( b) = (b)
for all s "[a, b] and all t" [0,1].
When there is a homotopy between and we say that these paths are
homotopic .
A homotopy H: [a, b] _ [0,1] X between is said and adapted when there is a
(0 <a <1/2) such that for all x "[a, b], H (x, t) is constant in the intervals 0't <to and
1 to <t'1; ie, such that
H (x, t) = AE (x) for all t "[0, a) and
H (x, t) = c (x) for all t "(1-in, 1]
and that for every x "[a, b].

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251

2. Lema 1 - e parties primitive

Let f: [a, b] a limited function and P = {a = t

0, T1, T ...n= B} a partition
[A, b]. For each i = 1, ... n, we will
mr = inf f
andMR = sup f
.
i
i
[ti-1,ti]
[ti-1,ti]
We define the lower sum s (f; P) and the higher amount S (f; P) of the
function f with respect to the sheet P by:
n
n
s ()f ; P = mr (t - t ) andS ()f ; P = MR (t - t ) .
i i i-1
i i i-1
i=1
i=1
We can then define the integral lower and upper integral of f on
[A, b] with (respectively):
b
b
f = sup s ( f ; P ) and f = inf S ( f ; P ) ,
P
P
to
to
with the upper terminals (u) and lower (inf) taken on all of the sheets P
[A, b].
b
b
f = f And we note
A function f is integrable on [a, b] when
to
to
bf .
the integral of f simply
to

Fundamental Theorem of Analysis

If an integrable function f: [a, b] has a primitive F: [a, b] , then
b f = F ()b ()- F to .
to

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254

3. Any differentiable function is continuous

Definition of the derivative in x0Denoted f'(X0) 'To> 0, -p> 0 such that

f ()x ()- f x
0 - f ' ()x <
x - x <
0
0
x- x
0
Definition of continuity in x 0 'To> 0, -p> 0 such that
| Xx 0| < | f (x) -f (x 0) | <A
Theorem : -f

'(X ) f is continuous at x .
0
0

Demonstration :
Either 0> 0. There

0> 0 such that:

f ()x ()- f x
0 - f ' ()x <
x - x <
0
0
0
0
x- x

 f ()x ()- f x - f '()x ( 0x - x ) < x - x < .

0
0
0
0
0
0 0
But
| F (x) -f (x 0) | - | F '(x0) (Xx 0) | '| F (x) -f (x 0) F '(x 0) (Xx 0) |
Therefore
| Xx 0| < 0 | f (x) -f (x

0) | <A0 0+ | F '(x0.) | | (Xx 0) | <0(To

0+ | F '(x0) |)

.
Thus, > , 0 =
0 such as
1 + f ' ()x >
0
| Xx 0| < 1 | f (x) -f (x

0) | <A,

therefore f is continuous at0x. Quod erat demonstrandum .

Another demonstration:
- f x0 exists, then there is also the limit
If the limit lim f ()x ()
xx0 x - x0
() ()

lim [ f ()x ()- f x ] = lim f x - f x0 (x - x ) =

0 x x x - x
0
xx0
0
0
f ()x ()- f x0 lim (
x - x0) = .0
= lim

x
x
- 0
xx0
xx0
So f is continuous at x

0. QED

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4. weak topology

Let E be a normed vector space and complete (a Banach space).

A topology on E is a family of subsets E, among which are
the empty set | and E itself, which is stable intersections () and finite unions
(>) Any. These subsets are called the open E.
A function f: E is continuous if the antecedent by f of every open set
is an open E.
Let now E 'the space of continuous linear forms E (dual
topological E), and f 'E'.
We denote by
f : E the defined application
f (X) = <f, x> (form
linear f applied to the point x E). Considering all f in E ', we obtain a
I family of applications in , it may be noted that (I
.
f ) f "E '
The weak topology on E, denoted (E, E ') is the coarsest topology on E
(With the least open) makes continuous all applications (
f )f "E.'

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