Essential UNIVERSITY PHYSICS, Volume 1 Richard Wolfson

18.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics

First Law of Thermodynamics The change in the internal energy of a
system depends only on the net heat transferred to the system and the
net work done by the system, independent of the particular processes
involved.

Mathematically, the first law is

U = Q - W
Change in
Intenal
energy

Heat added
to the
system

Work done
by the
system

18.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics

Example: Heat a gas, it expands against a weight. Force (pressure
times area) is applied over a distance, work is done.

Work done by
the system

Q
Heat added
to the
system

U
U = (U-U)

U = Q - W

Change in internal energy

18.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics

We

are

frequently

concerned

with

rates

of

energy

flow.

Differentiating the first law with respect to time gives a

statement about rates:

dU/dt is the rate of change of a systems internal energy.

dQ/dt is the rate of heat transfer to the system.
dW/dt is the rate at which the system does work.

EXAMPLE 18.1

The First Law of Thermodynamics:

Thermal Pollution

The reactor in a nuclear power plant supplies energy at the rate of

3.0 GW, boiling water to produce steam that turns a turbine-generator.
The spent steam is then condensed through thermal contact with water
taken from a river. If the power plant produces electrical energy at
the rate of 1.0 GW, at what rate is heat transferred to the river?
The entire power plant is our system, comprising the nuclear reactor,
including its fuel, and the turbine-generator.
We identify U as the internal energy stored in the fuel, W as the
mechanical work that ends up as electrical energy, and Q as the heat
transferred to the river.
We know that: dU/dt = dQ/dt dW/dt. The reactor extracts internal
energy from its fuel, so the rate dU/dt is negative; the power plant
delivers electrical energy to the outside world, so dW/dt is positive.
We need to solve for dQ/dt.

EXAMPLE 18.1

The First Law of Thermodynamics:

Thermal Pollution

GIVEN: dU/dt = 3.0GW

and

dW/dt = 1.0 GW

-3.0 GW

1.0 GW

-3.0 GW + 1.0 GW
-2.0 GW

18.2 Thermodynamic Processes

Although the 1st law applies to any system, its easiest to understand
when applied to an ideal gas. The ideal gas law relates the
temperature, pressure, and volume of a given gas sample:

pV = nRt
The thermodynamic state is completely determined by any two of this
quantities p, V, or T.
p,V,T

p
p,V,T
V

18.2 Thermodynamic Processes

Reversible and Irreversible Processes
If we raise the
reservoir
temperature very
slowly, both the
water and gas
temperatures will
rise in unison,
and the gas will
remain in
equilibrium.

These temperatures stay the same as

the water temperature increases
slowly

Water

Gas

Temperature control

Quasi-static
process
A system is always
in thermodynamic
equilibrium.

18.2 Thermodynamic Processes

Reversible and Irreversible Processes
Reversible Process:
We could reverse
this heating
process by slowly
lowering the
reservoir
temperatur; the gas
would cool,
reversing its path
in the pV diagram.

These temperatures stay the same as

the water temperature increases
slowly

Water

Gas

Temperature control

Irreversible
Process:
If we suddenly
plunging a cool gas
sample into hot
water, then it
becomes and
irreversible
process.
The system is not
in equilibrium.

18.2 Thermodynamic Processes

Work and Volume Changes
The work done by the system is related to the changes in
pressure and volume:

(work done during volume change)

18.2 Thermodynamic Processes

Isothermal Processes
An isothermal process occurs at constant temperature.
To find work, we relate pressure and volume through the ideal gas law:
p = (nRT)/V. Then it becomes:

For an isothermal process, the temperature T is constant, giving

18.2 Thermodynamic Processes

Isothermal Processes
The first law of thermodynamics then gives U = 0 = Q W, so

T = constant
Q = W
W = nRT*ln(V/V)
pV = constant

18.2 Thermodynamic Processes

Constant-Volume Processes and Specific Heat
A constant-volume process occurs in a rigid closed container whose
volume cant change.
To express U = Q in terms of a temperature change T, we introduce
the molar specific heat at constant volume Cv defined by:

V = constant
Q = U
W = 0

Q = nCvT
V

18.2 Thermodynamic Processes

Isobaric Processes and Specific Heat
Isobaric means constant pressure. Processes occurring in systems
exposed to the atmosphere are essentially isoberic. The work done as
the volume changes from V to V, is the area under the isobar, or

W = p(V-V) = pV
(isobaric process)
Cp is the molar specific heat at constant pressure.

(molar specific heats)

18.2 Thermodynamic Processes

Isobaric Processes and Specific Heat
isobar

T
T

W
V

p = constant
Q = U + W
W = p(V-V)
Q = nCpT
Cp = Cv + R

18.2 Thermodynamic Processes

Adiabatic Processes
In an adiabatic process, no heat flows between a system and its
environment. The way to achieve this is to surround the system with
perfect thermal insulation.
Since the heat Q is zero in an adiabatic process, the 1st law becomes
simply

U = -W

(adiabatic process)

18.2 Thermodynamic Processes

Adiabatic Processes
As a gas expands adiabatically, its volume increases while its
internal energy and temperature decrease. The ideal-gas law,
pV=nRT, then requires that the pressure decrease as well and by
more than it would in an isothermal process where T remains
constant.

(adiabatic process)

18.2 Thermodynamic Processes

Adiabatic Processes
Q = 0
U = -W
W = (pV-pV)/(-1)

pV = constant
TV(-1) = constant

EXAMPLE 18.3

An Adiabatic Process: Diesel Power

Fuel ignites in a diesel engine from the heat of compression as the

piston moves toward the top of the cylinder; theres no spark plug as
in a gasoline engine. Compression is fast enough that the process is
essentially adiabatic. If the ignition temperature is 500C, WHAT
COMPRESSION RATIO Vmax/Vmin is needed? Airs specific-heat ratio is
=1.4, and before compression the air is at 20C.
The problem involves temperature and volume, we apply the formula
TminVmin(-1) = TmaxVmax(-1).
Solving for the compression ratio Vmax/Vmin gives

18.3 Specific Heats of an Ideal Gas

The specific heats of an ideal gas follow from the degrees of
freedom of each molecule:

Monatomic

Diatomic

3 degrees of freedom

5 degrees of freedom

Cv = (3/2)R

Cv = (5/2)R