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PIG IRON: Pig iron is obtained by smelting of iron ore in the blast furnace.

furnace. Pig iron is the basic raw material from which all
cast iron, wrought iron and steel are made. Ordinarily, it is poured into large ladles and taken to cupola or to air furnace for making
cast iron, or the refining furnaces for making steel. If it cannot be used immediately, it is cast into blocks or pigs, which may be
remelted later. Many grades of pig iron may be produced by different ores and various blast furnace procedures, each one having
special use in the foundry or steel mill. Foundary pig, malleable pig, forge pig, basic pig, acid pig are the different grades which
have varying percentage of carbon , silicon, manganese, phosphorus and sulphur. The carbon present may be in its natural state
as graphite and is normally finely dispersed throughout the metal in the form of small flakes or it may be in the form of iron carbide
which is a chemical combination of carbon and iron and is called cementite. Because cementite is a very hard substance, the
greater the amount of combined carbon, the harder will be the pig iron. Moreover, the pig iron is weak and brittle and is not used
for structural purposes.
COMPOSITION OF PIG IRON FOR CAST IRON CASTINGS
There are five important elements in the pig iron. These are carbon, silicon, manganese, phosphorus and sulphur. All these
elements have an influence on the iron alloys, carbon has the greatest influence.
When iron ore is smelted in the blast furnace, it will change from oxide to iron, but at the same time it will also absorb carbon
from the coke fused in the blast furnace, until possibly the iron will carry about 3.50% under normal circumstances. Further, as all
ores will contain some proportion of manganese, phosphorus as well as sulphur, these elements are to be found in the pig iron,
which come from the blast furnaces. In addition, sand is invariably found in the ore, and as common sand is a compound of silicon
and oxygen, then this compound is likewise taken up in the blast furnace, and the silicon becomes part of the pig iron.
The following will act as a rough guide as to what percentage of each element can be anticipated:
Carbon ..... 3.00% to 5.00% ; Silicon .... 0.50% to 3.50% ; Manganese .... 0.50% to 1.00%;
Phosphorus .... 0.10% to 1.00% ; Sulphur.... 0.01% to 0.3%

CAST IRON
The pig iron as tapped from the blast furnace is still the crude form of the raw material, and is not suitable for making castings
without some degree of refining. The pig iron is refined in cupola, which is a small form of blast furance. This refined pig iron
tapped from the cupola is called cast iron. Cast iron is essentially an iron-carbon alloy modified by the presence of silicon,
phosphorus, sulphur and manganese in varying amounts. Although cast iron belongs to a group of iron-carbon alloys, but it differs
from steel in that cast iron contains a greater proportion of carbon than is found in steel. Cast iron may have 2.5% to 5.5% carbon
content. The carbon present in its natural state as graphite is normally finely dispersed throughout the metal in the form of small
flakes, Whilst the cast iron can be cast, it cannot be forged. Cast iron is used in industries for casting different machine parts
because of its low cost, good casting characteristics, high compressive strength, wear resistance and good damping qualities. A
further good property of cast iron is that the free graphite in its structure seems to act as a lubricant, and when large machine
slides are made of it, a very free-working action is obtained. The fluidity of cast iron when in the molten condition enables it to be
used widely for making casting of parts having intricate shapes such as the bodies of machines and other components.
This process has the following advantages:
1. It is a capable of giving high rates of productivity at a low capital cost.
2. It is particularly suitable for manufacturing high grade steel from high phosphorus pig iron and the surplus heat produced
in the process permits the employment of an appreciable quantity of iron ore as a cooling agent.
3. The satisfactory by-product value of the high phosphoric acid slag produced is another economic advantage.
The main disadvantage of this process is the number of moving parts and their weight which probably exercise the adverse
effect on the maintenance cost.

Blast Furnec
The principal parts of blast furnace. The raw materials-iron ore, coke and lime stone are brought to the top of the furnace with a
skip hoist and dumped into the double valve hopper. The iron ore contains iron in the form of Fe203, in haematite ore or in
magnetite ore. The lime stone helps to reduce these iron oxide and units with the ash of the coke and the impurities in the ore to
form slag, which melts near the bottom of the furnace. The coke also helps to reduce the iron oxides, furnishes Carbon to saturate
the iron, and ultimately burns in the lower part of the furnace, supplying heat to melt the iron and slag. This slag floats • on the top
of the molten iron like cream on milk, and is removed through the slag notch. The molten iron and impurities are drawn off
separately, as they accumulate, through the top hole at intervals of 4 to 6 hours. This materials tapped from the blast furnace is
known as pig iron.
The hot blast of air enters the furnace through tuyers placed around the furnace just above the hearth. It promotes combustion
of the coke and helps to carry the gases upwards. The temperatures are approximately. Although production values are controlled
to suit the nature of the ore being smelted.
In addition, there are three or four stoves-large cylindrical lowers for pre-heating the air blown into the furnace. These stoves
are heated by gas taken from the top of the furnace and passed through suitable cleaners to remove ashes. The remainder of the
gas is washed and used for generating power and as fuel in other furnaces in the plant.

CUPOLA: Description. The pig iron as lapped from the blast furnace is the crude form of raw material from which various
grades of iron and steel are prepared. It is not suitable for making castings without some degree of refining, and this takes place in
the foundry cupola.
Cupola is a small form of blast furnace, and varies in size according to the nature of the work to be done. The diameter of the
cupola may be 1 m to 2 m with a height of 4 to 5 times the diameter. A cupola 1 m diameter and 4 m high will melt about 2 tons of
iron per hour. The cupola is not generally worked continuously as the blast furnace, but is run only for such period as may be
required.
Fig. 3.2 shows the principal parts of cupola. It consists of a vertical stack, lined with a refractory material and supported above
the floor by four columns. The bottom door is hinged and can swing freely
when opened. It is held closed by a vertical prop. The charging door is located about midway up the vertical shell. The top of the
cupola is open except for metal shield or spark arrester.
The openings for introducing the air to the coke bed are known as tuyeres. They are arranged in a row around the
circumference of the vertical shell. The number of tuyeres varies with the cupola diameter ranging from 4 on small cupolas to 8 or
more on large cupolas. The combined area of the inlets being roughly one fourth of the cross- sectional area of the cupola.
Surrounding the cupola at the tuyeres is a wind box or jacket for the air supply. The air blast, furnished by a blower, enters the
side of the wind box through a blast pipe. Below the tuyeres is a slag about for slag disposal. Opposite to the slag spout is a tap
hole through which the molten metal is tapped out, as required, in a ladle or directly into the moulds.
MAGNETIC TEST: The magnetic test can be employed for testing the magnetic materials only like iron, nickel, cobalt and
their alloys. It is a non-destructive test and the whole component may be tested as such. From this test, the defects in the material
like internal cracks, blow holes, etc. are detected. The variations in the structure which are likely to affect the physical properties
may be detected.
The Sperry test is a well known magnetic test, in which a test car moves longitudinally along the length of bars of alloy steel at
a slow speed, which produces a strong magnetic field in the alloy steel bars. Any defects like cracks, blow holes etc., bring about
a variation in magnetic flux, which is observed in the sensitive testing device.

RADIOGRAPHIC TESTS: These tests include X-ray and gamma ray techniques which depend upon the sensitivity of
photographic film to short-wave length electromagnetic radiation. The radiation is passed through the metal being examined and is
then allowed to impinge upon sensitive film. The thicker and more dense the object, the smaller the proportion of incident radiation
which is passed. Thus, if an object has an internal defect, more radiation will be passed through the defective area than through
the sound region, and the defect will show up as a dark area on the film. But scattering tends to obscure the detect so that small
defects may not be defected. Generally, X-rays are preferred for laboratory testing since they offer greater control over intensity
and they produce sharper pictures.

ULTRASONIC TESTING: It relies upon transmission and reflection of ultrasonic waves of high frequencies. The ultrasonic
waves are usually produced by the piezoelectric effect within the crystal probe which is placed on the surface of the specimen.
Discontinuties below the surface cause reflection of the ultrasonic waves which appear as peaks upon the cathode-ray
oscilloscope receive. The size of the peak seen on the receiving tube is some indication of the size of the defect. The crystal
probe thus becomes the receiver as well as the transmitter. Ultrasonic techniques are useful for detecting cracks, voids and
defects far below the surface as well as near the surface.

LIQUID PENETRANT TESTS: These tests reveal discontinuities that are open to the surface and may use dyes or
fluorescent materials. They are specially useful for non-ferrous metals and non-metallic substances. The simple test involves
dipping the component into kerosene, wiping it dry, and the coating it thinly with whiting. Cracks will be revealed by a discoloured,
'lines' appearing in the whiting, this being produced when kerosene trapped in the crack seeps out slowly. Dyes may be used
instead of kerosene, but fluorescent materials are probably the most widely used. In the fluorescent test, the sample is immersed
for some time in a hot bath of a strongly fluorescent compound such as anthracence, used as penetrating agent. The solution
enters the cracks, if any, and remains there. The metal is then dried and examined under a quartz tube mercury vapor lamp. Any
penetrated solution will be detected by the fluorescence caused by the ultraviolet radiation of the light.

ANNEALING: Annealing is one of the most widely used process in the heat treatment of iron and steel. Annealing is
defined as a softening process consisting of heating the steel to a temperature at or near the critical point, holding there for a
proper time and then allowing it to cool slowly in the furnace itself. The temperature required for annealing varies with different
steels. Low carbon steels are heated to a temperature slightly above the upper critical temperature. High carbon steels more than
0.9% carbon are heated to a temperature within the critical range.
Objects of Annealing:
1. To soften the metal
2. To improve machinabilily.
3. To improve mechanical properties, like ductility.
4. To refine grain size.
5. 5. To relieve internal stresses.
6. To remove gases.
7. To produce a definite micro-structure.
9. To modify electrical and magnetic properties.
10. To prepare steel for subsequent heat treatment.
Annealing : 1. Process Annealing.2. Full Annealing.

NORMALISING: Normalising is one of the simplest process of heat treatment it is defined as the process consisting of heating
the steel 40 to 50°C above the upper transformation range, holding there for a specified period and then allowing it to cool in still
air at room temperature. The process is principally used with low and medium carbon as well as alloy steels to make the grain
structure more uniform, to relieve internal stresses to induce certain desired physical properties. Most commercial steels are
normalized after being rolled or cast. Low carbon steel is usually normalized to refine grain size and to improve toughness, tensile
strength and ductility. In normalizing, the normal rate of cooling in air is about 50°C to 120°C per minute depending upon the
section, size and air condition.
Table 6.1 shows the properties of a coarse grained normalized and annealed steels.
OBJECTS OF NORMALISING:
1. To refine grain size.
2. To improve machinability of low carbon steel.
3. To increase strength of medium carbon steel.
4. To reduce internal stresses.
5. To improve the structure of welds.
6. To achieve certain mechanical and electrical properties.
SPHEROIDISING: Spheroidising is a process of heat treatment in which the steel is heated 20 to 40°C below the lower critical
temperature, held there for a prolonged period of time (3 to 8 hours) and then allowed to cool very slowly in the furnace itself. In
medium and high carbon steels (0.06 to 1.4%), the spheroidised structure has the lowest hardness, strength and wear resistance,
but has the best machinability, toughness and ductility. The spheroidised structure gives improved machinability to the steel. This
process is particularly useful for hyper-eutectoid steels that must be machined:
Objects of Spheroidizing:
1. To improve machinability.
2. To increase toughness and ductility.
3. To reduce hardness, strength and wear resistance.
TEMPERING: The hardened steel is brittle and unsuitable for most uses. The hardness and brittleness any be reduced by
tempering or drawing. The tampering is defined as the process of re-heating the hardened steel to some temperature below the
critical range, followed by any rate of cooling. Such a reheating permits the trapped martensite to transform and relieve the
internal stresses. The tempering temperature is determined by the specification of steel and the final hardne and toughness
desired.
Tempering is an essential operation after hardening to modify the properties of the hardened steel for the purpose of
increasing its usefulness. As the hardness and brittleness may be reduced to the desired point, there is a decrease in the tensile
strength and an increse in the ductility and toughness of the steel. Although this process softens steel, it differs considerably from
annealing in that the process leads itself to close control of the physical properties and in most cases does not soften the steel to
the extent that annealing would.

GALVANIZING: Galvanizing is a process that uses an electrochemical action to produce a thin coat of a highly corrosion-resistant
material on the surface of another metal. The galvanizing process mainly uses zinc which is applied to iron and steel. Zinc is one
of the most corrosion-resistance metals on the periodic table that can be used as a plating material. Cost of the galvanizing
process is low. It is used for coatings on such items as sheet metal, wires, tanks, bridges, ships, bolts, buckets, tubs, and all sorts
of containers.
The galvanization of zinc to the surface of metal may be accomplished by four different processes : sherardizing, electrolytic
plating (or electroplating), schoop (or spraying), and the hot dipping process.
SHERARDIZING: is the most popular process for use with small intricately designed parts. The parts are placed in a box of
zinc powder dust; then the box is placed in a furnace and heated until the zinc dust becomes a vapour. The zinc vapour forms a
coating of zinc sulphide on the surface of the parts. When the parts are cooled, a galvanized surface is produced.
THE ELECTROLYTIC: The electrolytic process is economical, both in the use of power and the use of zinc, but electroplating
dusty because too much zinc, but electroplating still is not used for mass production in industry because too much time is required
to do the plating and too much zinc is used for galvanizing. of zinc. Because the base metal is subjected to little stress, few plating
is that the resultant plate is too withstand corrosion. Also, the final zinc electroplate has a dull, drab look ; whereas other types of
galvanizing, like hot dipping, have bright, shiny look.
THE SCHOOP: process uses basic metal spraying to spray a wire that converts to a molten metal. It is used to coat products that
are too large to be dipped into a molten bath of zinc. Such items as water tanks, bridges, and ship hulls are usually metal sprayed.
The zinc is in the form of a wire which is loaded into a metal spraying gun. The zinc is then sprayed on the object. It usually is
melted by an oxygen fuel source and forced out of the gun onto the workpiece by air pressure.
THE HOT DIP: process is probably the most economical of all the galvanizing process for mass production. Hot dipping was the
originally developed zinc coating process, although the basic process has been refined and adapted to specific applications.The
steps in the hot dip process. When steel arrives to be galvanized, the first step is to submerge it in an acid bath of hot sulfuric acid.
This step is followed immediately by a cold water rinse. The acid bath and cold water rinse are performed three or four times to
ensure a clean surface. After the surface of the steel is clean, the steel is annealed and allowed to cool in aa oxide-free
atmosphere. The oxide-free atmosphere assures protection against the formation of oxides on the hot metal surface. The metal is
not allowed to cool completely but is brought down to the temperature of the molten zinc bath, sometimes going through a preheat
stage to ensure that it is exactly the bath temperature. The metal is then dipped into the bath. Often the zinc bath will contain 0.02
percent aluminium to increase the fluidity of the molten bath,
producing a more uniform and thinner coating. The metal is then pulled through the zinc bath between two sizing rollers which
control the amount of zinc that remains on the sheet.
The final step in the galvanizing process is to allow the sheet to cool and dry. As the hot zinc dries, or solidifies, the spangles
appear. The thickness of the galvanized sheet metal is measured by a wire gauge. The size of the iron in the sheet metal is one
size smaller than the number read on the gauge because the zinc coating takes upone number size. Galvanized metals will
undoubtedly continue to be popular because corrosion control is becoming more important as the amount of manufactured goods
increases. The zinc galvanizing process is the most economical coating process available to modern manufacturing.

ALLOY STEELS
when certain special properties are required, some alloying elements are added to carbon steels. The alloying elements may
be nickel, chromium, manganese, vanadium, tungsten, etc. The steels thus obtained are called alloy steels. Some of the important
alloy steels with their composition, properties and uses are described here.
The alloying elements are added for one or more of the following reasons:
1. To improve hardness, toughness and tensile strength without loss of ductility.
2. To retain physical properties at high temperatures.
3. To improve corrosion and fatigue resistance.
4. To improve case hardening characteristics.
5. To impart a fine grain size to steel.
6. To improve machinability.
7. To improve elasticity.
8. To use for special purposes.
Many varieties of alloy steels are used for construction of machineries. The Indian Standards Institution has adopted a
standard, IS: 1762-1961 for uniform system of designation of steel. For example, a nickel chromium molybdenum alloy steel with
grain size controlled and case carburized with composition, is designated as 15 Ni 13 Cr 1 Mo 12 Gc.
Carbon 0.12 to 0.18 Silicon 0.10 to 0.35 Manganese 0.60 to 1.00
Nickel 1.00 to 1.50 Chromium 0.75 to 1.25 Molybdenum 0.03 to 0.15
Here the first number indicates the average carbon content in hundredths of a percentage. The rest of the numbers indicate
the average percentage of" alloying elements designated by their chemical symbols which proceed the numbers. The under lined
number is the number after the decimal point. Last letter 'G' indicates steel quality, while 'c' indicates treatment given to the steel.
In this manner the chemical composition of any alloy can be given. By writing letters at the end, weldability, surface finish,
steel quality and heat treatment can be designated, detail of which is given in IS: 1762-1961.
2
St 50', indicates the steel whose minimum ultimate tensile is 50 kg/mm .
G
14', indicates the plain carbon steel containing carbon from strength 0.10% to 0.18%.
EFFECT OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS
The effect of alloying elements on the properties of steel are given here :
1. Carbon (C). It increases tensile strength and hardness, decreases ductility and wcldability.
2. Nickel (Ni). It increases tensile strength, yield strength, elasticity, heat resistance, and decreases
without lowering the ultimate strain.
Chromium (Cr). It increases tensile strength, hardness, elasticity, critical cooling rates, heat.It decreases malleability of
steel.
4. Manganese (Mn). It increases wear resistance, hardness and strength at good strain. Machinability, however, decreases.
5. Silicon (Si). It increases elasticity, strength making steel suitable for press work. It decreases weldability and forgeability.
6. Molybdenum (Mo). It increases strength at elevated temperatures, hardness at good strain. Machinability, however
decreases.

7. Tungsten (W). It increases hardness.


8. Aluminium (Al). It increases nitriding.
9. Copper (Cu). It increases rust resistance.
10. Sulphur (S). It increases brittleness, machinability, making the steel as free cutting steel'.
Cr, Si, Mo and W all have the tendency to resist the austenitic area, this means less carbon can be
soluted in it. In external cases, no austenitic area will remain at all. These steels are called ferrite. They consist out of ferrite +
carbide (not only of Fe, but also ol the other components). Ferrite steels cannot be hardened, as no carbide can be soluted at
higher temperatures. They are of little use.
Nearly all components will also reduce the critical cooling rate. The result will be that martensite may be formed even with
chilling in oil and martensite will be introduced even in the core ol the piece. This property of through hardening not only improves
strength and hardness throughout but also reduces the danger of hardening cracks and hardening stresses.
Mn, Ni and Si make the steel ol austenitic structure at room temperature. These austenitic steels are pretty strong , malleable
even at low temperature, pretty corrosion resistance and nonmagnetic. Their outstanding property, however, is that they grow
stronger and very much harder by hammering and cold-deformation. This makes them suitable for those machine parts which
have to stand repeated hammering or impacts, train-rails, I.C. engine valves, chain wheels, etc.

TYPES OF ALLOY STEELS


Nickel Steel:
1. 2% Ni makes steel more suitable for boiler plates, rivets and piping and as well as for carburized cams, bolts and gears.
2. 2.5% Ni makes the steel more suitable for armoured ptates (war-ships, cannons), connecting rods, plates for H.P. boilers,
etc.
3. 20% Ni makes the steel very high in tensile strength.
4. 25% Ni makes the steel particularly stainless and non-magnetic. This kind of steel might be used for I.C. engine-valves,
turbine- blades and electric resistance wire.
5. 27% Ni steel is non-magnetic, non-corrodible.
6. 36% Ni reduces the coefficient of extension by heat of steel to 0.000,0002. It is known as 'invar steel'. 31 % Ni steel is
known as 'super-invar steel'. These types of steels are widely used for measuring instruments, surveyors tapes and clock
pendulum.
7. 45% Ni steel possesses extension equal to that of glass, a property very important for making links between the two
materials, i.e., in electronic valves and bulbs.
Chromium Steel:
1. 8% Cr introduces a great remanent magnetism, suitable for some electrical purposes.
2. 13% Cr makes steel stainless. Combined with high carbon content, it is used for rollers and matrices.
3. 15% Cr steel is used for springs, ball and roller-bearings and matrices.
4. Nickle tends to retard the grain growth in steel, resulting in a wide range of heating, without damage to steel.
The pearlitic nickel steel have a low critical range, respond readily to heat treatment and reduce the danger from scaling and
warping to a minimum.

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