7 - Compressibilty of Soils

University of Anbar
College of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department
Iraq-Ramadi
Compressibilty of Soils
Deformation of soil grains

Expulsion of water
Relocation of soil particles
Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)
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Topics
Introduction
Immediate Settlement
Consolidation Settlement (Primary Consolidation)
Secondary Compression (Secondary consolidation)
Settlement
Time Rate of Consolidation
Methods for Accelerating Consolidation Settlement
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Introduction
Soil deformation may occur by change in:
a) Stress
b) Water content
c) Soil mass
d) Temperature
The compression is caused by
a) Deformation of soil particles
b) Relocation of soil particles
c) Expulsion of water or air from the voids
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Types of settlement:
a) Immediate (Elastic) Settlement e
b) Consolidation Settlement (primary consolidation) c
c) Secondary Compression (Consolidation) Settlement
Thus, the total settlement will be
s
s
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Immediate (Elastic) Settlement

Due elastic deformation of soil grains without any change in
moisture content
It is usually small and occurs directly after the application of a
load.
The magnitude of the contact settlement will depend on the
flexibility of the foundation and the type of material on which
it is resting, these distributions are true if E is constant with
depth.
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Sand
Contact pressure
distribution
Clay
Contact pressure
distribution
Flexible
Settlement profile
Contact pressure
distribution
Settlement profile
Contact pressure
distribution
Rigid
Settlement profile
Settlement profile
all the previous relationship discussed in previous chapter

were based on the following assumptions:a) The load is applied at the ground surface
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b) The loaded area is flexible.

c)The soil medium is homogenous, elastic, isotropic,
and extends to a great depth.
Relations for Immediate Settlement Calculation
Es
Schleicher (1926)
Ip
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Improved Relationship for Immediate Settlement

Mayne and Polous (1999) present an improved relationship for
calculating e taking into account
- rigidity of the foundation
- depth of embedment of the foundation
- the increase in modulus of elasticity E with depth
- the location of rigid layers at limited depth
Be
Be
Be
1
Eo
IG I F I E
4 BL
Diameter
for rectangular footing
for circular footing

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Consolidation Settlement (Primary Consolidation)

Fundamentals of Consolidation
Deformation of saturated soil occurs by reduction of pore
space & the squeezing out of pore water.
The water can only escape through the pores which for finegrained soils are very small, while for coarse-grained soils
are large enough for the process to occur immediately after
the application of load.
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Pore water
(Incompressible)
Skeletal Material
(incompressible)
Voids
Solid
Voids
Time
dependent
process
Solid
+
Water
Initial State
Deformed State
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Spring model
u=0
water
Water squeezed
out
= P/A
u<
u=0
Effective soil skeleton spring
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Total Stress
Time
Excess Pore
Pressure
Time
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Effective Stress
Time
Settlement
Time
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Conclusions
Especially in low permeability soils (silts and clays) settlement is
delayed by the need to squeeze the water out of the soil
Consolidation is the process of gradual transfer of an applied load
from the pore water to the soil structure as pore water is squeezed
out of the voids.
The amount of water that escapes depends on the size of the load
and compressibility of the soil.
The rate at which it escapes depends on the coefficient of
permeability, thickness, and compressibility of the soil.
Consider a clay layer with thickness H subjected to an instantaneous
increase of total stress .
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Sand
Ground water table

Pore water pressure increase
Total stress increase
u=
Depth
Effective stress increase
=0
Sand
At time t = 0
u<
>0
At time 0 < t <
u=0
At time t =
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One-Dimensional Laboratory Consolidation Test

It was suggested by Terzaghi.
pn applied by a lever arm
Porous Stone
H
Metal Ring
Sample
Water
Soil Sample
Dia.
H
64 mm(2.5 in)
Porous Stone
25 mm (1 in)
Consolidometer (Oedometer)
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The compression
deformation is
measured by a
micrometer dial
gauge
Each load increment is kept

for 24 hrs, after that, the
U% = 0
load is usually doubled
pn
p3
Cv & k are determined from this relationship

d0
p2
p1
H1
H2
H3
Hn
Stage I-Initial compression
d50
Stage II-Primary consolidation
H
Soil
d100
Stage III-Secondary Compression
t50% Time at
U% = 100%
Time (log scale)
U%=100%
Settlement (deformation) vs. time
hn
At each time point:

Record the dial indicator reading
At the end of each load increment:
Record the dial reading at completion of primary consolidation for each load (usually 24 hours)
At the unloading of the specimen:
Remove load in decrements, recording dial indicator readings
Conduct a water content test on specimen after unloading is complete
Time, min
o
1
2
5
10
20
30
1 hr
2 hr
..
24 hr
Deformation, mm
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Void Ratio-Pressure (e-log

1.
calculate the height of solids, Hs

Ws
AG s
Hs
2.
calculate initial height of voids, Hv

H
3.
Hs
calculate initial void ratio, eo

eo
4.
Prove it.
Vv
Vv
Hv A
Hs A
Hv
Hs
for the 1st incremental loading,
1(
P1
A
) which causes a
deformation H1
e1
H1
Hs
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5.
calculate new void ratio after consolidation caused by

e1
6.
eo
e1
for the next loading,
2(
P1
P2
A
), which causes additional
deformation H2, the void ratio at the end of consolidation is

e2
e1
H2
Hs
Note:- at the end of consolidation = /

Plot the corresponding e with / on semi-logarithmic
paper. The typical shape of e-log / will be as shown in
the figure.
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Void Ratio
Cc & Cs are determined from this relationship

Cc = Compression Index
Cs (Cr) = swelling (rebound) Index
Cc
Cs
Log
Change in void ratio vs. vertical effective stress
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Normally Consolidated and Overconsolidated Clays

Normally Consolidated
o
O .C .R
At past
p = max. preconsolidation pressure
At present
o = Effective overburden pressure
May be removed due geologic processes or human processes
Overconsolidate
d
At past
p = max. preconsolidation pressure
At present
o = Effective overburden pressure
Relationship is linear and stepper when the effective stresses

is exceeding maximum past preconsolidation pressure
/
O
/
P
Log
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Effect of Disturbance on Void Ratio-Pressure Relationship

Usually e-log / founded by performing consolidation test
on undisturbed sample or remolded sample, does not
reflects the field (virgin) compression curve.
This difference is attribute to disturbance due toHandling and transferring samples into consolidation
cells.
Sampling and stress relief
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eo
Laboratory compression curve
Field (virgin) compression curve
Slope = Cc
0.4eo
/
p
/
o
N.C. CLAY
eo
Laboratory compression curve
Field (virgin) compression curve, Slope =
Cc
Laboratory rebound curve
Slope = Cs (Cr)
0.4eo
/
o
/
p
O.C. CLAY
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Calculation of
Consolidation
Settlement
from
One-Dimensional
Primary
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Vo V1
HA ( H
Vvo Vv 1
Vv
Vs
Vo
1 eo
)A
eVs
AH
1 eo
eVs
AH
e
1 eo
e
H
1 eo
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N.C. CLAY
eo
e
e
log
Cc
/
o
/
o
) log
] C c log(
)
o
e
1 eo
C c [log(
Cc
H log(
1 eo
)
o
O.C. CLAY
eo
/
o
If
c
o
/
p
e
log
Cs
/
C s [log(
) log
eo
Cs
H log(
1 eo
e
1 eo
)
o
/
o
e1
/
p
e2
C s [log
log
p
p
] C c [log(
) C c log(
C s log(
C s log(
If
e
1 eo
H
C s log(
1 eo
) log
)
p
p
o
) C c log(
)
p
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Compression Index (Cc) and Swell Index (Cs)

Several correlations were suggested for Cc besides other eq.
cases C s
and in most
Cc = 0.009(LL 10)
Cc = 0.007(LL 7)
1 1
to C c
5 10
undisturbed clays LL= liquid limit

remolded clays
LL= liquid limit
/
o
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Secondary Compression (Consolidation) Settlement

Secondary compression settlement is a form of soil creep that
is largely controlled by the rate at which the skeleton of
compressible soils, particularly clays, silts, and peats, can yield
and compress.
Secondary compression is often conveniently identified to
follow primary consolidation when excess pore fluid pressure
can no longer be measured; however, both processes may occur
simultaneously.
Also referred to as the secular effect
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C
s
e
log t 2 log t1
e
t2
log
t1
Linear relationship
ef
1 ep
C H log
t2
t1
Type of soil
O.C clays
N.C clays
Organic soil
t1
t2
0.001 or less
0.005 to 0.03
0.04 or more
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Time Rate of Consolidation

Terzaghi (1925) proposed the first theory to consider the rate
of one-dimensional consolidation for saturated clay soils.
Assumptions:1. The clay-water system is homogenous.
2. Saturation is complete.
3. Compressibility of water is negligible
4. The flow of water is in one direction only (direction of
compression)
5. Darcys law is valid
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To begin, consider a very small element of soil being subjected

to one-dimensional consolidation in the z-direction.
u
(vz+( vz z)dz) dxdy
Sand
dz
A=dxdy
V=dxdydz
H=2Hdr
Depth
Sand
dx
dy
vz dxdy
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Volume of pore fluid which flows out = Volume decrease of the

soil
and thus
Rate at which pore fluid flows out = Rate of volume decrease of
soil
[(v z
vz
dz )
z
vz
dxdydz
z
v z ] dxdy
V
t
V
t
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It will also be assumed that Darcys law holds and thus that
vz
ki
h
z
k
w
u
z
u
w
u = excess pore water pressure caused by the increase

of stress
k
w
u
z2
V
1
dxdydz t
During consolidation
V
t
Vv
t
(Vs
eVs )
t
Vs
t
Vs
e
t
V
e s
t
but
Vs
t
0
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V
t
Vs
e
t
but
Vs
V
1 eo
dxdydz
1 eo
V
t
dxdydz e
1 eo t
/
k
w
u
z2
k
w
1
1 eo
2
u
z2
e
t
e av (
av u
)
But
av = coefficient of compressibility
av
1 eo
u
t
mv
u
t
mv
av
1 eo
where
mv = coefficient of volume compressibility
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or
u
t
cv
u
z2
where
cv
k
w mv
w
k
av
1 eo
cv = coefficient of consolidation has units L2/T

k = coefficient of permeability
,
This equation is the basic differential equation of Terzaghi s

consolidation theory and can be solved with the following
boundary conditions
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z=0
u=0
at a permeable boundary
z = 2Hdr u = 0
at a permeable boundary
t=0
u = uo=
initial excess pore water pressure
The solutions yields
u
m 0
2uo
MZ
sin(
) e
M
H dr
M 2 Tv
Where
M
( 2m 1)
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z
H dr , a depth factor dimensionless number
Tv
cv t
2
H dr , a time factor is a nondimensoinal number
Because consolidation progresses by the dissipation of excess

pore water pressure, the degree of consolidation at distance z at
any time t is
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uo
uz
uz
Uz
1
uo
uo
uz = excess pore pressure at time t
The variation of excess pore pressure within the layer is shown
in Figure below
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The average degree of consolidation for the entire depth of the

clay layer at any time t can be written as
c (t )
c
1
2 H dr
2 H dr
u z dz
0
uo
1
m
2
e
2
0M
M 2 Tv
U = average degree of consolidation

c(t) = settlement of the layer at time t
= ultimate (final) primary consolidation settlement
c
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The U Tv relationship is represented in the figure below for the

case where uo is uniform for the entire depth of the
consolidating layer.
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The values of Tv and their corresponding average U for the case

presented above may also be approximately by the following
relationship:
Tv
For U = 0 to 60%
For U > 60%
Tv
U%
4 100
1.781 0.933 log(100 U %)
The following Table gives the variation Tv U according to the

above equations
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Coefficient of Consolidation
Logarithm of Time method
It is particularly useful when there is significant secondary
compression (creep). The do point is located by selected two points
on the curve for which the times (t) are in the ratio 1:4, e.g. 1 min
and 4 min; or 2 min and 8 min.; the vertical intervals DB and BC
will be equal. The d100 point can be located in the final part of the
curve flattens sufficiently (i.e. no secondary compression). When
there is significant secondary compression, d100 may be located at
the intercept of straight line drawn through the middle and final
portions of the curve. Now d50 and log t50 can be located.
The coefficient of consolidation is therefore:
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T50
cv t 50
H dr2
cv
0.197H dr2
t 50
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Square Root of Time method

After the laboratory results curve has been plotted, line AB is drawn,
followed by line AC in such a way that OC 1.15OB : AC crosses the
laboratory curve at point D and locates t90
T90
c v t 90
H dr2
cv
0.848 H dr2
t 90
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Hperbola method
It gives good results for U =60% - 90%.
t
H
The results are plotted on

- t, then identify the straight portion bc of the
curve and project back to point d, and determine the intercept D, then
determine the slope m of bc
cv
mH dr2
0 .3
D
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Earl Stage log-t method

It gives the highest value while the conventional log-t method gives
the lowest value, this is due to the contribution of the lower part of
the consolidation curve in the conventional log-t method that means
the secondary compression plays a role in the value of cv, while in
this method cv obtained from the early stage log-t method, which
gives more realistic values of the fieldwork.
Follow the same steps in log-t method to locate do, draw a
horizontal line DE through do, then draw tangent through the point
of inflection F, the tangent intersects line DE at point G, determine
the corresponding time t corresponding to G, which is the time at U
= 22.14%, The coefficient of consolidation is therefore:
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cv
0.0385H dr2
t 22.14
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Calculation of Consolidation Settlement under a Foundation

For limited area foundations (circular, square and rectangular), the
increase of effective stress ( /) decrease with depth as shown in figure
below which can be estimated as described before in previous chapter.
/
Estimate /o and
av at the middle of the clay layer, then use the
previous equations in to determine final consolidation settlement.
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/
t
/
o
/
m
/
b
Using Simpsons rule

t
av
6
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Alternative approach
Simply divide the clay layer to a number of sub layers, and
then estimate c for each sub layer taking into account effective
overburden pressure and an increase in effective stress at the
middle of each sub layer, then get the summation of
settlements of the sub layers to get the final consolidation of
the clay layer.
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Rate of consolidation
It is important to determine c time relationship, which can
be helpful in estimating the differential settlement between
adjacent footings if the drainage condition at one footing
differs from the other.
U
c(t )
c
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Examples
The following results were obtained from an oedometer test on
a specimen of saturated clay:
Pressure (kN/m2) 27
54
107 214 429 214 107 54
Void ratio
1.243 1.217 1.144 1.068 0.994 1.001 1.012 1.024
A layer of this clay 8m thick lies below a 4m depth of sand, the

water table being at the surface. The saturated unit weight for
3
both soils is 19kN/m . A 4m depth of fill of unit weight 21
kN/m3 is placed on the sand over an extensive area. Determine
the final settlement due to consolidation of the clay. If the fill
were to be removed some time after the completion of
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consolidation, what heave would eventually take place due to

swelling of the clay?
c
eo e1
H
1 eo
Appropriate values of e are obtained from e-log / drawn from

the result. The clay will be divided into four sub-layers, hence
H =2000 mm.
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Assuming the fill in pervious example is dumped very rapidly,

what would be the value of excess pore water pressure at the
centre of the clay layer after a period of 3 years? Assume Twoway drainage condition and the value of cv is 2.4m2/year.
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Uz
uz
uo
uz
uo
35 .2
uz
84
0 .58
kN / m 2
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In an oedometer test a specimen of saturated clay 19mm thick

reaches 50% consolidation in 20 min. How long would it take
a layer of this clay 5m thick to reach the same degree of
consolidation under the same stress and drainage conditions?
How long would it take the layer to reach 30% consolidation?
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7 - Compressibilty of Soils

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University of Anbar

Deformation of soil grains

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Immediate (Elastic) Settlement

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

all the previous relationship discussed in previous chapter

b) The loaded area is flexible.

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Improved Relationship for Immediate Settlement

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

for rectangular footing

for circular footing

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Consolidation Settlement (Primary Consolidation)

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Effective soil skeleton spring

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Ground water table

Total stress increase

Effective stress increase

At time 0 < t <

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

One-Dimensional Laboratory Consolidation Test

Each load increment is kept

Cv & k are determined from this relationship

Stage I-Initial compression

Time (log scale)

At each time point:

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Void Ratio-Pressure (e-log

calculate the height of solids, Hs

calculate initial height of voids, Hv

calculate initial void ratio, eo

for the 1st incremental loading,

calculate new void ratio after consolidation caused by

for the next loading,

), which causes additional

deformation H2, the void ratio at the end of consolidation is

Note:- at the end of consolidation = /

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Cc & Cs are determined from this relationship

Change in void ratio vs. vertical effective stress

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Normally Consolidated and Overconsolidated Clays

May be removed due geologic processes or human processes

Relationship is linear and stepper when the effective stresses

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Effect of Disturbance on Void Ratio-Pressure Relationship

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Compression Index (Cc) and Swell Index (Cs)

undisturbed clays LL= liquid limit