BRAIN-BASED LEARNING

Learning is innately linked to the biological and chemical forces that control the human brain.
The connection has received increased attention in recent years because scientists are now
better equipped to study the brain. Research on brain-based learning is offering practical ideas
for enhancing learning even more.
The roots of brain-based learning principles are in neurological research particularly during the
1990s.

In fact, the 1990s was themed the decade of the brain.

The publicity for brain

research in the 1990s promoted increased emphasis on questions about how the brain learns.

INTRODUCTION
Some people imagine that they investigate learning itself by studying brain functioning. The
required techniques are highly specialized and technical, enjoying dramatically rapid
development with the advent of approaches such as Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
scans. Moreover, it has become fashionable to talk of brain-based learning and to attempt to
add weight to educational recommendations by appealing to supposedly relevant discoveries
about brain functioning.

PET Scan of the Human Brain

Brain-PET fusion Image

In the light of this, it is important to ask how far brain science can contribute to our
understanding of learning. Neuroscience can help us to maximize the efficiency with which the

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brain learns. Cognitive neuroscience focuses on an effort to understand the interrelationship

between mind and brain.

1. WHAT IS BRAIN-BASED LEARNING?

Since all learning is connected to the brain in some way, what is meant by a brain-based
approach? It is learning in accordance with the way the brain is naturally designed to learn. It
is a multi-disciplinary approach that is based on the fundamental question, What is good for
the brain?

It draws from multiple disciplines, such as chemistry, neurology, psychology,

sociology, genetics, biology, and computational neurobiology. It is a way of thinking about

learning. It is a way of thinking about your job. It is not a discipline on its own nor is it a
prescribed format or dogma.

In fact, a formula for it would be in direct opposition to the

principles of brain-based learning. The brain-based learning encourages you to the nature of
the brain in your decision-making. By using what we know about the brain, we can make better
decisions, and we can reach more learners, more often, with less misses. Quite simply, it is
learning with the brain in mind.

2. HOW THE BRAIN LEARNS

While the process of learning involves the whole body, the brain acts as a way station for
incoming stimuli. (See Figure 2.1) All sensory input gets sorted, prioritized, processed, stored,
or dumped on a subconscious level as it is processed by the brain. Every second a neuron can
register and transmit between 250 and 2,500 impulses. When you multiply this transmission
ability by the number of neurons were estimated to have (approximately one hundred billion),
one can begin to fathom just how unfathomable our human learning potential is.
A. BASIC BRAIN ANATOMY
The largest, most highly-developed portion of the brain (80 percent) is called the cerebrum. The
cerebrum is made up of billions of nerve cells and is divided into two hemispheres. The right
side of the cerebrum controls the left side of the body and vice versa. It is the cerebrum that is
responsible for higher-order thinking and decision-making functions. (See Figure 2.2)
Distinguishing the outer surface of our brain, the cerebral cortex (Latin for bark or rind),
appears as folds or wrinkles about the thickness of an orange peel. Rich in brain cells, this
tissue covering would be about the size of an unfolded sheet of newspaper if stretched out flat.
Its importance is highlighted by the fact that the cortex constitutes about seventy percent of the

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nervous system. Its nerve cells of neurons are connected by nearly one million miles of nerve
fibers. The human brain has the largest area of uncommitted cortex (no particular required
function) of any species on earth. This gives humans extraordinary flexibility and capacity for
learning.
i. The Brains Four Lobes
The cerebrum is made up of four primary areas called lobes. They are the occipital, frontal,
parietal, and temporal lobes (See Figure 2.3). The occipital lobe is located in the middle back of
the brain and is primarily responsible for vision. The frontal lobe is located in the area around
the forehead and is involved with purposeful acts like judgment, creativity, problem-solving, and
planning. The parietal lobe is located at the top back portion of the brain. Its duties include
processing higher sensory and language functions. The temporal lobes (left and right side) are
above and around the ears.

These areas are primarily responsible for hearing, memory,

meaning, and language, although there is some overlap in functions between lobes.
ii. The Mid-Brain Area
The territory in the middle of the brain or core (sometimes referred to as the mid-brain or limbic
system) includes the hippocampus, thalamus, and amygdale (See Figure 2.4). This area, which
constitutes about 20 percent of the brain by volume, is responsible for sleep, emotions,
attention, body regulation, hormones, sexuality, smell, and the production of most of the brains
chemicals.
The part of the brain that we know as our inner self or the conscious thinker, is not totally clear.
It is possible that our consciousness is dispersed throughout the cortex, or it may be located
near the reticular formation atop the brain stem. Some scientists, however, believe that the seat
of consciousness is in the front-left hemisphere or the orbitofrontal cortex (See Figure 2.5).
The sensory cortex (monitoring the skin receptors) and the motor cortex (needed for movement)
are narrow bands located across the top middle of the brain in the parietal lobe. In the back
lower area of the brain is the cerebellum (Latin for little brain), which is primarily responsible
for some aspects of balance, posture, motor movement, music, and cognition.
Learning begins on a microscopic cellular level.

The basic functional unit of the nervous

system, the neuron (Greek for bowstring), is responsible for information processing, which it
accomplishes through the conversion of chemical signals to electrical signals and back again.

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For the sake of comparison, a fruit fly has one hundred thousand neurons, a mouse has five
million, and a monkey has ten billion. Each of us has about one hundred billion neurons. Adults
have about half the number of neurons found in the brain of a two-year-old. A single cubic
millimeter (1/16,000th of an inch) of brain tissue has over one million neurons, each about fifty
microns in diameter.
iii. Brain Cells
We possess two types of brain cells glial cells (See Figure 2.6) and neurons (See Figure 2.7).
a. The basic functional unit of the nervous system, the neuron (Greek for bowstring), is
responsible for information processing, which it accomplishes through the conversion of
chemical signals to electrical signals and back again. For the sake of comparison, a fruit
fly has one hundred thousand neurons, a mouse has five million, and a monkey has ten
billion. Each of us has about one hundred billion neurons. Adults have about half the
number of neurons found in the brain of a two-year-old.

A single cubic millimeter

(1/16,000th of an inch) of brain tissue has over one million neurons, each about fifty
microns in diameter.
b. Glial cells (Greek for glue), also known as interneurons, have no cell body and are
about ten times more concentrated in our brain than their neuronal counterparts. A
number this large is difficult to conceive, but it means that at birth we have as many as
one thousand billion glial cells that is, one hundred times the number of stars known in
the Milky Way. The roles assigned glial cells seem to be multi-faceted and likely include
the production of myelin for the axons, structural support for the blood-brain barrier, the
transportation of nutrients, and regulation of the immune system.
c. Dendrites and Axons
Dendrites are the branched projections of a neuron that act to propagate the
electrochemical stimulation received from other neural cells to the cell body of the
neuron from which the dendrites project.
Dendrites do not process electrical signals. They are one of two types of protoplasmic
protrusions that extrude from the cell body of a neuron, the other type being an axon.
An axon (from Greek axis), also known as a nerve fibre, is a long, slender projection of a
nerve cell, or neuron, that typically conducts electrical impulses away from the neuron's
cell body. The function of the axon is to transmit information to different neurons,
muscles and glands. Axons can be distinguished from dendrites by

several features

including shape, length, and function.

A normal functioning neuron continually fires, integrates, and generates information
across microscopic gaps called synapses, thereby linking one cell to another.

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No

neuron is an end point in itself. Rather, they act as conduits for information. A single
neuron may connect with one thousand to ten thousand other cells.

The more

connections the cells make, the better. The total of all the synaptic reactions arriving
from all the dendrites (See Figure 2.8) to the cell body at any given moment determines
whether that cell will, in fact, fire. In other words, learning involves groups or networks of
neurons.
Although the cell body has the capacity to move, most adult neurons stay put and simply
extend their single axon outward. Although each neuron has only one axon, it has
numerous fibers called dendrites, that also extend from the cell. Axons normally only
talk to dendrites, and dendrites normally only talk to axons. When an axon (which is
thinner, leg-like extension) meets up with a dendrite from a neighboring cell, LEARNING
happens.

3. WHEN LEARNING ACTUALLY TAKES PLACE

A. Learning Insights
Learning physically changes the brain. Every new experience encountered actually alters the
electrochemical wiring. When the brain receives a stimulus of any kind, the process of cell-tocell communication is activated. The more novel and challenging the stimuli (up to a point), the
more likely it will activate a new pathway. If the stimuli is not considered meaningful to the
brain, however, the information will be given less priority and will leave only a weak trace. If the
brain deems something important enough to commit it to long-term memory, a memory potential
occurs.
The consensus today is that our cognitive maps arent purely a result of nature or nurture, but a
dynamic interplay of both a theory called emergentism At each stage of development,
particular genes are affected by particular environmental factors. Recent research has focused
on what has been called windows of opportunity, referring to a period of heightened readiness
for learning. It is thought that exposure to appropriate stimuli during these peak times can
optimize a childs natural appetite for learning especially learning related to language, music,
and motor development. Genes are not templates for learning; they do, however, represent
enhanced risk or opportunity. Thus, if a child is born with the genes of a genius, but is raised in
a non-enriched environment, the chances of him/her actually becoming a genius are low. A

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child with average genes, on the other hand, raised in a supportive and intellectually stimulating
environment, may achieve greatness by virtue of his/her enriched environment.
B. Learning Factors
A typical learner arrives not with a blank slate, but with a highly customized brain bank of
experience.

Even before pre-school age, a learners brain has already been shaped by a

multitude of influences including home environment, siblings, extended family, playmates,

genes, trauma, stress, injuries, violence, cultural rituals and expectations, enrichment
opportunities, primary attachments, diet and lifestyle (See Figure 3.1).
C. The Stages of Learning
Optimal learning occurs in a predictable sequence. The sequence includes five stages (Figure
3.2). First, the pre-exposure or preparation stage provides a framework for the new learning
and primes the learners brain with possible connections. This stage may include an overview
of the subject and a visual representation of related topics. The more background a leader has
in the subject, the faster they will absorb and process the new information. The second stage,
acquisition, can be achieved through either direct means as in providing handouts or indirect
means, as in putting up related visuals.

Both approaches can work, and they actually

complement each other. Elaboration, the third stage, explores the interconnectedness of topics
and encourages depth of understanding. The fourth stage, memory formation, cements the
learning, so that what was learned on Monday is retrievable on Tuesday. And, finally, the fifth
stage, functional integration, reminds us to use the new learning so that it is further reinforced
and expanded upon.
Ultimately, learning is the development of goal-oriented neural networks. Single neurons arent
smart but integrated groups of neurons that fire together, are very smart. This orchestrated
neural symphony is what learning is all about. Elaborate neural networks are developed over
time through the process of making connections, developing the right connections, and
strengthening the connections. (See Figure 3.3)
An enormous gap exists between what a teacher explains and what a learner understands. To
reduce this gap, teachers need to engage students through deeper understanding and feedback
with implicit and explicit learning strategies. (See Figure 3.4)

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4. SOME FACTS ABOUT THE BRAIN

The brains shape is like that of a walnut. Its color looks like that of an uncooked liver. A normal
human brain is flesh-colored and soft enough that it can be cut with a butter knife.

The adult

human brain weighs about three pounds. By comparison, a sperm whale brain weighs about
seventeen pounds. A dolphin brain weighs about four pounds; a gorilla brain weighs about one
pound. A dogs brain weighs about seventy-two grams or six percent of a mans brains total
weight. Comparable in size to a large grapefruit, this three-pound wonder is made up of mostly
water (78 %), a little fat (10 %), and even less protein (8 %).

The brain is divided into two

hemispheres called the cerebral cortex (commonly known as the conscious thinking center),
covered in a thin skin of deeply grayed tissue, and separated by the corpus callosum. That
curve of white tissue acts as a bridge between the two halves, shuttling information back and
forth at such a rate of speed that for all practical purposes the two hemispheres act as one.
Every brain module is duplicated in each hemisphere another of natures creative duplicating
systems.
The areas lying beneath the corpus callosum make up the limbic system (described earlier in
the basic anatomy of the brain), the area that relates to the unconscious and yet profoundly
affects our experience. Its job is to feed information upward to the conscious cortex. Emotions
are generated in the limbic system along with many urges that direct our behavior and usually
help us in survival. The thalamus is a limbic system structure and it connects areas of the
cerebral cortex that are involved in sensory perception and movement with other parts of the
brain and spinal cord that also have a role in sensation and movement. As a regulator of
sensory information, the thalamus also controls sleep and awake states of consciousness.
The brain might be said to be in touch more with itself than anything else.
The typical brain has approximately 100 billion neurons, and each neuron has one to 10,000
synaptic connections to other neurons.

Our brains are suffused with a vast number of

interdependent networks. We process all incoming information through those networks, and
any information already stored influences how and what we learn.
The human brain is the best-organized, most functional three pounds of matter in the known
universe.

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The brain is the most complex organ we possess. As previously mentioned, it contains about
one hundred billion (100,000,000,000) cells, about ten times that of a monkey, twenty times that
of a mouse and one thousand times that of a fruit fly. When linked together, the number of
connections our brain cells can make is estimated to be from one hundred trillion to as much as
ten hundred trillion followed by millions of zeroes (more than the estimated number of atoms in
the known universe). These numbers provide a picture of the theoretical capacity of the human
brain, but what about the practical capacity? We could increase our knowledge, skills, and brain
connections by 10, 20 or even 50 percent, but realistically, there are not enough hours in the
day to fully utilize our brains potential.
Some researchers say that our brains begin to lose cells starting at birth. Others say, cell
deterioration begins at about age twelve. We can afford to lose a few million cells. More
significant is the fact that the brains plasticity continues as we age.

According to Marian

Diamond, a neuroscientist and professor of neuroanatomy in the University of California, The

ability to change the structure and chemistry of the brain in response to the environment is what
we call plasticity.

This means that although we may have fewer brain cells, we are still

increasing the connections between the cells. We never have to stop learning. Thus, our
brains capacity is more a matter of time, exposure and motivation than it is of innate design.

6. PRINCIPLES FOR BRAIN-BASED LEARNING

The following principles for brain-based learning act as a general theoretical foundation for
brain-based learning.

These principles are simple and neurologically sound.

Applied to

education, however, they help us to reconceptualize teaching by taking us out of traditional

frames of reference and guiding us defining and selecting appropriate programs and
methodologies.
A. Principal One: Every Brain is Unique
Like your thumbprint, your brain is unique in the world. Although we all have the same set of
systems, including our senses and basic emotions they are integrated differently in each and
every brain. The variability of a learners brain reflects many factors including genetic and
environmental influences. The connections between cells that are made as a result of our
experiences form our personal cognitive maps.

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Brain size and weight vary among humans as well.

While the founder of relativity, Albert

Einstein, had an average-size brain, the French writer Honore de Balzac had a brain 40 percent
larger than average. Our brains internal wiring is distinct, too. An example would be two
people at the scene of the same accident having such different eyewitness reports

Our

perceptions are very personal translations of stimuli based on our neural networks, which act as
filters. This is why stereotypes and biases are so persistent. They are embedded in our neural
networks. In other words, our genetics, as well as our life experiences, sculpt our brains into
distinctly unique organs.
In addition to the experience-based differences in physiology, neural wiring, and bio-chemical
balance, every brain is on a different timetable of development. For some brains, the normal
time to read is age six; for another, it may be age three. Completely normal development can
different by a spread of three years between learning. In addition, because learning actually
changes the structure of the brain, the more we learn, the more unique we become. (
B. Principle Two: Every Brain Simultaneously Perceives and Creates Parts and Wholes
Although there is evidence of brain, laterality, meaning that there are differences between the
left and the right hemispheres of the brain, left brain-right brain is not the whole story. In a
healthy person the two hemispheres are inextricably interactive, irrespective of whether a
person is dealing with words, mathematics, music or art. The brain is asymmetrical. According
to Dr. Laccino, The left brain is in charge in a majority of cases, regardless of body side.
Considering how much in the body is assymetrical, it is no surprise that we have functional
preferences for handedness, eyedness, and earedness. Oddly, even maladies like tumors (in
the breast, kidney, nasal, ovary, and testes areas) are reported more often on the right side of
the body.
The common biological preference to right-handedness may be related to the greater number of
motor fibers in the nerve pathways from the left hemisphere to the right side of the body
The value of the two-brain doctrine is that it requires educators to acknowledge the brains
separate but simultaneous tendencies for organizing information.

One is to reduces such

information into parts; the other to perceive and work with it as a whole or series of wholes.
People have enormous difficulty learning when either parts or wholes are neglected. Good
teaching builds understanding and skills over time because it recognizes that learning is
cumulative and developmental. However, parts and wholes are conceptually interactive. They

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derive meaning from each other. Thus, vocabulary and grammar are best understood and
mastered when they are incorporated in genuine, whole-language experiences.

Similarly,

equations and scientific principles are best dealt with in the context of living science.
C. Principle Three: All Learning Engages the Entire Physiology
Like the heart, liver or lungs, the brain is an incredibly complex physiological organ functioning
according to physiological rules. Learning is as natural as breathing and it is possible to either
inhibit or facilitate it.

Neuron growth, nourishment and synaptic interactions are integrally

related to the perception and interpretation of experiences. There are three aspects for balance
in learning: Active Learning (pair-sharing, building, discussing, drawing and performing, Passive
Learning (listening, watching and generalizing) and Settling Time (walking, reflecting, sleeping,
eating lunch and taking breaks). (See Figure 6.1)
Stress and threat affect the brain, and it is influenced differently by peace, challenge, boredom,
happiness, and contentment. In fact, the actual wiring of the brain is affected by school and
life experiences. Anything that affects our physiological functioning affects our capacity to learn.
In this connection, we can say that brain-based teaching must fully incorporate stress
management, nutrition, exercise, drug education and other facets of health into the learning
process.

Learning is influenced by the natural development of the body and the brain.

According to brain research, for example, there can be a five-year difference in maturation
between any two average children. Gauging achievement on the basis of chronological age is
therefore inappropriate. (
D. Principle Four: The Brain is a Parallel Processor
The brain ceaselessly performs many functions simultaneously.

Thoughts, emotions,

imagination, and predispositions operate concurrently. They interact with other brain processes
such as health maintenance and the expansion of general social and cultural knowledge.
Like the brain, good teaching should orchestrate all the dimensions of parallel processing and
it must be based on theories and methodologies that make such orchestration possible. As no
one method or technique can by itself adequately encompass the variations of the human brain,
teachers need a frame of reference that enables them to select from the vast array of methods
and approaches that are available. (
E. Principle Five: The Search for Meaning is Innate

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The search for meaning (making sense of our experiences) is survival-oriented and basic to the
human brain. The brain needs and automatically registers the familiar while simultaneously
searching for and responding to novel stimuli. This dual process is taking place every waking
moment (and, some contend, while sleeping). Other brain research confirms the idea that
people are meaning makers. The search for meaning cannot be stopped, only channeled and
focused.
Brain-based education must furnish a learning environment that provides stability and familiarity.
At the same time, it should be able to search the brains curiosity and hunger for novelty,
discovery, and challenge. Programs for gifted children already combine a rich environment with
complex and meaningful challenges. Most of the creative methods used for teaching gifted
students should be applied to all students. (
F. Principle Six: The Search for Meaning Occurs Through Patterning
In a way, the brain is both scientist and artist, attempting to discern and understand patterns as
they occur and giving expression to unique and creative patterns of its own.

Designed to

perceive and generate patterns, the brain resists having meaningless patterns imposed on it.
By meaningless what is meant are isolated pieces of information that are unrelated to what
makes sense to a particular student. When the brains natural capacity to integrate information
is acknowledged and invoked in teaching, vast amounts of initially unrelated or seemingly
random information and activities can be presented and assimilated. (
Learners are patterning all the time in one way or another. Teachers cannot stop them;

they

can only influence the direction. Daydreaming is a form of patterning, so are problem solving
and critical thinking. Although educators choose much of what students are to learn, they
should, rather than attempt to impose patterns, present the information in a way that allows
brains to extract patterns. Time on task does not ensure appropriate patterning because the
student may actually be engaged in busywork while the mind is somewhere else. For teaching
to be really effective, a learner must be able to create meaningful and personally relevant
patterns.

This type of teaching is most clearly recognized by those advocating a whole

language approach to reading, thematic teaching, integration of the curriculum, and the relevant
approaches to learning.
G. Principle Seven: Emotions are Critical to Patterning

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What we learn is influenced and organized by emotions and mind-sets involving expectancy,
personal biases and prejudices, self-esteem, and the need for social interaction.

Thus,

emotions and cognition cannot be separated. Emotions are also crucial to memory because
they facilitate the storage and recall of information. The emotional impact of any lesson or life
experience may continue to reverberate long after the specific event that triggered it.
In Descartes Error, Emotion, Reason and the Human Brain, it is argued that the brain, mind,
body, and emotions form a linked system. Emotions are not separate, but rather enmeshed in
the neural networks of reason. Scientific work based mostly on animal and human studies of
subjects with brain damage, established that damage to particular areas of the brain
especially to the prefrontal lobe (bilaterally) and the amygdala eliminated the ability to feel
emotion, and as a result, faulty cognition occurred.
In The Emotional Brain, it is argued that emotions or arousal is important in all mental
functions and contributes significantly to attention, perception, memory and problem solving. In
fact, without arousal, we fail to notice what is going on we dont attend to the details.. But
too much arousal is not good either. If we are over-aroused, we become tense and anxious and
unproductive.
The old way of thinking about the brain is that mind, body, and feelings are separate entities, but
theres really no division between these functions. Our emotions help us to focus our reason
and logic. Our logical side may help us, for example, set a goal, but it is our emotional side that
provides the passion to persevere through trying times. Certainly, excessive or undisciplined
emotions can harm our rational thinking, but a lack of emotion can also make for equally flawed
thinking.
The influence of emotions on our behavior is immense. Because they give us a live report at
all times on the bodys response, they receive priority status. Scientists believe the critical
networks that process the emotions link the limbic system, the pre-frontal cortices, and perhaps
most importantly, the brain areas that map and integrate signals from the body (See Figure 6.2).
We know that damage to the limbic system (primarily the amygdale and anterior cingulated)
impairs primary emotions (innate fear, surprise, etc.). But damage to the prefrontal cortices
compromises the processing of secondary emotion that is, our feelings about our thoughts.
Emotions let us mind our bodys physical reaction to the world.

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While other areas of the brain help process emotions, the amygdala an almond-shaped
structure within the limbic system (See Figure 6.3) is highly involved. Buried deep in the front
half of the temporal lobes, it is mature at birth and stores intense emotions, both negative and
positive.
The amygdale exerts a tremendous influence over our cortex. Although the amygdale seems to
have twelve to fifteen distinct emotive regions within it, so far only two (those linked to fear)
have been specifically identified. Other emotions such as intense pleasure may be linked to
other areas
When our body experiences primary emotions, our brain reads them as part of the critical
information that ensures our survival. The body generates the sensory data, feeds it to the
brain, and then integrates it with emotions and intellect to form a thinking triumvirate for
optimal performance and decision-making. (
Emotions are a critical source of information for learning and ought to be used to inform us,
rather than considered something to subdue and ignore. Students who feel tentative or afraid to
speak in front of a group of their peers, for instance, may have a very legitimate and even
logical reason for the fear. Failing might cost them significant loss of social status.
Our thinking is not contaminated by emotions. Rather, our emotions are an integral aspect of
our neural operating system. Emotions speed our thinking by providing an immediate physical
response to circumstances. When we value something strongly, whether it be a principle, a
person, or a thing, that relationship becomes emotionally charged. If our emotions have been
badly neglected by others (especially early in life), emotional problems, fortified by an
overproduction of some neurotransmitters, can result. Such intense reactions to our emotions,
however, are a survival benefit and allow us to preserve that which is important, including our
lives.
Teachers must understand that students feelings and attitudes will be involved in learning and
will determine future learning. They should make sure the emotional climate is supportive and
marked by mutual respect and acceptance. Cooperative approaches to learning support this
notion. Student and teacher reflection and meta-cognitive approaches should be encouraged.
The emotional color of teacher-student encounters depends on the sincerity of the support that
teachers, administrators and students offer each other.

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H. Principle Eight: Learning Involves Both Focused Attention and Peripheral Perception
The brain absorbs the information of which it is directly aware and to which it is paying attention.
It also directly absorbs information and signals that lie beyond the immediate focus of attention.
These may be stimuli that one perceives out of the side of the eyes such as gray and
unattractive walls in a classroom. Peripheral stimuli also include the very light or subtle signals
that are within the field of attention but are still not consciously noticed (such as a hint of a smile
or slight changes in body posture). This means that the brain responds to the entire sensory
context in which teaching or communication occurs. There is a fundamental principle that every
stimulus is coded, associated, and symbolized by the brain. Every sound (from a word to a
siren) and every visual signal (from a blank screen to a raised finger) is packed full of complex
meanings. Peripheral information can therefore be purposely organized to facilitate learning.
The expression pay attention is appropriate. Attention is a payment of the brains precious
resources. It requires that we orient, engage, and maintain each appropriate neural network.
Maintaining attention requires highly disciplined internal states and just the right chemical
balance. Paying attention is not easy to do consciously. The areas of the brain dedicated to
attention are highly complex and somewhat variable (See Figure 6.4). Neuroimaging methods
have shown increased neuronal firing in the prefrontal and posterior parietal lobes and in the
thalamus and anterior cingulated when someone is working hard to pay attention.
The teacher can and should organize materials that will be outside the focus of the learners
attention. In addition to traditional concerns with noise, temperature, etc., peripherals include
visuals such as charts, illustrations, set designs, and art, including great works of art. It is
recommended that teachers change art frequently to reflect changes in learning focus. Music
has also become very important as a means to enhance and influence more natural acquisition
of information. The subtle signals that emanate from a teacher also have an impact on learning.
Our inner states show in skin color, muscular tension and posture, rate of breathing, eye
movements, and so on. Teachers should engage the interests and enthusiasm of students
through their own enthusiasm, coaching and modeling, so that the unconscious signals relating
to the importance and value of what is being learned are appropriate

The term double

planeness was coined to describe the congruence of the internal and external in a person it is
important for teachers to practice what they preach and to express genuine feelings rather than
to fake them, because the true inner states are always signaled and discerned at some level by
learners. (

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I. Principle Nine: Learning Always Involves Conscious and Unconscious Processes

We learn much more than we ever consciously understand.

Most of the signals that we

peripherally perceive enter the brain without our awareness and interact at unconscious levels
having reached the brain, this information emerges in the consciousness with some delay, or it
influences motives and decisions. Thus, we remember when we experience, not just what we
are told. A student can easily learn to sing on key and learn to hate singing at the same time.
Teaching, should therefore be designed in such a way as to help students benefit maximally
from unconscious processing. In part, this is done by addressing the peripheral context (as
described above). In part it is done through instruction.
A great deal of the effort put into teaching and studying is wasted because students do not
adequately process their experiences. Active processing allows students to review how and
what they learned so that they can begin to take charge of their learning and the development of
their own personal meaning. It refers to reflection and meta-cognitive activities for example -,
a student might become aware of his or her preferred learning style. Teachers may facilitate
active processing by creatively elaborating procedures and theories through metaphors and
analogies to help students recognize the material in personally meaningful and valuable ways. (
J. Principle Ten: We Have Two Types of Memory: A Spatial Memory System and A Set
of System for Rote Learning
We have a natural spatial memory system which does not need rehearsal and allows for
instant memory of experiences. Remembering what we had for dinner last night does not
require the use of memorization techniques. That is because we have at least one memory
system actually designed for registering our experiences in ordinary three-dimensional space.
The system is always engaged and is inexhaustible. It is enriched over time as we increase our
repertoire of natural categories and procedures (there was a time when we did not know what a
tree or a television was). The system is motivated by novelty. In fact, this is one of the systems
that drives the search for meaning.
Facts and skills that are dealt with in isolation are organized differently by the brain and need
much more practice and rehearsal. The counterpart of the spatial memory system is a set of
systems specifically designed for storing relatively unrelated information. The more information
and skills are separated from prior knowledge and actual experience, the more we depend on
rote memory and repetition. These systems operate according to the information processing
model of memory which suggests that all new information must be worked on before it is stored.

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However, concentrating too heavily on the storage and recall of unconnected facts is a very
inefficient use of the brain. (
Neuroscientist Daniel Schacter, PhD, suggests that multiple memory locations and systems are
responsible for our learning and recall. He suggests that different learning tasks may require
different ways to store and recall information.
Researchers emphasize that its the retrieval process which activates dormant neurons to
trigger our memories.

(See Figure 6.5) They argue that you cannot separate memory and

retrieval that memory is determined by what kind of retrieval process is activated. Each type
of learning requires its own type of triggering. When enough of the right type of neurons, firing
in the right way, are stimulated, you get successful retrieval. In larger patterns, whole neuronal
fields can be activated. For example, at hearing the word school, hundreds of neuronal
circuits may be activated triggering a cerebral thunderstorm.

This is due to the many

associations and experiences most of us have with the subject.

There is one area of the brain that is solely responsible for memory. Most of our memories are
well-distributed throughout the cortex. This spread the risk strategy explains why a person can
lose 20% of their cortex and still have a good memory. It also helps explain why a student can
have a great recall for one subject, like sport statistics, and a poor recall for another, like names
and faces.
Memories of sound are stored in the auditory complex.

Memories of names, nouns, and

pronouns are traced to the temporal lobe. The amygdale is quite active for implicit, usually
negative, emotional events. Learned skills involve the basal ganglia structures. The cerebellum
is also very critical for associative memory formation, particularly when precise timing is
involved as in the learning of motor skills. Researchers have found that an area of the inner
brain, the hippocampus, becomes quite active for the formation of spatial and other explicit
memories, such as memory for speaking, reading, and even our recall about an emotional
event. (
When you think of an idea, hear your internal voice, get an image, recall music, or see a color in
your minds eye, you are reconstructing the original memory. Your brain creates a composite of
the various elements of the experience on the spot. (See Figure 6.6) This means you only
remember something once. After that, youre remembering the memory! But, your memory is
on-call at all times of the day and night.

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Educators are adept at focusing on memorization of facts.

Common examples include

multiplication tables, spelling and sets of principles in different subjects.

However, an

overemphasis on such procedures leaves the learner impoverished, does not facilitate transfer
of learning, and probably interferes with the development of understanding. By ignoring the
personal world of the learner, educators actually inhibit the effective functioning of the brain.
K. Principle Eleven: The Brain Understands and Remembers Best When Facts and
Skills
Are Embedded in Natural Spatial Memory
Our native language is learned through multiple interactive experiences involving grammar and
vocabulary. It is shaped both by internal processes and by social interaction.

That is an

example of how specific items are given meaning when embedded in ordinary experiences.
Education is enhanced when this type of embedding is adopted. Embedding is the single most
important element that the new brain-based theories of learning have in common.
The embedding process is complex because it depends on all other principles previously
mentioned.

Spatial memory is generally best invoked through experiential learning, an

approach that is valued more highly in some cultures than in others. Teachers should use a
great deal of real life activity including classroom demonstrations, projects, field trips, visual
imagery of certain experiences and best performances, stories, metaphor, drama, interaction of
different subjects, and so on. Vocabulary can be experienced through skits. Grammar can be
learned in process through stories or writing.

Mathematics, science, and history can be

integrated so that much more information is understood and absorbed than is presently the
norm.

Success depends on making use of all the senses by immersing the learner in a

multitude of complex and interactive experiences. Teachers should not exclude lectures and
analysis, but they should make them part of a larger experience. (
L. Principle Twelve: Learning is Enhanced by Challenge and Inhibited by Threat
The brain learns optimally when appropriately challenged, but downshifts under perceived
threat. In the language of phenomenology, we narrow the perpetual field when threatened by
becoming less flexible and by reverting to automatic and often more primitive routine behaviors.
The hippocampus, a part of the limbic system, appears to function partially as a relay center to
the rest of the brain. It is the part of the brain most sensitive to stress. Under perceived threat,
we literally lose access to portions of our brain, probably because of the extreme sensitivity of
hippocampus. The hippocampus is very sensitive to cortisol and also the center of the bodys
immune system, so the chronic release of cortisol weakens the bodys ability to fight disease.

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Stanford scientist Robert Sapolsky said We have known for many years that stress can
interfere with neuron production in the fetal brain and it can damage and even kill pre-existing
neurons. We also have evidence that when there is neuron production in the adult brain,
stress can also disrupt it. High levels of distress can cause the death of brain cells in the
hippocampus an area critical to explicit memory formation.

Chronic stress also impairs

students ability to sort out whats important and whats not. (See Figure 6.7) There are other
problems. Chronic stress makes students more susceptible to illness
For the most part, the brain responds to threat exposure in predictable ways. The moment a
threat is detected, the brain jumps into high gear. The amygdala is at the center of all our fear
and threat responses. It focuses our attention and receives immediate direct inputs from the
thalamus, sensory cortex, the hippocampus, and the frontal lobes. Neural projections (bundles
of fibers) from the amygdala then activate the entire sympathetic system. Normally, it triggers
the release of adrenaline, vasopression, and cortisol. These chemicals immediately change the
way we think, feel, and act.
New research reveals that threatening environments can trigger chemical imbalances, and
especially worrisome, is the reduced level of serotonin. Serotonin is a strong modulator of our
emotions and subsequent behaviors; and when serotonin levels fall, violence often rises.
Threats also elevate levels of vasopressin, which has been linked to aggression.

These

imbalances can trigger impulsive and aggressive behavior that, some believe, can lead to a
lifetime of violence. (
The list of potential threats to learners is endless, and they can exist anywhere, from ones own
home to a neighbors home, an over-stressed parent, a boyfriend, a rude classmate, an
unknowing teacher who threatens a student with humiliation, detention or embarrassment, or a
combination of these stressors.

When the brain is put on alert, defense mechanisms and

behaviors are activated, which is great for survival but not for learning. (See Figure 6.8)
Blood flow changes to the brain also negatively impact the learner. According to Dr. Wayne
Drevets of the University of Pittsburgh, when faced with threat, we experience an increased
blood flow to the lower (ventral) frontal lobes and a decreased flow to the upper (dorsal) areas
of the frontal lobes. This means the area of the brain that processes emotions is getting the
lions share of the blood creating a sense of overwhelm, while the brain area used for critical
thinking, judgment and creativity is shorted. (See Figure 6.9)

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Threats are defined as any stimulus that causes the brain to trigger a sense of fear, mistrust,
anxiety, or general helplessness. This state can be a result of physical harm or perceived
danger (usually from parents, teachers or peers); intellectual harm (unrealistic performance
expectations or time constraints, or lack of resources, support, positive role models); or
emotional harm (embarrassment, humiliation, or isolation). Under any type of perceived threat,
the brain

Loses its ability to correctly interpret subtle clues from the environment
Reverts to familiar tried and true behaviors
Loses some of its ability to index, store, and access information
Becomes more automatic and limited in its responses

Loses some of its ability to perceive relationships and patterns

Is less able to use higher-order thinking skills
Loses some long-term memory capacity
Tends to overreact to stimuli in a phobic-like way
8. MYTHS ABOUT LEARNING AND THE BRAIN

The emerging field known as Mind, Brain, and Education (MBE) is committed to connecting
diverse disciplines including cognitive psychology, biology, and education using this
collected knowledge to inform education policy, practice, and research. We believe that MBE
can help increase understanding and separate sound science from myths. Several myths
impede knowledge sharing among groups that want to understand and improve teaching and
learning. Some of those myths are about the field itself: the role of neuroscience in informing
education and the false division between researchers and educators. Other myths, what we call
neuromyths, have become widespread and influence how we educate children: left brain, critical
periods, and gender differences in the brain.
A. MYTH #1 The brain is irrelevant in learning
After Bruno della Chiesa, a leader in education neuroscience, proposed launching a project on
neuroscience and learning to an international audience of policy makers, he was confronted
with a surprising question from a French colleague: Questce que le cerveau a a voir I
apprentissage? or What does the brain have to do with learning? Bruer presented a more
refined and nuanced version of this question when he argued that brain science isnt directly
relevant to learning. Cognitive psychology, he said, must mediate between neuroscience and
education to develop useful applications. While there are some limitations in translating
neuroscientific findings directly into classroom applications, these limitations are typically due
more to insufficient collaboration among researchers and educators than to intrinsic limitations.
In fact, neuroscience and education have successfully worked together to build knowledge

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thats applicable to the classroom. For, example, consider dyslexia. Education researcher have
established that most dyslexic students have difficulty analyzing the sounds of words. Many of
these students can learn to read through different learning pathways that use distinctive
processes, but they still have difficulties analyzing sounds of lower levels. Biological and
cognitive research helped explain how this pattern of strengths and weaknesses emerge
through differences in genetics and corresponding brain processes. By understanding both the
manifestation of dyslexia across many students and some of the causes for different profiles of
dyslexia, researchers have been able to quickly identify students at risk for dyslexia and design
differentiated interventions. As Denis Mareschal and his colleagues have pointed out, education
researcher often studies the what, focusing on the outcomes of learning. By using different
methods, including those from cognitive psychology and neuroscience, we can also study the
why and the how of learning. While brain researcher alone cant tell us how to teach children,
understanding the brain leads to uncovering underlying learning mechanisms. (
B. MYTH #2 Neuroscientists know it all, and teachers dont understand research.
A second myth is the false divide between scientists and educators. While there are some
barriers to communication between researcher and educators, these barriers are far from
insurmountable. Science is often seen as a collection of inviolate truths when, in fact, science is
about iteratively seeking information that allows us to refine ideas and hypotheses. There are
rarely quick fixes, and in our experience, educators are sometimes frustrated by the seemingly
never-ending rotation of research-based interventions that theyre expected to implement.
Simultaneously, educators sometimes feel, often rightfully so, that neuroscience research has
little or no bearing on their classroom work. Of course, there is research that directly addresses
the needs and questions of students and teachers, and some of it is wildly successful at
improving educational outcomes. However, there could be much more such research if
educators and researchers had more opportunities to communicate and collaborate. One way to
support such interaction is through research schools, where educators and researchers work
alongside one another to conduct research. In research schools, educators and researcher work
together,
1) To formulate a research question thats both feasible and relevant to practice.
2) To design a study to answer the question.
3) To collect ecologically valid data.
4) To interpret the result.
5) To design interventions or policies that are implied by those results.
This is the most certain way to ensure that researchers are asking the questions that matter to
teachers and that teachers are engage on both the inputs and outputs of research. Both

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scientist and educators have important knowledge ton contribute to solving educational
problems, and supporting this type of collaborative work leads to improved educational
outcomes. One result of the difficulties in translating neuroscientific findings for the education
community has been the perpetuation of neuromyths, misinformation about the brain and the
way we learn that has led to common popular beliefs. While there are unfortunately many of
these neuromyths floating about, weve chosen to highlight three that have particularly important
implications for educations: right brain/left brain, critical periods and gender differences in the
brain. (
C. MYTH #3 Johnny is right brained and that is why..
This myth can be traced back to the days of phrenology in the 19 th century, when some believed
that particular characteristics resided in certain sections of the brain, which could be detected by
mapping individuals skulls. We still see ridiculous permutations of this kind of myth in the
popular press from time to time (i.e., there have been accounts of the love area of the brain
and similar ideas, such as a warrior gene). Most of us recognized that feeling the ridges on
ones head isnt likely to be good in math. However, a modern version of these beliefs is
common: People believe that each hemisphere of the brain controls separate cognitive skills.
For example, if you Google right brain left brain, youll learn within the first few hits that the left
hemisphere is much more logical and analytical while the right hemisphere is creative and
holistic. You can even take a short quiz to find out which hemisphere dominates in your case,
and youll learn that schooling tends to emphasize left-brained skills. But all of this is simply not
true. First all of us use all of our brains so the idea that we use mainly one hemisphere just
doesnt make much sense. Certain hemispheres of the brain do play a larger role in particular
functions, such as the left hemisphere in many speech functions in most people. However, all
complex learning tasks involve a widely distributed network of brain areas. In fact, functional
imaging technology, which allows us to view brain activity while people are performing cognitive
tasks, shows that reading even a relatively simple word such as dog activates networks widely
distributed across the brain, including both the right and left hemisphere. Moreover, some
functions involve different brain areas in different people. We now know that the brain is
remarkable adaptive, with the capacity to adapt to new demands and new environments across
an individuals life, even late in life. What are the implications of the pervasiveness of this myth
for education?

One of the most dangerous implications centers on teacher and parent

expectations for students, which often lead to stereotyping students capabilities and limitations
according to adult perceptions of their strengths or weaknesses. Research on motivation
indicates that students and teachers alike often falsely believe that intelligence is a fixed,

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intrinsic characteristic (Dweck 1988). Coupled with right brain/left brain neuromyth, this can
result in Johnny thinking hes simply not good at math and importantly, that he cant change this
characteristics of his brain. Of course, individuals do indeed have relative strengths and
weaknesses, but its important not to stereotype them or treat them as fixed and immutable. The
right brain/left brain split is indeed a myth, not a fact. Its wrong to imply that strengths and
weaknesses come from the dominance of one hemisphere and are resistant to good teaching
and learning. Profiles of strengths and weaknesses are much more complex than simple
hemispheric dominance, and theyre malleable because the brain is remarkably flexible and
adaptive (OECD 2007; Shonkoff and Phillips 2000).
D. MYTH #4 Everyone knows you cant learn a language after age_.
The critical period myth is another neuromyth that has a significant influence on how we
educate. This neuromyth is related to the previous one in that it rests on a static conception of
the brain, which we now know to be false. A critical period is a period of time when some stimuli
must be presented in order for a biological function to be activated. While theres evidence for
limited critical periods in brain development in limited domains (such as the strength of vision in
the two eyes), no evidence supports a critical period for academic skills. We most often hear the
critical period myth applied to language acquisition, with the prevalent belief being that its
impossible or at least extremely difficult to achieve competency in a language after a certain
age. The age that people cite often varies from 3 or 4to a high of about 13 or 14. This myth is so
interactive, in part, because it seems to hold true to the experience of many people who
struggled through a second language requirement in school only to promptly forget almost
everything after graduation. In fact, however, extensive research shows that there are sensitive
periods for certain aspects of language, but not a critical period for language learning. Sensitive
periods are windows of opportunity in which an individual can acquire a certain ability most
easily and efficiently. For example, there appears to be sensitive period for learning phonology,
with evidence that infants are initially able to recognize and distinguish phonemes across
multiple languages, but after three to six months of age (and exposure to the sounds of the
languages spoken at home), children become more skilled at producing the sounds that apprear
in languages that they have heard. This effect appears to be the result of neural pruning
(removing less efficient neural connections), probably to increase the efficiency of sound
processing by the brain. One result may be increased difficulty with age in acquiring a nativelike accent in a non-native language. However, people show large individual differences in
learning a new language, and some individuals can still acquire close to a native accent in
adulthood. Other studies have shown that adult non-native language learners are actually

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quicker at acquiring new vocabulary in a second language and that they may draw on a
sophisticated understanding of meanings that gives them advantages over young children. In
short, there is no evidence that there are biological critical periods for acquiring non-native
languages. Recent studies have even begun exploring the cognitive benefits of acquiring a nonnative language in adulthood for mitigating or delaying the symptoms of some age related
disorders such as Alzheimers. In the United States, as elsewhere, globalization and migration
patterns have meant a dramatic increase in the number of non-native language learners who
enter school each year. Understanding how these students learn has important implications for
all students, particularly in a world where multilingualism is becoming the expectation instead of
the exception. Some estimates suggest that outside of the United States, two-thirds of the world
population speak more than one language competently. If American students are to be
successful, educators and parents must have clear expectations regarding students language
acquisition based, not neuromyths. (
E. MYTH #5 Girls are better at reading, but boys dominate math and science.
Like the other neuromyths, popular conceptions about ability differences between boys and girls
come from misinterpretations of legitimate neuroscientific findings. Brain size does correlate
with overall body size, and men are larger on average than women. Therefore, many men will
have larger brains on average than many women simply because they tend, on average, to be
physically larger. At the same time, women who are larger will typically have larger brains than
men who are smaller. Also, contrary to common belief, there is no inherent correlation between
brain size and intelligence or academic achievement. Yes, men and women show important
differences-most clearly in sexual anatomy and also in cultural roles, which lead to differences
for men and women in every culture. However, neither boys nor girls have any inherent
advantage in general. Girls show a small advantage in language on a average, but many boys
are better at language on average than most girls. Boys show a small advantage in spatial
reasoning on average, but many girls are better at spatial reasoning than most boys. No
neuroscientific data suggest that boys brains are better suited to any given domain or subject or
vice versa. The research pendulum is shifting from how to improve the performance of girls in
math and science to how to improve academic outcomes for boys across domains. Individual
differences in talents certainly exist, and every student has a profile of strengths and
weaknesses, but no evidence suggests that these profiles are biologically limited by gender.
(See Figure 8.1) (
F. DEMYSTIFYING THE MYTHS

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As so-called brain-based programs and interventions continue to be marketed to educators and

parents, educator and parents must become ever more knowledgeable about how to distinguish
legitimate scientific findings from ministerpretations and neuromyths. However, not all of the
burden should fall on educators and parents. Researchers also have a responsibility to
communicate their findings in ways that minimize misunderstanding. One responsible activity for
researchers and educators alike is transdisciplinary discussion: Teachers and scientist can
cooperate to use research to answer practical questions about the problems facing schools or
with the help of neuroeducational engineers trained to join research with practice, our ultimate
goal is to increase shared knowledge. By working together, we can shift our focus from
debucking neuromyths to building understanding of teaching and learning. (

9. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

The brain-based education movement is now about 30 years old. Its no longer a flash in the
pan, no longer a topic to ignore.

In recent decades, nearly every responsible academic

discipline has turned to the brain to learn something new, and those that have not explored this
option run the risk of falling behind.
The new research into the brain is helping us better understand curriculum, discipline policies,
assessment challenges, special education students, cafeteria food, the role of arts, retention
policies, and countless other aspects of the teaching profession. In light of brain research,
school districts have changed their start times, reexamined cafeteria food, and altered reading
programs.
However, brain-based learning is neither a panacea nor a magic bullet that will solve
educations problems. It is not yet a program. a model or a package for schools to follow.
Neuroscientists Michael Merzenich and Paula Tallal developed Fast For Word, a reading
improvement product that applies discoveries in neural plasticity to change the brains ability to
read the printed word. The benefits are already helping many students.
Educators should not run schools solely on the basis of the biology of the brain. However, to
ignore what we do know about the brain would be irresponsible. Brain-based learning offers
some direction for educators who want more purposeful, informed teaching.

It offers the

possibility of less hit-or-miss instruction in the classroom. We have learned about the impact of
the environment on learning, the roles of trauma, and the effects of distress and threat. With
additional clarity from research, brain-based approaches may suggest better options for anyone
who struggles with learning.
We are still new in brain research but dismissing it as faddish, premature, or opportunistic is not
only short-sighted, but also dangerous to our learners. At this early stage, rejecting brain

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research would be like calling the Wright Brothers first flight a failure because the plane flew
only a few hundred yards. (
Understanding how the brain learns has implications for instructional design, administration,
evaluation, the role of the school in the community, teacher education, and a host of other
issues critical to educational reform.

The evidence suggests not only that we learn from

experiences but that there is much more to this process than what we now know and accept.
Acknowledging how the brain learns from experiences will help us to understand meaningful
learning more fully. In that sense, brain-based learning is not a separate thrust or movement in
education; it is an approach from which all education will ultimately benefit.

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