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To cite this article: Aaron Smith , Brian Graetz & Hans Westerbeek (2008) Sport sponsorship,
team support and purchase intentions, Journal of Marketing Communications, 14:5, 387-404, DOI:
10.1080/13527260701852557
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13527260701852557
School of Sport, Tourism and Hospitality Management, Faculty of Law and Management,
La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia; bSchool of Business, Faculty of Law and
Management, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia
This research assessed the influence of team support and perception of sponsors
on the purchase intentions of sport consumers. In a case study of a not-for-profit,
membership-based Australian professional football club, 1647 respondents
reported their perceptions of team support, sponsor integrity and purchase
intentions for the sponsors products. Results revealed that the key pathway to
purchase intention is associated with fan passion and a perception of sponsor
integrity. This implies that the best mechanism for sponsor return on investment
comes in the form of activities to bolster both passion for the team and
perceptions of sponsor integrity.
Keywords: consumer behaviour; sport sponsorship; purchase intention
Introduction
Despite its importance and the proliferation of work on sponsorship in general, the
nature of the relationship between sponsorship and consumer purchase intentions
remains unclear. Meenaghan and OSullivan (2001) lamented that the research into
sponsorship has predominantly focused either on management practices or on recall
and recognition. Furthermore, they noted that awareness and association testing
provides only superficial data about the nature of consumer reaction to, and
engagement with, sponsorship. A paucity of empirical work seeks to explain the
machinations of the relationship between sport sponsors and sport consumers. The
importance of bolstering the limited empirical work in this area is amplified as some
case study descriptions suggest that under the right conditions, sponsorship can be
more effective than traditional advertising or other promotional activities (Verity
2002). This research reports on the results from a survey of members of a
professional Australian (rules) Football League club. It aims to identify the key
variables in the sponsorship relationship and the processes that influence members
purchase intentions toward the major (naming rights) sponsors products. Members
are individuals who have paid an annual fee to belong to a not-for-profit sporting
club, comprising a suite of ticket and merchandise benefits along with the right to
vote in the annual general meeting and in elections for positions in the Board of
Management.
This research employs the conventional definition of sport sponsorship proposed
by Meenaghan (1991). Sponsorship therefore involves an investment, in cash or
kind, in a sport property in return for access to the exploitable commercial potential
associated with that property. Return on investment has proven troublesome to
sponsors associated with small sport properties (Ashill, Davis, and Joe 2000;
*Corresponding author. Email: aaron.smith@latrobe.edu.au
ISSN 1352-7266 print/ISSN 1466-4445 online
# 2008 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/13527260701852557
http://www.informaworld.com
389
toward the sponsor are central in eliciting an advantageous response from the
sponsorship association. Research considering the impact of sponsor-event fit on
cognitive and affective responses has indicated that sponsors with high brand equity
are perceived as more congruent sponsors than those with low brand equity (Roy
and Cornwell 2003). Thus, well known brands have a superior opportunity for brand
building through sponsorship. In turn, sponsor-event congruence has been shown to
be associated with favourable attitudes towards the sponsor.
The nature of team support has also been established as a precursor to
consumers purchase intentions. Gwinner and Swansons (2003) data supported the
hypothesis that highly identified sport fans are more likely to exhibit sponsor
recognition, a positive attitude toward the sponsor, sponsor patronage and
satisfaction with the sponsor. These outcomes were linked to three antecedents:
prestige, fan associations and domain involvement (the personal relevance of a
particular object, situation or action). The authors defined team identification as
spectators perceived connectedness to a team and its performance. Therefore, it is a
specific form of organizational identification, and one that gives rise to the positive
associations that may encourage purchase intentions. Positive attitudes toward a
sponsor have further been positively associated with favourable perceptions and
intentions to purchase a sponsors product (Speed and Thompson 2000). Wann et al.
(2001) observed that highly identified fans evaluate in-group members higher than
out-group members. It is unclear whether this positive association extends to
sponsors (Wann and Branscombe 1993).
Identification represents the final mechanism of fan attachment (Ferrand and
Pages 1996; Jones 2000; Wiley, Shaw, and Havitz 2000), and refers to the association
between an individuals self-concept and the sport object. Identification is achieved
when individuals are motivated toward the sport team, club or athlete for reasons of
constructing a self-concept. Self-concept motives include the desire for belonging,
group affiliation, tribal connections and vicarious achievement (Fink, Trail, and
Anderson 2002; Hughson 1999; Morris 1981; Wann 1995; Wann and Branscombe
1993). When motivated by these factors, a persons sense of self may be associated
with the team and self-esteem may be extracted from team success; the group (tribe,
club, team) may be seen as an extension of the self. In other words, the more a fan is
motivated to construct a sense of self through the sport object, the more closely they
will become emotionally attached to it. There is, in fact, evidence suggesting that of
all the mechanisms of fan attachment, it is identification which bears the greatest
influence over whether a fan will develop a psychological or emotional connection to
the team (Fink, Trail, and Anderson 2002).
Group identification is a pivotal mediator of social perception (Wann and Grieve
2005). Fans with greater identification are more likely to attend games, purchase
merchandise, spend more on tickets and products, and remain loyal (Fink, Trail, and
Anderson 2002; Madrigal 1995; Murrell and Dietz 1992; Wann and Branscombe
1993). In other words, the outcome of a strong psychological connection to a team is
loyalty, where support, including consumption behaviours, may continue regardless
of circumstances (James, Kolbe, and Trail 2002). Sponsors may have reason to
assume that they will be perceived as an ally of the high identification fan (Hoek,
Gendall, and Sanders 1993). They may even attempt to amplify the level of
identification through celebrity endorsement. A company may further choose to go
beyond celebrity endorsement and engage representative industry associations and
391
those factors reflective of their own identities. Consumers, therefore, will forge
positive associations with sponsors that support the sport properties that exemplify
and house these identities, culminating in bolstered purchase intentions.
The aim of the research reported here is to identify the key linkages between
sport fans, team support and sponsorship, together with the processes that influence
members purchase intentions toward the chief sponsors products. This research
embraces Madrigals (2001) beliefattitudesintentions hierarchy. However, the
specific objective remains to ascertain the manner in which team support and
perceptions of sponsor integrity affect fan receptiveness to sponsorship and
ultimately their intention to purchase sponsors products.
Gender
Male
Female
Percent
1078
520
67
33
Age
Less than 30 years
3049 years
5064 years
65 years and older
227
752
592
73
14
46
36
4
Education
Secondary
Tertiary
University
634
386
602
39
24
37
Income
Less than AUS$25k (US$21k; J15k)
AUS$2550k (US$2142k; J1530k)
AUS$50100k (US$4284k; J3060k)
More than AUS$100k (US$84k; J60k)
189
518
639
200
12
34
41
13
Mean
Years of membership
Matches attended per season
13.62
9.07
relevant to this analysis. These were team support (passionate, positive), sponsor
integrity, sponsor receptiveness and purchase intentions. The items comprising
each dimension, the exact question wording, and the factor loadings and
reliabilities obtained are presented in Table 2. As there are causal interrelationships amongst latent factors, a single pooled analysis is not appropriate.
Hence, separate factor analyses were conducted as shown by the numbering of items
in Table 2.
Measurement
The questionnaire included several items about strength of team support.
Exploratory factor analysis revealed two separate dimensions passionate (three
items) and positive (two items). The use of oblique rotation to simplify factors is
justified in this analysis in view of the strong inter-factor correlation (r50.59)
(Tabachnick and Fidell 2001). Factor loadings exceed 0.64 and the reliability of both
measures is very high. Off-factor loadings (not shown in Table 2) are negligible, the
highest being 0.18.
Sponsor receptiveness is a summated index, which captures three separate
aspects of receptiveness to the sponsors products and services: openness to further
information, interest in learning more about the sponsor and knowledge of the
sponsors business. A high score indicates that respondents are open to learning and
becoming more knowledgeable about the sponsors products and services.
393
Table 2. Fans, sponsorship and purchase intentions: item wording and rotated factor
loadings.
Item wording
Passionate supporter (Cronbach a50.80)
1. I passionately support the club
2. I love the club
3. I passionately follow another team in the AFL
Loadinga
0.780
0.728
20.641
0.815
0.672
0.693
0.580
0.569
0.504
0.819
0.772
0.673
Factor loadings obtained using Principal Axis Factoring and Direct Oblimin rotation.
Analysis
The core of the analysis reported below focuses on the relationship between
supporters (fans), sponsor integrity, brand receptiveness and purchase intentions.
These relationships are examined using both bivariate Pearson correlations and
multivariate statistical techniques. Multiple regression is used to estimate the causal
model presented in Figure 1. In this model, purchase intention is dependent on team
support, sponsor integrity and sponsor receptiveness which themselves are causally
inter-related as shown by arrows in Figure 1. Team support is represented by three
variables: passionate fans, positive fans and match attendance. Sponsorship is
represented by two variables: sponsor receptiveness and sponsor integrity.
A path analysis approach with incremental regressions and reduced-form
equations is used to estimate total as well as direct causal effects (Kline 1998). Direct
effects represent the unique effect that each variable has on purchase intentions,
controlling for all exogenous and endogenous variables in the model. Total causal
effects are the sum of direct effects and indirect effects mediated through intervening
variables and are estimated here using equations that omit intervening variables, in
the manner of Alwin and Hauser (1975). As shown in Figure 1, team support and
sponsor integrity will have indirect effects on purchase intention, whereas sponsor
receptiveness has only a direct effect, so its total and direct effects will be equivalent.
Results
The distribution of scores on the five composite variables in this analysis is
summarized in Table 3. Respondents are found to be strongly passionate supporters
of their team with a mean score of nine on the 10-point scale. Not all members are
passionate supporters, however, but the distribution is none the less strongly
negatively skewed and peaked at high scores, indicated by the high positive value for
395
Composite measure
Range
Mean
Std dev
Skewness
Kurtosis
Fans
Passionate fans
Positive fans
010
010
9.02
8.03
1.67
1.79
22.93
21.48
10.38
2.75
Sponsorship
Sponsor receptiveness
Sponsor integrity
Purchase intention
010
010
010
5.76
7.29
8.31
2.20
1.60
1.35
20.30
20.68
20.81
20.27
1.32
0.85
kurtosis. Respondents are also strongly positive in their support for their team,
although the mean score is one point lower than for passionate support. There is also
more diversity of views expressed on this measure, reflected by the considerably
lower values for skewness and kurtosis. The strongly passionate and mostly positive
support expressed for the team is consistent with expectations for respondents who
are all club members.
Table 3 also shows there is a moderate degree of receptiveness amongst fans to
the commercial appeal of the teams major sponsor. Scores are close to normally
distributed, with a mean score near to the mid-point of the scale and values for
skewness and kurtosis close to zero. The perceived level of integrity of the sponsor is
somewhat higher, with a mean score in excess of seven points. Although most fans
have a highly favourable view about the sponsors integrity, there is some variation
around this, including a small proportion of respondents who do not rate the
sponsors integrity highly at all. Finally, respondents express strong purchase
intentions in relation to the sponsors services. The mean score is eight points and
most responses fall within the upper half of the scale, with the modal response being
an unequivocal intention to consider the sponsors services. Again, however, a small
proportion of respondents are not willing to consider using or buying the sponsors
services.
Table 4. Fans, sponsorship and purchase intention: correlations with socio-demographic and
membership attributes.a
Composite variables
Gender
Age
Fans
Passionate fan
Positive fan
20.08*
20.12*
20.06
0.01
20.09*
20.06
20.14*
0.02
20.03
20.11*
0.01
20.03
Sponsorship
Sponsor receptiveness
0.07*
Sponsor integrity
20.01
Purchase intention
0.02
Education Income
Years of
membership
Match
attendance
20.11*
20.10*
0.08*
0.03
0.21*
0.17*
0
20.08*
0.04
0.04
0.11*
0.12*
0.05
0.07*
Direct effects
b
Control variables
Gender
Age
Education
Income
Years of membership
Total effects
b
0.012
0.046
0.063
0.054
0.001
0
0.09*
0.05
0.04
0
0.079
0.007
0.004
0.007
0.005
0.03
0.01
0
0
0.04
20.010
0.094
0.020
20.04
0.12*
0.03
0
0.210
0.123
0
0.26*
0.16*
Sponsor integrity
0.325
0.39*
0.439
0.52*
Sponsor receptiveness
R squared
Standard error of the estimate
F, significance
0.184
0.30*
0.184
0.436
0.9976
96.50, P,0.001
0.30*
Team support
Match attendance
Passionate fan
Positive fan
397
Team support
Dependent
variables
Independent
variables
Control variables
Gender
Age
Education
Income
Years of
membership
Team support
Match attendance
Passionate fan
Positive fan
Sponsor integrity
R squared
Standard error of
the estimate
F, significance
Sponsor receptiveness
Sponsor integrity
Match attendance
Passionate fan
Positive fan
0.339
20.140
20.097
20.028
0.019
0.07
20.16*
20.05
20.01
0.11*
0.092
20.011
20.111
20.130
0
0.03
20.02
20.08
20.07
0
21.68
20.097
20.308
20.385
0.118
20.15*
20.05
20.07
20.07
0.29*
20.234
20.090
20.128
20.111
0.014
20.06
20.13*
20.08
20.06
0.11*
20.391
20.021
20.084
20.100
0.002
20.10*
20.03
20.05
20.05
0.02
0.031
0.123
0.247
0.07
0.09
0.20*
0.013
.285
0.178
0.620
0.04
0.30*
0.20*
0.45*
0.278
1.835
0.232
1.388
0.125
4.717
0.037
1.670
0.020
1.788
53.68, P,0.001
47.85, P,0.001
38.04, P,0.001
10.93, P,0.001
5.85, P,0.001
Table 6. Explanatory models for endogenous variables: sponsor receptiveness, sponsor integrity and team support.a
399
401
Conclusion
This research has examined key processes in the sponsorship relationship that influence
members purchase intentions toward the major sponsors products. Although a large
sample was employed, this study was limited by a low response rate, which suggests the
potential of a self-selection bias in regard to sponsorship opinions and attitudes. The
results also constitute a single case in a professional sporting league comprising 15 other
teams in one country. Therefore, it is reasonable to be cautious about projecting the
findings beyond the context of Australian professional football. Nevertheless, the
strength of the results is suggestive of some salient practical implications.
The argument made by Lachowetz et al. (2002) that sponsors should change their
focus from raw volume of exposure to image matching or fit has been strongly
supported by the outcomes of this research. Team support, sponsor receptiveness
and sponsor integrity are key components of the relationship that sponsors may
build with the members of the sponsored organization. All three variables contribute
significantly to higher purchase intentions.
The results reported here suggest that sponsor success can be amplified by
enhancing enthusiasm for the team. This has a positive impact on perceived integrity
and receptiveness, which are the primary factors influencing purchase intention. In
other words, in sport sponsorship it may be better for the sponsor to engage with the
club and its members, and encourage members to participate actively in club
activities. Generating passion and enthusiasm for the team may do more for
purchase intentions than targeting market segments in isolation from the broader
context of the club and its members.
Sponsors can also bolster the purchase intentions of club members by focusing on
strategies to strengthen perceived sponsor integrity. Compatibility with the sponsored
team, showing a genuine interest in the club and its supporters, supporting local
communities, and financial support for the team all contribute towards enhancing
sponsor integrity. Teams that already enjoy high levels of member support are more
likely to boast a customer base that is willing to consider sales offers from sponsors. The
level of sponsor integrity is therefore another criterion that can actively be manipulated
and managed by the sponsor. Future research might expand the approach presented
here by taking into account the level of exposure the sponsor receives and its associated
impact on purchase intentions. In addition, the introduction of behavioural measures
would be advantageous in explicating the connection between purchase intentions and
the actual consumption of sponsors products.
Notes on contributors
Aaron Smith and Hans Westerbeek are Professors in Sport Management at La Trobe
University in Melbourne, Australia.
Brian Graetz is a Professor in the School of Business at La Trobe University in Melbourne,
Australia.
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