Preliminary Chemistry: Marilyn Schell Kevin Molyneux

PRELIMINARY CHEMISTRY
Marilyn Schell
Kevin Molyneux
Science Press 2007

First published 2007
Reprinted 2007, 2008, 2010
Science Press
Private Bag 7023 Marrickville NSW 1475 Australia
Tel: (02) 9516 1122 Fax: (02) 9550 1915
sales@sciencepress.com.au
www.sciencepress.com.au
All rights reserved. No part of this publication

may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording
or otherwise, without the prior permission of
Science Press. ABN 98 000 073 861
Contents
Introduction
Verbs to Watch
vi
Dot Points
The Chemical Earth
vii
Metals
ix
Water
xi
Energy
xiii
Questions
The Chemical Earth
Metals
47
Water
87
Energy
117
Answers
The Chemical Earth
171
Metals
191
Water
203
Energy
215
Appendix
Data Sheet
237
Periodic Table
238
Science Press
Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry
iii
Contents
Notes
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Science Press
Contents
iv
Introduction
What the book includes
,QWKLVERRN\RXZLOOQGW\SLFDOH[DPLQDWLRQTXHVWLRQVDQGDQVZHUVIRUHDFKGRWSRLQWLQWKH%RDUGRI6WXGLHV
syllabus for the following topics in the Year 11 Chemistry course:
7KH&KHPLFDO(DUWK
0HWDOV
:DWHU
(QHUJ\
Also included are typical experimental results for students to analyse if the third column of the syllabus indicates
WKDWVWXGHQWVVKRXOGFDUU\RXWUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQV
Format of the book
The book has been formatted in the following way:
1. Main topic statement (column 1 of syllabus)
1.1etc Syllabus requirement from columns 2 and 3.
1RWHWKDWWKHQXPEHULQJRIWKHVHUHTXLUHPHQWVLVWKHDXWKRUVFKRLFHDQGKDVEHHQXVHGWRPDNHUHIHUHQFLQJ
TXHVWLRQVDQGDQVZHUVFOHDUHU7KHLQGLYLGXDOUHTXLUHPHQWVDUHQRWQXPEHUHGLQWKHV\OODEXVWKH\DUHVLPSO\
EXOOHWHGKHQFHRXUXVHRIGRWSRLQWVZKHQZHUHIHUWRWKHP
1.1.1 )LUVWW\SLFDOTXHVWLRQZKLFKFRXOGEHDVNHGLQDQH[DPLQDWLRQIRUWKLVV\OODEXV

UHTXLUHPHQW
1.1.2 6HFRQGW\SLFDOTXHVWLRQZKLFKFRXOGEHDVNHGLQDQH[DPLQDWLRQIRUWKLVV\OODEXV

UHTXLUHPHQWHWF
7KHQXPEHURIOLQHVSURYLGHGIRUHDFKDQVZHUJLYHVDQLQGLFDWLRQRIKRZPDQ\PDUNVWKHTXHVWLRQPLJKWEH
worth in an examination. As a rough rule, every two lines of answer might be worth one mark. Note that in
PDQ\DQVZHUVWKUHHOLQHVKDYHEHHQSURYLGHGDVWKHDPRXQWRIZULWLQJUHTXLUHGH[FHHGVWZROLQHVEXWWKH
chemistry involved is worth only one mark.
How to use the book
&RPSOHWLQJDOOTXHVWLRQVZLOOSURYLGH\RXZLWKDVXPPDU\RIDOOWKHZRUN\RXQHHGWRNQRZIURPWKHV\OODEXV
You may have done work in addition to this with your teacher as extension work. Obviously this is not covered,
but you may need to know this additional work for your school exams.
:KHQZRUNLQJWKURXJKWKHTXHVWLRQVZULWHWKHDQVZHUV\RXKDYHWRORRNXSLQDGLIIHUHQWFRORXUWRWKRVH\RX
NQRZZLWKRXWKDYLQJWRUHVHDUFKWKHZRUN7KLVZLOOSURYLGH\RXZLWKDTXLFNUHIHUHQFHWRZRUN\RXVKRXOG
spend more time revising later, and allow you to spend your study time more productively.
Science Press
Introduction
Verbs to Watch
account/account for
State reasons for, report on, give an account of,
narrate a series of events or transactions.
distinguish
Recognise or note/indicate as being distinct or
different from, note difference between things.
analyse
Identify components and the relationships among
them, draw out and relate implications.
evaluate
Make a judgement based on criteria.
examine
,QTXLUHLQWR
apply
Use, utilise, employ in a particular situation.
explain
Relate cause and effect, make the relationship
between things evident, provide why and/or how.
appreciate
Make a judgement about the value of something.
extract
Choose relevant and/or appropriate details.
assess
0DNHDMXGJHPHQWRIYDOXHTXDOLW\RXWFRPHV
results or size.
extrapolate
Infer from what is known.
calculate
'HWHUPLQHIURPJLYHQIDFWVJXUHVRULQIRUPDWLRQ
identify
Recognise and name.
clarify
Make clear or plain.
interpret
Draw meaning from.
classify
Arrange into classes, groups or categories.
investigate
3ODQLQTXLUHLQWRDQGGUDZFRQFOXVLRQVDERXW
compare
Show how things are similar or different.
justify
Support an argument or conclusion.
construct
Make, build, put together items or arguments.
outline
Sketch in general terms; indicate the main features.
contrast
Show how things are different or opposite.
predict
Suggest what may happen based on available data.
critically (analyse/evaluate)
Add a degree or level of accuracy, depth, knowledge
DQGXQGHUVWDQGLQJORJLFTXHVWLRQLQJUHHFWLRQDQG
TXDOLW\WRDQDQDO\VLVRUHYDOXDWLRQ
propose
Put forward (a point of view, idea, argument,
suggestion etc) for consideration or action.
deduce
Draw conclusions.
recall
Present remembered ideas, facts or experiences.
GHQH
6WDWHWKHPHDQLQJRIDQGLGHQWLI\HVVHQWLDOTXDOLWLHV
recommend
Provide reasons in favour.
demonstrate
Show by example.
recount
Retell a series of events.
describe
Provide characteristics and features.
summarise
Express concisely the relevant details.
discuss
Identify issues and provide points for and against.
synthesise
Put together various elements to make a whole.
Science Press
Verbs to Watch
vi
The Chemical Earth

Dot Point
Page
Dot Point
Page
1.
Mixtures of the Earth

and their separation
3.11 Atoms share electrons in

covalent molecules
23
1.1
Particle theory of matter
24
1.2
Mixtures in the biosphere, lithosphere,

hydrosphere and atmosphere
3.12 Formulas of ionic and

molecular compounds
3.13 Models of ionic and covalent compounds
25
1.3
Separation of naturally occuring mixtures
4.
Energy in the extraction of elements
27

LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ
)
Separating a mixture
4.1
Physical and chemical changes
27

$VVHVVLQJVHSDUDWLRQWHFKQLTXHV
4.2
Boiling and electrolysis of water
28

Uses of gravimetric analysis
LUVWKDQGRUVHFRQGDU\LQYHVWLJDWLRQ
)
Electrolysis of water

1.6

)
Gravimetric analysis of a mixture
4.4
Boiling and electrolysis as physical and

chemical changes
30
1.8
Industrial separation of a mixture

1.9
Applied Question Section 1
10
LUVWKDQGRUVHFRQGDU\LQYHVWLJDWLRQ
)
Light on silver salts
2.
Elements occurrence and properties
11

2.1
Reactivity and occurrence of elements
11
)
Heat on carbonates

OHPHQWVPHWDOVQRQPHWDOV
(
DQGVHPLPHWDOV

4.7
Energy changes in decomposition

and synthesis reactions
32
2.3
Investigation: Physical properties

of elements
12
4.8
Energy needed to break

bonds in compounds
33
2.4
Physical properties of
PHWDOVDQGQRQPHWDOV
13
5.
Bonding, structure and properties
35
5.1
Physical and chemical properties
35

ODVVLFDWLRQRIHOHPHQWV
&
and the Periodic Table

LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ3URSHUWLHVRI
)
elements and the compounds they form

2.6
Uses and properties of metals
15
5.3
37
2.7
16
3.
Compounds, molecules and ions
17
Physical properties of ionic,

covalent molecular and
covalent network compounds
3.1
Matter is made of moving particles
17

, QYHVWLJDWLRQ&ODVVLFDWLRQRI
metallic, ionic and covalent substances

3.2
Mass number and atomic number
17

0HWDOVDV'ODWWLFHVLQDVHDRIHOHFWURQV
3.3
Energy levels of electrons
18

,RQLFFRPSRXQGVDV'ODWWLFHV

3.4
Atoms gain or lose electrons to form ions 19
5.7
Empirical formulas of ionic compounds
40
3.5
Ion formation and the Periodic Table
20

,RQIRUPDWLRQLRQLFHTXDWLRQV

5.8
Elements as molecules or lattices
41
5.9
Lewis electron dot structures
21
Properties, structure and

bonding of substances
42
3.7
3.8
Attraction of ions and ionic compounds
22
5.10 Metallic, ionic and covalent bonds
43
3.9
Molecules
22
5.11 Limitations of models
45
23
Answers to The Chemical Earth
3.10 Atoms in molecules
171
Science Press
vii
The Chemical Earth
Notes
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Science Press
The Chemical Earth
viii
Metals
Dot Point
Page
1.
Uses of metals and alloys
48
1.1
Uses of metals through history
48
1.2
Energy for metal extraction
48
1.3
Availability of metals over time
49
1.4
Uses and properties of alloys
49
1.5
Composition and uses of alloys
50
1.6
Bronze Age, Iron Age and

Modern Era of metals
50
1.7
2.
Dot Point
Page
3.4
Recognising patterns in properties

of elements
68

VLQJFRPSXWHUEDVHGWHFKQRORJLHVWR
8
tabulate and graph

3.6
70
4.
Measuring chemicals in reactions
71
4.1
The mole concept
71

(TXDWLRQVDQGPROHUDWLRV

52
4.3
Mass changes in combustion of metals
72
Reactivity of metals
53
4.4
Empirical and molecular formulas
73

)
Activity series of metals

)
Chemical composition

2.2
Reactions of metals with dilute acids,

water and oxygen
53

*D\/XVVDFJDVUHDFWLRQVDQGWKHPROH

$YRJDGURVODZDQGWKHPROH

(TXDWLRQVIRUUHDFWLRQVRIPHWDOV

4.8
Calculations of moles
76
2.4
Criteria for activity series of metals
56
4.9
Volume of gases and the mole
77
2.5
Transfer of electrons occurs when

metals react with acids
57
5.
Extraction and recycling of metals
79
5.1
Minerals, ores and resources
79

DOIHTXDWLRQVIRUHOHFWURQ
+
transfer reactions

5.2
Predicting yield of ore deposits
79
5.3
Extraction of copper from its ore
80
2.7
Uses and reactivity of metals
59
5.4
Reactivity of metals and the Periodic Table 59
Commercial prices, cost of production

and abundance of metals
81
2.8
2.9
Reactivity of metals and

UVWLRQLVDWLRQHQHUJ\
60

2UHVDVQRQUHQHZDEOHUHVRXUFHV

5.6
Recycling of metals
83
3.
Properties of elements
and the Periodic Table
61
5.7
Recycling aluminium
84
3.1
A model of atomic structure
61
5.8
Cost to extract and recycle aluminium
85
3.2
Development of the Periodic Table
62
3.3
Trends in properties of elements and

their position in the Periodic Table
64
Answers to Metals
191
Science Press
ix
Metals
Notes
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Science Press
Metals
Water
Dot Point
Page
Dot Point
Page
1.
Distribution of water on Earth
88
4.
Solutions, solubility and precipitation
105
1.1
Solute, solvent, solution
88
4.1
Solubility rules and precipitates
105
1.2
Water as a solvent
88
4.2
Modelling dissolution and precipitation
105
1.3
Distribution of water on Earth
88
4.3
Ion movement in saturated solutions
106
1.4
Roles of water
89

1.5
Calculations of density
90
, RQLFHTXDWLRQVIRUGLVVROXWLRQ
and precipitation

0RGHOVRIVROLGDQGOLTXLGZDWHU

1.7
Investigation: Effect of antifreeze or salt

on boiling point of water
92
)
Solubility of salts
4.6
Describing molarity of solutions
107
2.
Structure and bonding of water
93
4.7
Calculating concentration of solutions
108
2.1
Lewis electron dot structures
93
4.8
Measures of concentration
108
2.2
Structure and shape of water,

DPPRQLDDQGK\GURJHQVXOGH
93

)
Making and diluting solutions

2.3
Polarity of water
94
110

'LSROHGLSROHIRUFHV

4.10 Calculating mass and

concentration in precipitation reactions
2.5
Hydrogen bonding
96
5.
6SHFLFKHDWFDSDFLW\RIZDWHU
111
2.6
Modelling structure and bonding of water 96

6SHFLFKHDWFDSDFLW\

2.7
Water properties and

intermolecular forces
97

SHFLFKHDWFDSDFLW\RIZDWHU
6
and other solvents

2.8
Boiling point of water and

other similar sized molecules
98

8VLQJWKHHTXDWLRQ
H = mCT

)
Properties of water

8VLQJWKHVSHFLFKHDWRIZDWHU

3.
Water as a solvent
101
)
Finding molar heat of solution

LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ6ROXELOLW\RI
)
substances in water

5.6
Exothermic dissolutions
114
5.7
Endothermic dissolutions
114
3.2
Interactions of water with chemicals
102
5.8
Limitations of calorimetry experiments
115
3.3
Polarity of water and its solubility
104

,PSRUWDQFHRIWKHVSHFLFKHDWRIZDWHU
3.4
Modelling dissolution
104
5.10 Thermal pollution
116
Answers to Water
203
Science Press
xi
Water
Notes
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Water
xii
Energy
Dot Point
Page
Dot Point
Page
1.
Organic origins of energy
118

(TXDWLRQVIRUFKHPLFDOUHDFWLRQV

1.1
Photosynthesis raw materials

and energy changes
118
4.5
Combustion of a candle
146

)LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ%XUQLQJZRRG
1.2
Photosynthesis and solar energy
118

1.3
Photosynthesis and fossil fuels
119
RQGEUHDNLQJDQGERQGPDNLQJ
%
in chemical reactions
1.4
Investigating a fossil fuel

reliability, validity, accuracy
120

QHUJ\FKDQJHVLQERQGPDNLQJ
(
and breaking

2.
Carbon and its compounds
123
4.9
Activation energy
149
2.1
Carbon
123

2.2
Allotropes of carbon
123
(
QHUJ\SUROHVIRUHQGRWKHUPLF
and exothermic reactions
2.3
Models of diamond, graphite

and fullerenes
126
4.11 Ignition temperature and

activation energy
151
2.4
Properties and uses of diamond

and graphite
126
4.12 Pollution from combustion
151
5.
Rates of reactions
153
2.5
Single, double and triple bonds
126

0RGHOVRI&&ERQGV

LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ(IIHFW
)
of factors on reaction rates
2.7
Carbon compounds
128
5.2
156
3.
Petroleum, alkanes and alkenes
129
Slow, spontaneous and

explosive combustion
3.1
Modelling alkanes and alkenes
129
5.3
Conditions for explosions
157
3.2
Naming alkanes and alkenes
131
5.4
Reaction rates and particle collisions
158
3.3
Properties of alkanes and alkenes
133
5.5
Explosions and work environments
159

LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ)UDFWLRQDO
)
distillation of a mixture

5.6
Temperature and kinetic energy

of particles
160
3.5
Fractional distillation of petroleum
136
5.7
Catalysts in chemical reactions
160
3.6
Properties and bonding of hydrocarbons
137
5.8
Catalysts, activation energy

and rates of reactions
161
3.7
Storing alkanes safely
138
5.9
Modelling the role of a catalyst
161
3.8
Safety of alkanes and bonding
139
6.
142
Chemical reactions in the

Preliminary course
163
3.9
4.
Chemical reactions combustion
143

4.1
Indicators of chemical reactions
143
TXDWLRQVWRUHSUHVHQW
(
chemical reactions

LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ(QGRWKHUPLF
)
and exothermic reactions

4.3
Combustion as an exothermic
chemical reaction
144
Answers to Energy
215
Science Press
xiii
Energy
Notes
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Science Press
Energy
xiv
DOT POINT
The Chemical Earth
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
1. The living and non-living components of the Earth contain mixtures.

1.1
Identify the difference between elements, compounds and mixtures in terms of particle theory.
1.1.1
State the particle theory.
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1.1.2
'HQHWKHIROORZLQJLQWHUPVRISDUWLFOHV
(a)
element
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(b)
compound
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(c)
mixture
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1.1.3
Identify each of the following diagrams as representing an element, mixture or compound.
(a) ........................................................
(b) .......................................................
(c) ........................................................
(d) .......................................................
(e) ........................................................
(f) .........................................................
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
1.2
Identify that the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere contain examples of
mixtures of elements and compounds.
1.2.1
Complete the following table to show the zones in which each of the following mixtures is
XVXDOO\SUHVHQWDQGWKHFRPSRQHQWVRIWKRVHPL[WXUHV7KHUVWRQHLVGRQHIRU\RX
Zone
Biosphere
Mixture present
Wood
Components of mixture
Mixture of compounds such as water, carbohydrates, oils.
Copper
carbonate ore
Salt water
Air
1.3
Identify and describe procedures that can be used to separate naturally occurring mixtures of:
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1.3.1
Use diagrams to describe the following processes:
(a) Filtration
(b) Sedimentation and decanting
(c) Evaporation and crystallisation
(d) Fractional distillation of a mixture of liquids
(e) Sieving
(f) Using a separating funnel to separate two liquids
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
1.3.2
Complete the following table to relate some mixtures and methods of separating their
FRPSRQHQWV7KHUVWOLQHKDVEHHQFRPSOHWHGIRU\RX
Type of mixture
Solids of different sizes.
Example
A mixture of partly crushed rock
particles and silt.
Suitable process
to separate components
Sieving particles smaller than
the hole in the sieve pass through,
large particles stay in the sieve.
A liquid and a solid that will not

dissolve in that liquid.
A solid dissolved in a liquid.
Miscible liquids with different

boiling points.
Immiscible liquids with different
densities.
Gases.
1.3.3
(a)
Air is a mixture. Identify the main gases present.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
Identify the steps in the separation of gases such as oxygen and nitrogen from a mixture such
as air.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................

, GHQWLI\GDWDVRXUFHVSODQFKRRVHHTXLSPHQWDQGSHUIRUPDUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQWRVHSDUDWH
the components of a naturally occurring or appropriate mixture such as sand, salt and water.
1.4.1
Identify the components of the mixture that you separated in the laboratory.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
1.4.2
Describe the method you used.

(Note: You should list the steps in order and include a diagram. Your method should be so
clear that anyone else could repeat your experiment exactly as you did it.)
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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Science Press
The Chemical Earth
1.5
Assess separation techniques for their suitability in separating examples of Earth materials,
identifying the differences in properties which enable these separations.
1.5.1
Assess the use of fractional distillation to separate oxygen and nitrogen from air.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
1.5.2
$VVHVVWKHXVHRIOWUDWLRQWRVHSDUDWHVDQGIURPDPL[WXUHRIVDQGDQGVDOW
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
1.5.3
Use the following table to summarise the differences in properties that allow the listed
mixtures to be separated.
Process used to
separate components
Property that makes

this use possible
Oil and water.

Solid wastes from sewage.
Sand and gravel.
Nitrogen and oxygen from air.
1.6
Describe situations in which gravimetric analysis supplies useful data for chemists
and other scientists.
1.6.1
LVWWKHVWHSVQHHGHGLIDVFLHQWLVWLVWRXVHJUDYLPHWULFDQDO\VLVWRQGWKHSHUFHQWDJHRI
/
mercury in a sample of mercury oxide.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
1.6.2
Identify three other situations in which scientists might use gravimetric analysis to provide
useful data about mixtures.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
1.6.3
The label on a packet of oats contains the following information:

Contents
Per 100 g
Contents
Energy
1600 kJ
Dietary bre
6.9 g
Protein
9.4 g
Sodium
20 mg
Fat
5.9 g
Potassium
265 mg
Carbohydrate
68.6 g
(a)
Per 100 g
Describe how the manufacturer could have determined such information.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
Describe the purpose of providing such information on food packaging.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................

DWKHUUVWKDQGLQIRUPDWLRQE\FDUU\LQJRXWDJUDYLPHWULFDQDO\VLVRIDPL[WXUHWRHVWLPDWHLWV
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percentage composition.
1.7.1
(a)
Identify the mixture that you analysed in the laboratory, by means of gravimetric analysis.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
Assess the reliability of your results.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(c)
Discuss the need for safety precautions while carrying out this experiment.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
1.7.2
Two Year 11 students, Karen and Robert, are provided with a mixture of sand and salt and asked
to carry out a gravimetric analysis of this mixture to determine the percentage of salt present.
The total mass of the mixture is 4.90 grams. The students add water and stir to dissolve the salt.
7KH\OWHUWKHPL[WXUHDQGFROOHFWWKHUHVLGXH5REHUWDOORZVWKHUHVLGXHWRGU\WKRURXJKO\DQG
WKHQZHLJKVWKHOWHUSDSHUSOXVUHVLGXH.DUHQKHDWVWKHOWUDWHLQDZHLJKHGHYDSRUDWLQJEDVLQ
evaporating it to dryness. The results Karen and Robert obtain are:
0DVVRIOWHUSDSHUEHIRUHOWHULQJ J
0DVVRIOWHUSDSHUDQGGULHGUHVLGXH J
Weight of evaporating basin (empty) = 23.43 g
:HLJKWRIHYDSRUDWLQJEDVLQDIWHUHYDSRUDWLQJWKHOWUDWH J
(a)
Calculate the following:

(i) the mass of the residue
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(ii) the mass of the solid in the evaporating dish

...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(iii) the percentage composition of salt in the original mixture

...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(iv) the total mass of chemicals recovered after separation

...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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improvements.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
1.8
Identify data sources, gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to
identify the industrial separation processes used on a mixture obtained from the biosphere,
lithosphere, hydrosphere or atmosphere and use the evidence available to:
LGHQWLI\WKHSURSHUWLHVRIWKHPL[WXUHXVHGLQLWVVHSDUDWLRQ
LGHQWLI\WKHSURGXFWVRIVHSDUDWLRQDQGWKHLUXVHV
GLVFXVVLVVXHVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKZDVWHVIURPWKHSURFHVVHVXVHG
1.8.1
During this course you researched an industrial separation process (e.g. gravimetric analysis
RIRUHVIUDFWLRQDOGLVWLOODWLRQRIDLURUIURWKRWDWLRQ8VHWKHIROORZLQJVFDIIROGWRVXPPDULVH
\RXUUHVHDUFKQGLQJV
Name of industrial separation

process researched
separated by this process.
Properties of components that

allow them to be separated by
this process.
Uses of components when they

have been separated.
Issues associated with any

wastes produced during this
process.
1.8.2
Explain how you assessed the reliability of the reference sources you chose.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
1.9

Some junior students were arguing about whether air is a mixture or a compound. You are called in, as
an expert, to help settle the argument.
Identify arguments you could use to convince them that air is a mixture.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
10
2. Although most elements are found in combinations on Earth, some elements are
found uncombined.
2.1
Explain the relationship between the reactivity of an element and the likelihood of its existing as
an uncombined element.
2.1.1
Identify whether each of the following elements would be more likely to exist naturally as an
uncombined element or as a compound
(a)
magnesium
(b)
gold
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
2.1.2
Compare the reactivity of the metals magnesium and gold.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
2.1.3
Explain the relationship between the reactivity of an element and the likelihood of its existing
as an uncombined element.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................

&ODVVLI\HOHPHQWVDVPHWDOVQRQPHWDOVDQGVHPLPHWDOVDFFRUGLQJWRWKHLUSK\VLFDOSURSHUWLHV
2.2.1
Distinguish between the terms physical property and chemical property.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
2.2.2
Identify the following properties as either physical or chemical.
(a)
melting point ........................................................................................................................................
(b)
hardness ..................................................................................................................................................
(c)
malleability ...........................................................................................................................................
(d)
decomposition .....................................................................................................................................
(e)
reaction with acid ..............................................................................................................................
(f)
density .....................................................................................................................................................
Science Press
11
The Chemical Earth
2.2.3
Complete the following table to summarise the differences between the physical properties of
PHWDOVDQGQRQPHWDOV
Physical property
Metals
Non-metals
Melting and boiling points.

Conductivity of heat.
Conductivity of electricity.
Malleability (able to be bent and
hammered into shapes).
Ductility (able to be stretched into wires).
Lustre.
2.3
2.2.4
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&
the brackets.
([DPSOHVRIVHPLPHWDOVDUH .............................................. and
6HPLPHWDOVDUHOLNHPHWDOVLQWKDWWKH\DUHDOOFU\VWDOOLQHVROLGVDWURRPWHPSHUDWXUH
and they have (high/low) melting and boiling points.
HPLPHWDOVDUHOLNHQRQPHWDOVLQWKDWWKH\DUHEHWWHUSRRUHUFRQGXFWRUVRIHOHFWULFLW\

6
than metals.
...................................................... .
Plan and perform an investigation to examine some physical properties, including malleability,
hardness and electrical conductivity, and some uses of a range of common elements to present
LQIRUPDWLRQDERXWWKHFODVVLFDWLRQRIHOHPHQWVDVPHWDOVQRQPHWDOVRUVHPLPHWDOV
2.3.1
During your studies you investigated the physical properties of some elements.
(a)
Identify three elements you studied.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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HVFULEH\RXUQGLQJVIRURQHRIWKHVHHOHPHQWVDQGMXVWLI\LWVFODVVLFDWLRQEDVHGRQ\RXU
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...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(c)
Use a labelled diagram to show how you tested the electrical conductivity of these elements.
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
12
2.3.2
-XVWLI\WKHFODVVLFDWLRQRIJROGDVDPHWDO
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
2.4
Analyse information from secondary sources to distinguish the physical properties of metals
DQGQRQPHWDOV
2.4.1
Analyse the following information to classify each of the elements described below as a
PHWDORUDQRQPHWDO
D
$PDOOHDEOHVLOYHUFRORXUHGHOHPHQWZLWKPHOWLQJSRLQW&DQGERLOLQJSRLQW&
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
A yellow powder which is a poor conductor of electricity.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(c)
A colourless gas at room temperature.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
2.4.2
8VHWKHLQIRUPDWLRQLQWKHWDEOHEHORZWRFODVVLI\HDFKHOHPHQWDVDPHWDORUDQRQPHWDO
Element
2.4.3
Melting point (C)
Melting point (C)
Conductivity
1083
2600
Good
157
152
Poor
44
280
Poor
1770
4530
Good
210
196
Poor
Metal or non-metal
HJLQQLQJ&KHPLVWU\VWXGHQWVIUHTXHQWO\PDNHWKHPLVWDNHRIFODVVLI\LQJWKHIROORZLQJ
%
VXEVWDQFHVDVQRQPHWDOVDPPRQLD1+3), sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) and carbon dioxide
(CO2([SODLQZK\LWLVQRWFRUUHFWWRFODVVLI\DQ\RIWKHVHVXEVWDQFHVDVDQRQPHWDO
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
2.4.4
Identify the following elements:
D
DQRQPHWDOZKLFKLVDJRRGFRQGXFWRURIHOHFWULFLW\ .........................................................................................
E
DVKLQ\VLOYHUOLTXLGPHWDODWURRPWHPSHUDWXUH....................................................................................................
(c)
an inert gas used in advertising signs ...........................................................................................................................
G
DQRQPHWDOZKLFKLVOLTXLGDWURRPWHPSHUDWXUH..................................................................................................
Science Press
13
The Chemical Earth
2.5
Process information from secondary sources and use a Periodic Table to present information
DERXWWKHFODVVLFDWLRQRIHOHPHQWVDV
PHWDOVQRQPHWDOVDQGVHPLPHWDOV
VROLGVOLTXLGVDQGJDVHVDW&DQGQRUPDODWPRVSKHULFSUHVVXUH
Period
2.5.1
VLQJDNH\VKDGHWKHIROORZLQJ3HULRGLF7DEOHWRLQGLFDWHWKHSRVLWLRQVRIPHWDOVQRQ
8
PHWDOVDQGVHPLPHWDOV
Group I II
III IV V VI VII VIII
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
non-metals
semi-metals
metals
2.5.2
Using a key, shade the following Periodic Table to identify which elements occur as solids,
OLTXLGVDQGJDVHVDWURRPWHPSHUDWXUH
He
B C N O F Ne
Al Si P S Cl Ar
Li Be
Na Mg
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Fr Ra Ac Ru Db
gases
2.5.3
liquids
solids
, GHQWLI\ZKHWKHUHDFKRIWKHHOHPHQWVLQWKHIROORZLQJWDEOHZRXOGH[LVWDVDVROLGOLTXLGRU
JDVDWURRPWHPSHUDWXUH&
Element
Melting point (C)
Melting point (C)
1490
2900
58
114
183
39
357
210
196
Solid/liquid/gas at room
temperature
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
14
2.5.4
:ULWHV\PEROVRUQDPHVIRUWKHIROORZLQJPHWDOVDQGQRQPHWDOV
Metals
Non-metals
Potassium
Phosphorus
Copper
Carbon
Calcium
Ar
Na
Al
Mercury

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2.6.1
For each of the elements listed in the table below, describe one use and the physical
SURSHUWLHVWKDWDFFRXQWIRUWKDWXVH7KHUVWRQHKDVEHHQFRPSOHWHGIRU\RX
Element
Gold
Use
Properties
Jewellery
Shiny lustre, malleable
Carbon
Aluminium
Helium
Iron
2.6.2
Complete the table by matching the properties listed in the table with the names and uses of
the elements shown below.
Names of elements described
Neon
Selenium
Helium
Aluminium
Carbon (diamond)
Iron
Uses
Building construction
Light sensitive switches
Jewellery
Filling balloons
Advertising signs
Wrapping food
Name of element
Properties
Use
Conductor of electricity in the light,

non-conductor in the dark.
Durable, clear, shiny solid.
Gas which is inert and has a very
low density.
Strong, solid, malleable metal.
Durable metal, very malleable, can
be rolled into thin sheets, insoluble
in water.
Unreactive gas which emits red
light when electricity is passed
through.
Science Press
15
The Chemical Earth
2.7

The physical properties of a metal are usually given as:
+DUGDQGVWURQJ
6ROLGDWURRPWHPSHUDWXUH
6KLQ\VLOYHU\DSSHDUDQFH
+LJKPHOWLQJSRLQW
0DOOHDEOHDQGGXFWLOH
*RRGFRQGXFWRURIHOHFWULFLW\
$QRQPHWDOLVXVXDOO\QRWFRQVLGHUHGWRKDYHWKHVHSK\VLFDOSURSHUWLHV,QWHUPVRIWKHSK\VLFDO
properties mentioned above, what makes each of the following elements unusual?
(a)
the metal lead
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
E
WKHQRQPHWDOFDUERQLQWKHIRUPVRIJUDSKLWHDQGGLDPRQG
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
F
WKHQRQPHWDOLRGLQH
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(d)
the metal mercury
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(e)
the metal copper
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
16
3. Elements in Earth materials are present mostly as compounds because of interactions at the
atomic level.
3.1
Identify that matter is made of particles that are continuously moving and interacting.
3.1.1
Identify the three types of particles that make up matter.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
3.1.2
Matter can occur as three states, depending on the energy of the particles. The states of matter
are ........................................ , ................................................. and ................................................................ .
3.1.3
Complete the table below to summarise the properties of the three states of matter.
Property
Solid
Liquid
Arrangement of particles.
Gas
Particles are close

together and moving
more freely.
Diagram.
Shape.
Depends on container.
Volume (space occupied).
Denite volume.
Ability to be compressed
(be pushed into a smaller
volume).
Can be compressed.
Ability to diffuse (spread

through another substance).
Cannot diffuse.
Kinetic energy of particles.
3.2
Describe atoms in terms of mass number and atomic number.

'HQHDQDWRP
3.2.1
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
3.2.2
Complete the following table to show the particles present in atoms.

Particle
Proton
Where found
Symbol
Nucleus of atom
Relative charge
Relative mass
+1
Neutron
Electron
3.2.3
Compare the mass number and the atomic number of an element.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press
17
The Chemical Earth
3.2.4
Complete the following table to show the particles in the atoms of some elements.
Name
of element
Atomic
number
Mass
number
Hydrogen
Beryllium
10
20
Number
of protons
Number
of neutrons
13
14
80
3.2.5
Number
of electrons
121
Use your Periodic Table and atomic numbers provided to identify the names and symbols for
each of the following elements.
Atomic number
Name of element
Symbol
5
7
19
92
3.2.6
3.3
Identify which two of the following species are both the same element. ................................................
Number of neutrons
Number of protons
Number of electrons
13
12
12
13
13
10
12
12
10
12
11
10
Describe qualitatively the energy levels of electrons in atoms.

RUWKHUVWHOHPHQWVLQWKH3HULRGLF7DEOHLGHQWLI\WKHPD[LPXPQXPEHURIHOHFWURQVLQ
)
each energy level.
3.3.1
Energy level
Maximum number
of electrons
K (1st shell)
8
M (3rd shell)
32
3.3.2
Which electrons have the most energy, those in level K, L, M or N?
........................................................
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
18
3.3.3
RUHDFKRIWKHIROORZLQJHOHPHQWVXVHDGLDJUDPDQGHOHFWURQFRQJXUDWLRQWRGHVFULEHWKH
)
structure of its atoms:
(a)
Lithium atomic number 3, mass number 7

(OHFWURQFRQJXUDWLRQ
Diagram:
...................................................................................
(b)
Calcium atomic number 20, mass number 40

(OHFWURQFRQJXUDWLRQ
Diagram:
...................................................................................
3.4
Describe the formation of ions in terms of atoms gaining or losing electrons.

'HQHDQLRQ
3.4.1
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
3.4.2
Complete the following table to show whether each of the following atoms gains or loses one
or more electrons when it forms an ion.
Name of atom
Sodium
Gains or loses
electron(s)
Number of electrons
gained or lost
loses
Na
Chlorine
Magnesium
Symbol of ion formed

+
1
loses
Oxygen
Neon
Aluminium
3.4.3
Complete the following rules for the formation of ions:
(a)
Metal atoms tend to ................................................ electrons and form ........................................................ ions.
E
1RQPHWDOVWHQGWR ................................................... electrons and form
....................................................... ions.
Science Press
19
The Chemical Earth

$SSO\WKH3HULRGLF7DEOHWRSUHGLFWWKHLRQVIRUPHGE\DWRPVRIPHWDOVDQGQRQPHWDOV
3.5.1
Write symbols for the following ions.
(a)
potassium ion
(c)
bromide ion
(e)
hydrogen ion
3.5.2
Complete the summary below to show the relationship between the group of the Periodic
Table to which an element belongs and the ions it can form.
...........................................................
(b)
calcium ion
...............................................................
(d)
silver ion
(f)
lead(II) ion
............................................................
............................................................
.................................................................
.............................................................
Group of Periodic Table
Electrons lost or gained
Charge on ion formed
1 lost
+1
1 gained
II
III
VI
VII
3.5.3
6RPHQRQPHWDOVIRUPSRO\DWRPLFLRQV:ULWHV\PEROVDQGYDOHQFLHVFRPELQLQJSRZHUIRU

the following polyatomic ions:
Ion
Symbol
Valency
Sulfate ion
Nitrate ion
Carbonate ion
Phosphate ion
Hydroxide ion
Ammonium ion

&RQVWUXFWLRQLFHTXDWLRQVVKRZLQJPHWDODQGQRQPHWDODWRPVIRUPLQJLRQV
3.6.1
&RQVWUXFWLRQLFHTXDWLRQVWRVKRZWKHIRUPDWLRQRILRQVIURPWKHIROORZLQJDWRPV
(a)
sodium
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
magnesium
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(c)
chlorine
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
20
3.7
Apply Lewis electron dot structures to:

WKHIRUPDWLRQRILRQV
WKHHOHFWURQVKDULQJLQVRPHPROHFXOHV
3.7.1
Apply Lewis electron dot structures to the formation of:
(a)
sodium ions
(b)
chloride ions
3.7.2
Apply Lewis electron dot structures to electron sharing between:
(a)
Two atoms of chlorine sharing electrons to form a molecule of chlorine.
(b)
An atom of oxygen sharing electrons with two atoms of hydrogen to form a molecule of water.
3.7.3
(a)
Complete the following:

When elements form ........................................ , their atoms gain, lose or share ........................................
with atoms of other elements. Their ability to do this is called their combining power or
.......................................... . Gaining, losing or sharing one or more electrons allows an atom to
obtain a complete, .......................................... outer shell of electrons.
Science Press
21
The Chemical Earth
(b)
Complete the following table to show the name, symbol and valency of the elements listed.
Name
Symbol
Valency
Name
Symbol
Strontium
N
Cu
1 or 2
Ca
Carbon
Bromine
Nickel
Iodine
Magnesium
Zn
Fe
(c)
Valency
2 or 3
Hg
Should valency (combining power) be shown as a positive or negative value or simply a

number?
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
3.8
Describe the formation of ionic compounds in terms of the attraction of ions of opposite charge.
3.8.1
'HQHWKHWHUPLRQLFFRPSRXQGDQGLGHQWLI\WKUHHH[DPSOHVRILRQLFFRPSRXQGV
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
3.8.2
To which of the following ions would magnesium ions be attracted:

sodium ions, calcium ions, chloride ions, ammonium ions, zinc ions.
Explain your answer.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
3.8.3
Identify the term used to describe the force between sodium ions and chloride ions in the
compound sodium chloride.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
3.9
Describe molecules as particles which can move independently of each other.

3.9.1 'HQHWKHWHUPPROHFXOH
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
3.9.2
Distinguish between an atom of hydrogen and a molecule of hydrogen.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
22
3.10 Distinguish between molecules containing one atom (the noble gases) and molecules with more
than one atom.
3.10.1 Identify the following:
(a)
three elements with molecules composed of only one atom
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
three examples of molecules composed of two identical atoms
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(c)
the term used to describe molecules composed of two atoms
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(d)
three examples of compounds that exist as molecules
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
3.10.2 Show symbolically the structure of:

(a)
an atom of hydrogen
.....................................
(b)
a molecule of hydrogen
(c)
an atom of chlorine ........................................
(d)
a molecule of chlorine ............................................
(e)
a molecule of neon .........................................
(f)
a molecule of carbon dioxide
(g)
a molecule of water
.........................................
.............................
.......................................
3.11 Describe the formation of covalent molecules in terms of sharing of electrons.

3.11.1 Compounds with formula HCl(g) and HCl(l) are covalent molecular, whereas the compound
ZLWKIRUPXOD+&ODTLVLRQLF([SODLQ
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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23
The Chemical Earth
3.11.2 Covalent molecules are ones in which electrons are shared. Use Lewis electron dot diagrams
to show molecules of:
(a)
water
(b)
methane
(c)
oxygen
(d)
ammonia
3.12 Construct formulas for compounds formed from:

LRQV
DWRPVVKDULQJHOHFWURQV
3.12.1 Write formulas for the following ionic compounds:
(a)
potassium chloride
.........................................
(b)
sodium nitrate
(c)
magnesium carbonate ...................................
(d)
lithium phosphate ......................................................
(e)
aluminium sulfate ............................................
(f)
iron(II) hydroxide
3.12.2
Write formulas for the following molecular compounds:
(a)
ammonia
..............................................................
(b)
dinitrogen oxide
(c)
sulfur dioxide .....................................
(d)
sulfur trioxide ..............................................................
(e)
dinitrogen tetraoxide .....................................
(f)
silicon dioxide .............................................................
.............................................................
.....................................................
.........................................................
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
24
3.13 Analyse information by constructing or using models showing the structure of metals,
ionic compounds and covalent compounds.
3.13.1
(a)
Complete the following passage:

Metals are elements on the .......................................... side of the Periodic Table and they tend to
give up their outer shell .......................................... to form ions with a .......................................... charge.
Metals are good .......................................... of electricity because they consist of a lattice made
of positive ions surrounded by a sea of .......................................... electrons and the electrons are free
to move.
The random movement of the outer shell electrons provides the .......................................... or force
that holds the crystal structure of the metal lattice together. This force is called a
.......................................... bond. Metallic bonds are very ...........................................
E
8VHDODEHOOHGGLDJUDPWRPRGHOWKHWKUHHGLPHQVLRQDOVWUXFWXUHRIDPHWDO
3.13.2 In the following list, circle the substances which have metallic bonds.
(a)
aluminium
(b)
aluminium oxide
(c)
copper
(d)
copper sulfate
(e)
sodium
(f)
sodium chloride
3.13.3
(a)
Complete the following passage about ionic compounds.

An ionic compound is a compound that contains .......................................... which are held
together by an .......................................... force. Most ionic compounds are crystalline solids
at room .......................................... $QLRQLFFRPSRXQGFRQVLVWVRIDWKUHHGLPHQVLRQDO.
.........................................or network of .......................................... which are held together by
.......................................... bonds.
E
8VHDWKUHHGLPHQVLRQDOGLDJUDPWRUHSUHVHQWWKHVWUXFWXUHRIVRGLXPFKORULGH
Science Press
25
The Chemical Earth
3.13.4
(a)
Complete the following passage using the list of words below the passage.
Covalent compounds are compounds that contain .......................................... bonds, thus they
involve the .......................................... of one or more pairs of electrons between atoms. Covalent
compounds are formed between elements in .......................................... IV, V, VI and VII of the
Periodic .......................................... . Covalent compounds exist as .......................................... . These
molecules can be small, e.g. carbon dioxide or large, e.g. silicon dioxide. Large molecules
are called .......................................... .......................................... .......................................... . These giant covalent
lattices can be also called macromolecules and covalent network substances.
The covalent bond within a molecule is a very .......................................... bond. In giant covalent
lattices these strong .......................................... extend throughout the lattice. Small covalent
molecules have weak intermolecular .......................................... holding the molecules together.
List of words: Groups, strong, molecules, covalent, bonds, forces, sharing, giant covalent lattices,
Table
(b)
Use a diagram to model molecules of methane, showing all bonding.
(c)
Use a diagram to model a giant covalent lattice of silicon dioxide.
3.13.5 Describe the method YOU used to model:

(a)
metals
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
ionic compounds
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(c)
covalent compounds
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
26
4. Energy is required to extract elements from their naturally occurring sources.

4.1
Identify the differences between physical and chemical change in terms of rearrangement
of particles.
4.1.1
Classify each of the following as a physical change or a chemical change.
(a)
boiling water
(b)
cooking an egg
F
OWHULQJDPL[WXUH ................................................................................................................
(d)
combustion of magnesium
(e)
decomposition of mercury oxide
(f)
evaporation ..............................................................................................................................
(g)
condensation ...........................................................................................................................
4.1.2
The main indication that a chemical change has occurred is the production of a new
substance. Identify three observations that would indicate that this had occurred.
..........................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................
................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
4.1.3
Identify which of the following reactions is a physical change and which is a chemical
change. Justify your choice.
(a)
(b)
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
4.1.4
Complete the following table to compare physical and chemical changes in terms
of their particles.
Physical change
New substance
Chemical change
No new substance is formed.
Particles
New particles are formed (atoms have been

rearranged).
Reversal
Easy to reverse by physical methods.
Energy
Small energy changes usually involved.
Science Press
27
The Chemical Earth
4.2
Analyse and present information to model the boiling of water and the electrolysis of water
tracing the movements of and changes in arrangements of molecules.
4.2.1
(a)
Describe the particles that make up water.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
When you start heating water in a beaker, you can see tiny bubbles of a gas on the inside
of the beaker, in the water. Does this mean that the water molecules are breaking up into
hydrogen and oxygen gas? Explain.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(c)
When water is heated, what happens to the H2O particles?
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(d)
When water boils and evaporates, what happens to the particles?
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(e)
When water is heated and boiled, do the H2O molecules ever break up? Explain.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
4.2.2
Use diagrams to model the arrangement and movement of particles in cold water and
boiling water.
Cold water
4.2.3
Boiling water
- XVWLI\WKHFODVVLFDWLRQRIERLOLQJDQGHOHFWURO\VLVDVSK\VLFDODQGFKHPLFDO
changes respectively.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
28

DWKHULQIRUPDWLRQXVLQJUVWKDQGRUVHFRQGDU\VRXUFHVWRREVHUYHWKHHOHFWURO\VLVRIZDWHU
*
analyse the information provided as evidence that water is a compound, and identify an
application of the use of this reaction.
4.3.1
You carried out an experiment in which you passed an electric current through water and the
water decomposed.
(a)
Draw a labelled diagram to show how you did this and the results you obtained.
(b)
Use a diagram to show the water molecules before and after the passage of the electric
current through the water.
Water molecules before electrolysis:
F
Molecules present after electrolysis of water:
:ULWHDQHTXDWLRQLQZRUGVDQGV\PEROVWRVKRZWKHGHFRPSRVLWLRQRIZDWHUE\HOHFWURO\VLV
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(d)
Outline one use for electrolysis of water.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(e)
Describe the tests you used to identify the oxygen and hydrogen produced.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
I
$VDUHVXOWRI\RXULQYHVWLJDWLRQRIHOHFWURO\VLVMXVWLI\WKHFODVVLFDWLRQRIZDWHUDVDFRPSRXQG
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press
29
The Chemical Earth
4.4
Summarise the differences between the boiling and electrolysis of water as an example of the
difference between physical and chemical change.
4.4.1
Complete the following table to show the differences between the boiling and
electrolysis of water.
Boiling of water
Changes in water.
Water changes state from

liquid to gas.
Changes in particles.
Reversal of process.
Particles have changed. Water particles

(H2O) have disappeared and new particles
(H2 and O2) have appeared.
Easy to reverse cool water
vapour and it changes back to a
liquid.
Physical or chemical
change.
4.4.2
:ULWHHTXDWLRQVWRVKRZWKH
D
FRROLQJRIZDWHUYDSRXUWRIRUPOLTXLGZDWHU
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
combustion of hydrogen
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................

DWKHULQIRUPDWLRQXVLQJUVWKDQGRUVHFRQGDU\VRXUFHVWRREVHUYHWKHHIIHFWRIOLJKWRQVLOYHU
*
salts and identify an application of the use of this reaction.
4.5.1
(a)
Describe the changes that occur in a silver salt (e.g. silver chloride, bromide or iodide) when
it is exposed to light.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
Identify the type of chemical reaction that has occurred.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
F
:ULWHDQHTXDWLRQIRUWKLVUHDFWLRQLQZRUGVDQGV\PEROV
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
4.5.2
Explain how silver salts are used in photography.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
30

ODQDQGVDIHO\SHUIRUPDUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQWRVKRZWKHGHFRPSRVLWLRQRIDFDUERQDWHE\KHDW
3
using appropriate tests to identify carbon dioxide and the oxide as the products of the reaction.
4.6.1
<RXSHUIRUPHGDUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQWRVKRZWKHGHFRPSRVLWLRQRIDFDUERQDWHE\KHDW
(a)
Use a labelled diagram to show how you carried out this experiment.
E
:ULWHDQHTXDWLRQWRVKRZWKHGHFRPSRVLWLRQRIWKLVFDUERQDWH
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(c)
Describe how you tested the oxide and the gas produced.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(d)
Before you carry out any experiment it is essential to do a risk assessment. Outline reasons
why we bother with this step.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(e)
Describe one safety concern that you anticipated when planning this experiment and outline
how you prevented or overcame this potential problem.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press
31
The Chemical Earth
4.7
Identify light, heat and electricity as the common forms of energy that may be released or
absorbed during the decomposition or synthesis of substances and identify examples of these
changes occurring in everyday life.
4.7.1
HQHDQGJLYHHYHU\GD\H[DPSOHVRIWKHIROORZLQJW\SHVRIFKHPLFDOUHDFWLRQV)RUHDFKRI
'
the examples complete the table to identify the type of energy released or used.
D
'HFRPSRVLWLRQGHQLWLRQ
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Example
Production of metals from their
ores, e.g. copper from copper
carbonate.
Method used
Heat in a furnace.
Energy used or released

Heat energy used to decompose
the copper carbonate.
Production of aluminium from

aluminium oxide (in bauxite).
Development of lm.
E
6\QWKHVLVGHQLWLRQ
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Example
The rusting of iron.
How it occurs
Iron reacts with oxygen in air, in
the presence of water to form a
hydrated form of iron(III) oxide.

Energy released in the form of
heat.
Photosynthesis.
Formation of nitrogen oxides in the

atmosphere.
Burning of coal or coke to produce
electricity or to make steel.
4.7.2
ULWHHTXDWLRQVIRURQHRIWKHH[DPSOHVRIGHFRPSRVLWLRQDQGRQHH[DPSOHRIV\QWKHVLVWKDW
:
\RXGHVFULEHGLQWKHSUHYLRXVTXHVWLRQ
Decomposition:
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Synthesis:
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
32
4.7.3
Identify whether each of the following reactions is an example of synthesis or decomposition.
D
0DJQHVLXPR[\JHQPDJQHVLXPR[LGH ............................................................................................................
E
)HV6V)H6V .......................................................................................................................................................
(c)
Heating mercury oxide to form mercury and oxygen.
(d)
CaCO3V&D2V&22(g)
(e)
.......................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
(f)
4.8
.......................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................
Explain that the amount of energy needed to separate atoms in a compound is an indication of
the strength of the attraction, or bond, between them.
4.8.1
Mercury oxide (HgO) can be easily decomposed by heating whereas potassium oxide (K2O)
cannot. Explain.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
4.8.2
The following table shows the decomposition by heat of some types of compounds.
8VHWKHWDEOHWRDQVZHUWKHTXHVWLRQVEHORZ
Metal
Potassium
Sodium
Chloride
Stable.
Barium
Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Zinc
Iron
Tin
Copper
Carbonate
Hydroxide
Nitrate
Stable.
Stable.
Forms nitrite
and oxygen.
Forms metal
oxide and
carbon
dioxide.
Forms metal
oxide and
water.
Forms
metal oxide,
nitrogen
dioxide and
oxygen.
Oxide
Sulfate
Stable.
Stable.
Forms
metal oxide
and sulfur
trioxide.
Lead
Stable.
Mercury
Sublimes.
Silver
Stable.
Platinum
Gold
(a)
Forms metal,
oxygen
and carbon
dioxide.
Do not exist.
Forms metal,
nitrogen
dioxide and
oxygen.
Forms metal
and oxygen.
Forms metal,
sulfur trioxide
and oxygen.
Of the metals listed in the table, which two form the most stable compounds?
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
Identify the two types of compounds, from those listed in the table, that are the most stable.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press
33
The Chemical Earth
(c)
Identify any products formed when:

(i) calcium carbonate decomposes
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(ii) silver chloride decomposes

...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(iii) aluminium oxide is heated

...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(d)
Neither water nor aluminium oxide can be decomposed by heat, yet both of these compounds
can be decomposed by electrolysis. Explain.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
34
5. The properties of elements and compounds are determined by their bonding and structure.
5.1
Identify differences between physical and chemical properties of elements, compounds

and mixtures.
5.1.1
Classify each of the following as either a physical property or a chemical property.
(a)
ability to burn
(b)
ability to react with water
(c)
boiling point
(d)
colour ..............................................................................................................................
(e)
high reactivity ............................................................................................................
(f)
density ............................................................................................................................
(g)
unreactive or inert
(h)
conductivity
(i)
melting point
(j)
hardness
5.1.2
DFKHOHPHQWKDVLWVRZQGLVWLQFWLYHSURSHUWLHV8VHDGDWDERRNRURWKHUUHVRXUFHWRQGWKH
(
physical and chemical properties of the elements listed in the tables.
(a)
Physical properties:
............................................................................................................
...................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
Element
Melting point (C)
Boiling point (C)
Density (g/mL at 20C)
Calcium
Mercury
Nitrogen
(b)
Chemical properties:
Element
Reactivity with water
Ability to burn
Hydrogen
Silver
Magnesium
5.1.3
(OHPHQWVDQGFRPSRXQGVERWKKDYHGHQLWHSURSHUWLHVEXWPL[WXUHVGRQRW([SODLQ
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press
35
The Chemical Earth
5.1.4
RPSRXQGVDOVRKDYHGHQLWHSURSHUWLHVERWKSK\VLFDODQGFKHPLFDO5HVHDUFKWKHIROORZLQJ
&
(a) physical and (b) chemical properties of the compounds listed.
(a)
Compound
Melting point (C)
Boiling point (C)
Calcium iodide
Mercury(I) chloride
Nitric acid
(b)
Compound
Decomposition
Copper sulfate
Silver chloride
Magnesium carbonate

HUIRUPDUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQWRFRPSDUHWKHSURSHUWLHVRIVRPHFRPPRQHOHPHQWVLQ
3
their elemental state with the properties of the compound(s) of these elements (e.g. the elements
magnesium and oxygen and the compound magnesium oxide).
5.2.1
(a)
Identify the compound you studied.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
Identify the elements that make up this compound, and the ratio in which they
are combined.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(c)
List the physical and chemical properties you studied.

...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(d)
Comment on the accuracy and reliability of your results.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
36
5.2.2
When elements combine to form a compound, the compound has properties which are
different to the properties of the elements used to make the compound.
(a)
Explain why this happens, using an example.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
We eat sodium chloride on our food and yet it is made from sodium, a silver metal which
UHDFWVH[SORVLYHO\ZLWKZDWHUDQGFKORULQHDJUHHQLVK\HOORZSRLVRQRXVJDV([SODLQ
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
5.2.3
Complete the following table to show that the properties of water differ from those of the
elements from which it is made.
Chemical properties
Physical properties
Water
Hydrogen
Oxygen
5.3
Describe the physical properties used to classify compounds as ionic or covalent molecular
or covalent network.
5.3.1
Classify the following compounds as ionic, covalent molecular or covalent network.
(a)
sodium chloride
(b)
silicon dioxide
(c)
ammonia
(d)
carbon dioxide .........................................................................................................................
(e)
carbon tetrachloride ..............................................................................................................
5.3.2
Identify the physical properties used to classify compounds as ionic, covalent molecular or
covalent network.
......................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
5.3.3
Complete the following sentences to explain why ionic, covalent molecular and covalent
network substances have different melting and boiling points.
(a)
When an ionic substance such as sodium chloride is heated enough to change state,
.......................................... bonds have to be broken. These are .......................................... bonds,
so the melting and boiling points are ...........................................
Science Press
37
The Chemical Earth
(b)
When a covalent molecular substance such as water is heated enough to change state,
the forces that break are the .......................................... forces, e.g. .......................................... forces.
As these are weak forces the melting and boiling points of covalent molecular substances
are .......................................... .
(c)
When a macromolecular substance such as silicon dioxide is heated enough to change state,
the bonds that break are the .......................................... bonds that extend throughout the lattice.
These are strong bonds so the melting and boiling points of these types of substances are
...........................................
5.3.4
Complete the following sentences to explain why ionic, covalent molecular and covalent
network substances have different conducting abilities.
(a)
Ionic substances cannot conduct when in the .......................................... state as their ions are
UPO\KHOGLQDWKUHHGLPHQVLRQDO........................................... They can ..........................................
when molten or in solution as their ions are free to move.
(b)
All covalent substances are poor conductors of electricity because they do not have
.......................................... or free .......................................... .
5.3.5
Tabulate the differences between the melting and boiling points, hardness and electrical
conductivity of ionic, covalent molecular and covalent network compounds.
Property
Melting and boiling

points.
Ionic
Covalent molecular
Covalent network
Very high
Hardness.
Hard
Electrical conductivity
when solid.
when dissolved in water.
when molten.
5.4
Poor
Good
Poor
Perform an investigation to examine the physical properties of a range of common substances

in order to classify them as metallic, ionic or covalent molecular or covalent network substances
and relate their characteristics to their uses.
5.4.1
(a)
Identify the substances you investigated to determine their types of bonds.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
Identify physical properties that you measured or researched for each substance.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
38
5.4.2
Use the following descriptions of the properties of substances to classify those substances as
ionic, metallic, covalent molecular or covalent network.
Description
Classication
(a) Shiny, insoluble solid which is a good conductor of

electricity when solid and when molten.
(b) Gas at room temperature, soluble in water,
does not conduct electricity, low melting point.
(c) Very high melting and boiling points, non-conductor
of electricity when solid and when molten.
(d) Low melting and boiling points, soluble in water,
non-conductor.
(e) Good conductor of electricity when molten and in
aqueous solution, but not when solid.
5.4.3
Classify each of the following substances as metallic, ionic, covalent molecular or covalent
network. Then for each substance determine a use that relies on properties associated with its
type of bonding.
Factor
Copper
Sodium chloride
Nitrogen
Silicon dioxide
Type of substance.
Use.
Property that allows
for this use.
Reason for this
property.

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5.5.1
Use a labelled diagram to represent the structure of a metal.
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39
The Chemical Earth
5.5.2
HWDOVFRQVLVWRIDWKUHHGLPHQVLRQDOODWWLFHRILRQVLQDVHDRIHOHFWURQV8VH\RXUPRGHO
0
of the structure of metals to explain the properties of metals shown in the following table.
7KHUVWRQHLVGRQHIRU\RX
Physical property of metal

Good conductor of electricity.
Explanation in terms of structure

Outer shell electrons are delocalised (not held tightly to the metal ion) and
thus mobile so they are free to carry charge.
Good conductor of heat.
High melting and boiling points.
Malleable and ductile.
Shiny lustre.

'HVFULEHLRQLFFRPSRXQGVLQWHUPVRIUHSHDWLQJWKUHHGLPHQVLRQDOODWWLFHVRILRQV
5.6.1
Sodium chloride is an ionic compound with the formula NaCl. What does this
formula represent?
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
5.6.2
Complete the following:

Ionic compounds consist of a repeating ..........................................GLPHQVLRQDO
.......................................... of positively and .......................................... charged ...........................................
These ions are held together by strong forces called .......................................... bonds which extend
throughout the .......................................... . Ionic lattices form crystals which can be of any size.
5.7
Explain why the formula for an ionic compound is an empirical formula.

5.7.1
D
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...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
E
'HQHWKHWHUPHPSLULFDOIRUPXOD
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(c)
Identify each of the following as an empirical or a molecular formula:

(i) C6H12O6 ..................................................................
(ii) CH2O
(iii) CH2 ...........................................................................
(iv) C3H6
.............................................................................
...............................................................................
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
40
5.7.2
Explain why NaCl is an empirical formula rather than a molecular formula.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
5.8
Identify common elements that exist as molecules or as covalent lattices.

5.8.1
(a)
Identify three elements that exist as molecules.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
Identify one element that exists as a covalent network structure.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
5.8.2
(a)
What is meant by an allotrope?
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
Identify three allotropes of carbon.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(c)
Identify two other elements that also occur as allotropes.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press
41
The Chemical Earth
5.9
Explain the relationship between the properties of conductivity and hardness and the structure
of ionic, covalent molecular, and covalent network structures.
5.9.1
Complete the following table to identify the physical properties of ionic compounds that are
determined by the structural features shown.
Structural feature of ionic compounds
Strong ionic bonds throughout the crystal lattice.

A lot of energy is needed to break these bonds.
Physical property determined by structure

Hard. Crystalline.
Heating makes the ions vibrate. This breaks the

bonds and the ions are then free to move and carry
the current.
Water moves between the ions, pushing them apart
and breaking the ionic bonds. The ions are then free
to move and carry the electric charge.
Ions are held in xed positions by strong ionic bonds
that extend throughout the lattice. The ions can
only vibrate, they are not free to move and carry the
charge.
5.9.2
Compare the following physical properties of substances with metallic, ionic and
covalent bonding.
Property
Metallic
Ionic
High
Melting and boiling

points.
Covalent network
Low
Hardness.
Hard
when solid.
Good
Poor
Insoluble
Poor
when molten.
5.9.3
Covalent
molecular
Good
Complete the following table to summarise the relationship between the structure and
properties of covalent molecular substances.
Properties
Structure
Poor conductors of electricity in all states.

Hardness.
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
42
5.9.4
Complete the following table to summarise the relationship between the structure and
properties of covalent network substances.
Properties
Structure

Hardness.
5.10 Distinguish between metallic, ionic and covalent bonds.

5.10.1 Complete the following passages using the words listed below:
covalent, metals, sharing, metal ions, electrons, ionic, ions, V, VI and VII,
molecular (covalent), dispersion, atoms, electrostatic, electrons.
(a)
(b)
Metallic bonds occur in .......................................... where they hold the positive

metal ions together. The metallic bond is caused by the random motion of the
delocalised outer shell .......................................... of metal atoms and their attraction
to the positive .......................................... .
Ionic bonds occur in .......................................... compounds where they hold positively charged
.......................................... ..........................................WRJHWKHUZLWKQHJDWLYHO\FKDUJHGQRQPHWDOLRQV
or polyatomic ion(s). Ionic bonds are caused by the ................................................................. attraction

between oppositely charged ions.
(c)
Covalent bonds occur in .......................................... compounds and in elements from

Groups .......................................... of the Periodic Table. Covalent bonds occur in both
small covalent molecules and large covalent networks. Covalent bonds are caused
by atoms .......................................... of one or more pairs of .......................................... .
(d)
Covalent molecular compounds have strong .......................................... bonds within the

molecule (intramolecular bonds) holding the .......................................... together and weak
forces between the molecules which are called .......................................... forces.
Science Press
43
The Chemical Earth
5.10.2 7
KHIROORZLQJRZFKDUWFDQEHXVHGWRKHOSFODVVLI\HOHPHQWVDQGFRPSRXQGVDFFRUGLQJWR
the types of bonds they contain.
Elements and
compounds.
A good conductor
when solid?
Yes
No
It is a metal.
A good conductor
in aqueous solution?
Yes
No
It is ionic.
It is covalent.
M.p. and B.p. high?
Yes
No
It is covalent network.
It is covalent molecular.
8VHWKHRZFKDUWWRGHWHUPLQHWKHERQGLQJLQWKHIROORZLQJVXEVWDQFHV
(a)
sodium
(b)
sodium chloride
(c)
sulfur ............................................................................................................................
(d)
hydrogen
(e)
dilute hydrochloric acid
........................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................
Note:7KHFODVVLFDWLRQRZFKDUWDERYHZLOOQRWZRUNIRUDOOVXEVWDQFHV)RUH[DPSOHLWDVVXPHVWKDW
all ionic substances are soluble in water, and this is not correct. Also graphite (carbon) would
DSSHDUWREHDPHWDOZKHUHDVLWLVWKHRQO\QRQPHWDOWKDWZLOOFRQGXFWHOHFWULFLW\
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The Chemical Earth
44
5.11 Choose resources and process information from secondary sources to construct and discuss the
limitations of models of ionic lattices, covalent molecules and covalent and metallic lattices.
5.11.1
(a)
Models can take many forms. Suggest some forms in which models can occur.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
The following diagram represents a model of a metal as a lattice structure. Discuss

advantages and limitations of this model.
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press
45
The Chemical Earth
5.11.2 The following diagrams represent two models of an ionic substance as an ionic lattice.
Discuss advantages and limitations of these two models.
(a)
+
Na Cl
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
Cl
Na+
Cl
Na+
Cl
Na+
Na+
Cl
Na+
Cl
Cl
Na+
Cl
Na+
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
5.11.3 0
RGHOVRIFRYDOHQWVXEVWDQFHVIUHTXHQWO\XVHOLQHVWRLQGLFDWHDVKDUHGSDLURIHOHFWURQV
IRUH[DPSOHWKHPROHFXOHVRIDPPRQLDDQGK\GURJHQVXOGHVKRZQEHORZ'LVFXVVWKH
usefulness of these models.
N
H H H
Ammonia
S
H
Hydrogen
sulfide
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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The Chemical Earth
46
DOT POINT
Answers
Science Press
169
Answers
Notes
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Answers
170
The Chemical Earth

1.1.1
All matter is made of tiny particles which are continually moving.
1.1.2
(a)
An element is a pure substance containing only one type of particle, e.g. atoms of copper, molecules of hydrogen.
(b)
A compound consists of two or more different types of particles, chemically combined, with the ratio of these particles
always the same.
(c)
A mixture contains two or more types of particles in any proportion. It is not a pure substance. The components of a
mixture keep their own properties and can be separated by physical methods.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
element
compound
mixture (of element and compound)
mixture (of two compounds)
element
mixture (of two elements)
1.1.3
1.2.1
Zone
Mixture present
Biosphere
Wood
Mixture of compounds such as water,

carbohydrates, oils.
Lithosphere
Copper carbonate ore
Mixture of copper carbonate and other

mineral compounds that we cannot use
(called gangue).
Hydrosphere
Salt water
Mixture of compounds, e.g. water and salts

such as sodium chloride.
Atmosphere
Air
Mixture of elements such as nitrogen, oxygen,

argon as well as the compounds water
vapour and carbon dioxide.
1.3.1
(a)
Filtration
(b)
Filter funnel
Gauze
Liquid being
poured off
Beaker
Solid stays
in container
Filtrate
Fractional distillation of a
mixture of liquids
(e)
Sieving
(f)
Water out
Using a separating funnel

to separate liquids
Separating
funnel
Thermometer
Flask
Hot water
bath
Evaporation and crystallisation
Bunsen burner
Retort
stand
Fractionating
column
(c)
Evaporating basin
Filter paper
contains residue
left behind
Filter ring
(d)
Sedimentation and decanting
Large particles
stay in sieve
Condenser
Cool water in
Mixture
Small particles
fall through sieve
Less dense
liquid
More dense
liquid
Distillate
Bunsen
Science Press
171
The Chemical Earth
1.3.2
Various, e.g.
Type of mixture
Example
Suitable process to separate components
Solids of different sizes.
A mixture of partly crushed rock particles

and silt.
Sieving particles smaller than the hole in

the sieve pass through, large particles stay in
the sieve.
A liquid and a solid that will not dissolve in

that liquid.
Sand and salt water.
Filtering separates the sand from the salty

water.
A solid dissolved in a liquid.
Salt water.
Distillation or evaporation and crystallisation.
Miscible liquids with different boiling points.
Petroleum.
Fractional distillation.
Immiscible liquids with different densities.
Oil and water.
Separating funnel.
Gases.
1.3.3
(a)
Approximately 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.9% argon, 0.03% carbon dioxide.
E
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1.4.1
Various, e.g. sand and salt.
1.4.2
Various, e.g.
Place the mixture in a beaker. Add 100 mL water. Using a stirring rod, stir until all of the salt dissolves in the water. Set up the
OWHULQJHTXLSPHQWDVVKRZQ3RXUWKHPL[WXUHLQWRWKHOWHUSDSHUDVVKRZQLQWKHGLDJUDP
Filter funnel
Filter paper contains mixture
residue left behind
Filter ring
Retort
stand
Beaker
Filtrate
$OORZWLPHIRUWKHVDOW\ZDWHUWRSDVVWKURXJKWKHOWHUSDSHU&RQWLQXDOO\DGGPRUHRIWKHPL[WXUHVWLUULQJEHIRUHDGGLQJ
XQWLOLWKDVDOOEHHQOWHUHG'U\WKHUHVLGXHVDQGLQWKHOWHUSDSHU(YDSRUDWHWKHOWUDWHWRUHFRYHUWKHVDOWFU\VWDOVE\
heating it in an evaporating dish (see diagram).
Evaporating basin
Gauze
Bunsen burner
1.5.1
UDFWLRQDOGLVWLOODWLRQFDQEHXVHGVXFFHVVIXOO\WRVHSDUDWHQLWURJHQDQGR[\JHQIURPDLURQFHWKHDLUKDVEHHQOLTXHHG
)
1LWURJHQDQGR[\JHQKDYHGLIIHUHQWERLOLQJSRLQWVR[\JHQ&DQGQLWURJHQ&ZKLFKDOORZVWKHPWREHERLOHGDQG
FRQGHQVHGVHSDUDWHO\1LWURJHQZLOOYDSRULVHUVWIROORZHGE\R[\JHQ
1.5.2
7KLVSURFHGXUHZRXOGQRWZRUNXQOHVVZDWHUZDVUVWDGGHGWRGLVVROYHWKHVDOW,IVROLGVDQGDQGVROLGVDOWZHUHPL[HGDQG
SODFHGLQWROWHUSDSHUQHLWKHUZRXOGSDVVWKURXJKWKHSDSHUVRWKH\ZRXOGQRWVHSDUDWH
, IZDWHULVDGGHGUVWDQGWKHPL[WXUHVWLUUHGWRGLVVROYHWKHVDOWWKHQOWUDWLRQZRXOGEHDYHU\JRRGPHWKRGIRUVHSDUDWLQJ
WKHVDQGDQGVDOW6DQGLVLQVROXEOHLQZDWHUVRLWZRXOGFROOHFWLQWKHOWHUSDSHUDVDUHVLGXH6DOWLVVROXEOHLQZDWHUVRLW
ZRXOGSDVVWKURXJKWKHOWHUSDSHUDVWKHOWUDWH7RLPSURYHWKHDFFXUDF\RIVHSDUDWLRQWKHUHVLGXHLQWKHOWHUSDSHUVKRXOG
be washed with lots of fresh water.
The salt crystals could then be recrystallised by evaporating the water.
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
172
1.5.3
Process used to separate components
Property that makes this use possible
Oil and water.
Fractional distillation
or
Using a separating funnel.
Water has a higher boiling point than oil

or
Oil is less dense than water.
Solid wastes from sewage.
Filtration.
Solid wastes are insoluble in water.
Sand and gravel.
Sieving.
Gravel particles are larger in size than sand.
Different boiling points, i.e. oxygen 183C,

nitrogen 196C.
1.6.1
Weigh a sample of mercury oxide. Heat the mercury oxide to make it decompose, making sure that no mercury is lost.
Collect the mercury produced and weigh it. Calculate the percentage of the original sample that was mercury
(mass of mercury/mass of mercury oxide 100).
1.6.2
Various, e.g. analysing the percentage of a mineral in rock, alcohol content of wine, water of crystallisation in a compound, fat
in food.
1.6.3
(a)
Gravimetric analysis. Weigh a sample of the oats. Separate out the components, e.g. carbohydrate, protein. Weigh the
amount of each component in the sample being analysed. Calculate the amount present in 100 g of the food.
E
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allows people to avoid those foods that contain a substance to which they are allergic.
1.7.1
(a)
Various, e.g. a mixture of sand and salt or copper ore and rock.
(b)
Various. If your teacher can tell you the actual composition of your original mixture you can calculate the percentage
accuracy of the procedure you used. You should make a statement about how accurate this procedure was and then
discuss reasons for any discrepancy between the actual values and those you obtained. You should be able to identify
some ways you could have improved the accuracy of your method. Examples of the sorts of suggestions you could
PDNHDUHKHDWLQJJHQWO\VRQRVSLWWLQJDQGORVVRIPL[WXUHRFFXUVRUZDVKLQJWKHOWUDWHWRHQVXUHDOOVROXEOH
PDWHULDOLVUHPRYHGIURPWKHVROLGDQGJRHVWKURXJKLQWRWKHOWUDWH
(c)
Various. In your answer you should discuss such things as:
LIDQ\RIWKHFKHPLFDOVLQYROYHGDUHWR[LFDQGLIVRWKHSUHFDXWLRQVQHHGHGZKHQKDQGOLQJWKHP
LIDQ\RIWKHFKHPLFDOVLQYROYHGDUHFRUURVLYHDQGLIVRWKHSUHFDXWLRQVQHHGHG
DQ\ULVNRIFKHPLFDOVVSLWWLQJRUEHLQJVSLOWDQGKRZ\RXFRXOGDYRLGWKLVRUSUHYHQWGDPDJHHVSHFLDOO\WRH\HV
1.7.2
(a)
(i)
the mass of the residue = 1.45 g
(ii)
the mass of the solid salt in the evaporating dish = 3.25 g
(iii)
the percentage composition of salt in the original mixture = 3.25/4.90 100 = 66.33%
(iv)
the total mass of chemicals recovered after separation = 4.70 g
(b)
The accuracy of the procedure used can be calculated as 4.70/4.90 100 = 95.92%.
Only 0.20 g (4.08%) of the original mixture has been lost which still means that the process was reasonably accurate.
Some salt may have been lost by spitting as the mixture was evaporating. This could be avoided by heating the
mixture more gently and perhaps partly covering the top of the evaporating basin. Also, some sand may have been
OHIWEHKLQGLQWKHRULJLQDOFRQWDLQHU:DVKLQJWKHPL[WXUHDQGLWVFRQWDLQHULQWRWKHOWHUSDSHUDWOHDVWWZLFHVKRXOG
ensure that all sand is transferred.
Science Press
173
The Chemical Earth
1.8.1
Various, e.g.
Name of Industrial separation process researched
Froth otation
Components of mixture separated by this process.
Metal compounds (minerals such as copper carbonate) and gangue

(waste rock minerals).
Properties of components that allow them to be separated by this

process.
Gangue minerals have different surface properties to metal minerals.

Metal minerals cling to the bubbles and gangue minerals become wet
and sink to the bottom of the frothy mixture.
Uses of components when they have been separated.
Metal minerals are treated further to remove the wanted metal

(e.g. copper) from the compound (e.g. copper carbonate).
Gangue minerals are sent to a tailings dam where they accumulate
and are eventually disposed of safely, e.g. they may be used to
ll an old mining shaft.
Some tailings still contain small percentages of the metal minerals and
they may be further treated at a later date when technology improves.
Issues associated with any wastes produced during this process.
The tailings may contain toxic substances (e.g. arsenic in tailings from
gold mines or copper salts in tailings from copper mines). Therefore
care must be taken that the tailings dam is lined to prevent seepage of
chemicals from the dam into the water supply. The wastes must also
be kept away from birds and native animals.
1.8.2
Check that the reference used is not a manufacturer of the product being researched as they could give a biased presentation.
Choose a government or university based reference rather than a company as these are more likely to be impartial. Check the
date when the reference was published or the website was updated, to ensure that the information is not outdated.
1.9

Various, e.g.

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/LNHRWKHUPL[WXUHVDLUFDQEHVHSDUDWHGLQWRLWVSDUWVE\SK\VLFDOPHWKRGVHJDLUIUDFWLRQDOGLVWLOODWLRQ
/LNHRWKHUPL[WXUHVDLUGRHVQRWKDYHDFKHPLFDOIRUPXOD
7KHUHLVQRVXFKWKLQJDVDPROHFXOHRIDLU$LUFRQWDLQVPROHFXOHVRIDQXPEHURIFKHPLFDOVHJQLWURJHQR[\JHQ
carbon dioxide.
/LNHRWKHUPL[WXUHVQRFKHPLFDOUHDFWLRQRFFXUVZKHQR[\JHQDQGQLWURJHQDUHPL[HGDWURRPWHPSHUDWXUH
/LNHRWKHUPL[WXUHVDLUKDVQR[HGPHOWLQJRUERLOLQJSRLQW(OHPHQWVDQGFRPSRXQGVGRKDYH[HGPHOWLQJDQG
boiling points.
<RXFRXOGDOVRSRLQWRXWWKDWDLUFRQWDLQVERWKHOHPHQWVHJQLWURJHQDQGFRPSRXQGVHJFDUERQGLR[LGHEXWWKH\
can be mixed in any proportion.

2.1.1
(a)
a compound
(b)
an uncombined element
2.1.2
Magnesium is much more active than gold.
2.1.3
Most elements are chemically active so they occur as compounds combined with other elements. The less reactive an element
is, the more likely it will occur as uncombined element. For example, the inert gases (Group VIII) and unreactive metals, such
as silver and gold, occur as elements.
2.2.1
Physical properties are those that can be found by studying the substance itself rather than its reactions, e.g. hardness,
conductivity, malleability, density. Chemical properties describe how a substance reacts, e.g. whether it reacts with water,
oxygen or acids and if it decomposes when heated.
2.2.2
(a)
physical
(b)
physical
(c)
physical
(d)
chemical
(e)
chemical
(f)
physical
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
174
2.2.3
Physical property
Metals
Non-metals
High.
Low.
Conductivity of heat.
Good conductors.
Poor conductors.
Conductivity of electricity.
Good conductors.
Poor conductors (except graphite).
Malleability (able to be bent and hammered

into shapes).
Malleable.
Not malleable (brittle).
Ductility (able to be stretched into wires).
Ductile.
Not ductile.
Lustre.
Shiny lustre.
No lustre usually powders or gases at room

temperature.
2.2.4
Various, e.g. silicon and germanium, high, poorer.
2.3.1
(a)
Various, e.g. magnesium, sulfur, iron.
(b)
Various, e.g. Magnesium is a shiny silver solid at room temperature, it is malleable, hard and is a good conductor of
both heat and electricity. It has a melting point of 650C and a boiling point of 1110C.
7RMXVWLI\WKHFODVVLFDWLRQRIDVXEVWDQFHDVDPHWDORUQRQPHWDO\RXZRXOGQHHGWROLVWWKHLQIRUPDWLRQ\RX
REWDLQHGDQGVKRZWKDWWKHFKDUDFWHULVWLFV\RXREVHUYHGDUHW\SLFDORIHLWKHUPHWDOVRUQRQPHWDOV)RUH[DPSOHWR
classify magnesium as a metal you would need to show that it is a shiny solid, is malleable, has high melting and
boiling points, good conductivity of electricity.
(c)
Electrodes
Container
Substance being tested
Each element to be tested was placed in the container, one at a time. The ends of the element were touched with the
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current, the better the ability of the element to conduct electricity.
2.3.2
It has the characteristics of a metal shiny lustre, high melting and boiling point, a good conductor of heat and electricity
and it is malleable.
2.4.1
(a)
metal
E
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F
QRQPHWDO
2.4.2
Metals A and D.
1RQPHWDOV%&DQG(
2.4.3
7
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2.4.4
(a)
carbon
(b)
mercury
(c)
neon or argon
(d)
bromine
Science Press
175
The Chemical Earth
Period
2.5.1
Group I II
III IV V VI VII VIII
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Non-metals
Semi-metals
Metals
2.5.2
He
H
e
B C N O F Ne
Ne
Arr
Al Si P S C
Cll A
Li Be
Na Mg
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br K
Krr
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Xe
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au H
Hg
g Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Rn
Fr Ra Ac Ru Db
Gases
2.5.3
Liquids
Solids
$VROLG%OLTXLG&VROLG'OLTXLG(JDV
2.5.4
Metals
2.6.1
Non-metals
Potassium
Phosphorus
Copper
Cu
Carbon
Calcium
Ca
Argon
Ar
Sodium
Na
Hydrogen
Aluminium
Al
Sulfur
Mercury
Hg
Iodine
Various, e.g.
Element
Use
Properties
Gold
Jewellery.
Shiny lustre; Malleable.
Carbon
Jewellery (diamonds are carbon)

or
Drawing (graphite in lead pencils is carbon).
Good reector and refractor of light; hard and

durable.
Makes marks on paper.
Aluminium
Window frames.
Lightweight; malleable.
Helium
Filling balloons.
Low density oats in air.
Iron
Making steel for buildings.
High strength.
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
176
2.6.2
Name of element
2.7
Properties
Use
Selenium
Conductor of electricity in the light,

non-conductor in the dark.
Light sensitive switches.
Carbon (diamond)
Durable, clear, shiny solid.
Jewellery.
Helium
Gas which is inert and has a very low density.
Filling balloons.
Iron
Strong, solid, malleable metal.
Building construction.
Aluminium
Durable metal, very malleable, can be rolled

into thin sheets, insoluble in water.
Wrapping food.
Neon
Unreactive gas which emits red light when

electricity is passed through.
Advertising signs.

(a)
Lead is soft and dull in appearance.
(b)
Carbon in the form of graphite is a good conductor. Carbon in the form of diamond is a hard and strong solid at room
temperature and has a high melting point (3547C).
(c)
Iodine is a shiny solid at room temperature.
G
0HUFXU\LVDOLTXLGDWURRPWHPSHUDWXUH
H
&RSSHULVUHGGLVKEURZQLQFRORXUQRWVLOYHU\
3.1.1
Atoms, ions, molecules.
3.1.2
6ROLGOLTXLGDQGJDV
3.1.3
Property
Arrangement of particles
Solid
Liquid
Gas
Particles are close together and

vibrating in xed positions.
Particles are close together and

moving more freely.
Particles are far apart and moving

very freely.
Shape
Denite shape.
Takes the shape of the container.
Depends on container.
Volume
Denite volume.
Denite volume.
Fills all available space.
Ability to be compressed
Cannot be compressed.
Cannot be compressed.
Can be compressed.
Ability to diffuse
Cannot diffuse.
Can diffuse.
Can diffuse.
Kinetic energy of particles
Least.
More than solids, less than

liquids.
Greatest kinetic energy.
Diagram
3.2.1
The smallest unit of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction.
3.2.2
Particle
Symbol
+
Relative charge
Relative mass
Proton
Nucleus of atom
+1
Neutron
Nucleus of atom
1/1835
Electron
3.2.3
Where found
Orbit the nucleus of atom
Mass number of an element is the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in the nucleus of its atom.
Atomic number of an element is the number of protons in the nucleus of its atom. (Note:7KLVLVDOVRHTXDOWRWKHQXPEHURI
electrons in the atom.)
Science Press
177
The Chemical Earth
3.2.4
Name of element
Atomic number
Mass number
Number of protons
Number of neutrons
Number of electrons
Hydrogen
Beryllium
4
10
Neon
10
20
10
10
Aluminium
13
27
13
14
13
Mercury
80
201
80
121
80
3.2.5
Atomic number
3.2.6
Name of element
Symbol
Boron
Nitrogen
19
Potassium
92
Uranium
A and C (same number of protons).
3.3.1
3.3.2
Energy level
Maximum number of electrons
K (1st level closest to nucleus)
L 2nd level
M 3rd level
18
N 4th level
32
3.3.3
(a)
e e
3p+
4n
(b)
Lithium atom
(OHFWURQFRQJXUDWLRQ
ee
e e
e e
e e
e e
20p+
20n
e ee
e e e
Calcium atom
(OHFWURQFRQJXUDWLRQ
e e
e e
3.4.1
A charged particle formed when an atom gains or loses one or more outer shell electrons.
3.4.2
3.4.3
Name of atom
Gains or loses electron(s)
Number of electrons gained or lost
Symbol of ion formed
Sodium
loses
Na+
Chlorine
gains
Cl
Magnesium
loses
Mg2+
Oxygen
gains
O2
Neon
neither
No ion formed
Aluminium
loses
Al3+
(a)
lose ... positive
(b)
gain ... negative
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
178
3.5.1
(a)
K+
(b)
Ca2+
(c)
Br
(d)
Ag+
(e)
H+
(f)
Pb2+
3.5.2
Group of Periodic Table
Electrons lost or gained
Charge on ion formed
1 lost
+1
II
2 lost
+2
III
3 lost
+3
VI
2 gained
VII
1 gained
3.5.3
Ion
Symbol
Nitrate ion
NO3
Carbonate ion
CO 3
Phosphate ion
PO 4
Hydroxide ion
OH
Ammonium ion
NH 4
D
1D1D+ + e
E
0J0J2+ + 2e
(c)
Cl + e&O
(a)
sodium ions
Na _ e
Na+
sodium
atom
(b)
SO 4
3.6.1
3.7.1
Valency
Sulfate ion
sodium
ion
chlorine ions
_
+ e
Cl
chlorine atom
3.7.2
Cl
chloride ion
(a)
chlorine (Cl2)
Cl
Cl
or
Cl
Cl
Shared pair of electrons
(b)
Science Press
179
The Chemical Earth
water (H2O)
O
or
O
H
Shared pairs of electrons
3.7.3
(a)
compounds, electrons, valency, stable
(b)
Name
(c)
Symbol
Valency
Name
Symbol
Valency
Strontium
Sr
Nitrogen
Copper
Cu
1 or 2
Carbon
Calcium
Ca
Bromine
Br
Nickel
Ni
Iodine
Magnesium
Mg
Zinc
Zn
Iron
Fe
2 or 3
Mercury
Hg
A number, not positive or negative. Valency is the combining power, the tendency to lose, gain or share one or more
electrons. A valency of 1 means that atoms of that element will gain, lose or share 1 electron from the outer shell. Ions
are positive (if the atom loses electrons) or negative (if the atom gains electrons), not valency.
3.8.1
A compound formed by the electrostatic attraction (ionic bonds) between two or more ions, e.g. sodium chloride, magnesium
oxide and sodium hydroxide.
3.8.2
Chloride ions. Magnesium ions are positive (metals lose electrons forming positive ions). Ions are attracted to other ions with
the opposite charge. Chloride ions are the only ions in the list that are negative.
3.8.3
Ionic bond an electrostatic force.
3.9.1
The smallest particles of an element or molecular compound which can move independently of each other.
3.9.2
An atom of hydrogen is the smallest unit of hydrogen that can take part in a chemical reaction. However, one atom of
hydrogen cannot exist and move independently. The smallest particle that can do this is a molecule of hydrogen which
consists of two atoms.
3.10.1
Various, e.g.
3.10.2
(a)
helium, argon, neon
(b)
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen
(c)
diatomic
(d)
water, ammonia, carbon dioxide, methane, hydrogen chloride
(a)
(b)
H2
(c)
Cl
(d)
Cl2
(e)
Ne
(f)
CO2
(g)
H 2O
3.11.1
HCl(g) is hydrogen chloride gas. Atoms of hydrogen share an electron with atoms of chlorine to form this covalent molecular
compound.
&OOLVSXUHK\GURJHQFKORULGHLQDOLTXLGVWDWH$WRPVRIK\GURJHQVKDUHDQHOHFWURQZLWKDWRPVRIFKORULQHWRIRUPWKLV
+
covalent molecular compound.
&ODTIRUPVZKHQK\GURJHQFKORULGHJDVGLVVROYHVLQZDWHURUFRQFHQWUDWHGDFLGLVGLOXWHGE\WKHDGGLWLRQRIZDWHU'XULQJ
+
this process, hydrogen and chloride ions are formed, so the compound is ionic.
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
180
3.11.2
(a) water
(b) methane
(c) oxygen
(d) ammonia
O
H
H
H
3.12.1
3.12.2
3.13.1
(a)
KCl
(b)
NaNO3
(c)
MgCO3
(d)
Li3PO4
(e)
Al2(SO4)3
(f)
Fe(OH)2
(a)
NH3
(b)
N2O
(c)
SO2
(d)
SO3
(e)
N2O4
(f)
SiO2
(a)
Left, electron(s), positive, conductors, delocalised, bond, metallic, strong
(b)
Positive
metal ions
e
e
e
e
Delocalised
electrons
e
e
e
3.13.2
(a)
aluminium, (c) copper, (e) sodium
3.13.3
(a)
ions, electrostatic, temperature, lattice, ions, ionic
(b)
Cl
Na
Cl
Cl
Na+
Cl
Na+
Na+
Cl
Na+
Cl
Cl
Na+
Cl
Na
Na+
Na+
Cl
Science Press
181
The Chemical Earth
3.13.4
(a)
covalent, sharing, Groups, Table, molecules, giant covalent lattices, strong, bonds, forces
(b)
H
C
H
H
Weak
intermolecular
dispersion H
forces
Strong intramolecular
covalent bonds
H
C
(c)
O
Si
O
Si
Si
Si
O
Si
O
O
O
(a), (b) and (c):
Si
O
Si
Si
O
O
Si
Si
O
3.13.5
O
O
O
O
Si
Si
O
Si
Strong covalent bonds

extend throughout the lattice
Various you may have used commercial sets or substances such as plasticine and matchsticks.
Describe what you used and what each substance or structure represents. It is a good idea to include diagrams in answers to
TXHVWLRQVVXFKDVWKHVH$OZD\VGUDZGLDJUDPVLQSHQFLODQGODEHOWKHPIXOO\
4.1.1
Physical a, c, f, g. Chemical b, d, e.
4.1.2
Permanent colour change, gas produced, precipitate (solid) formed, solid disappears, heat produced.
4.1.3
(a)
A chemical change as new particles are produced by the rearrangement of atoms.
(b)
A physical change as no new particles are produced.
4.1.4
Physical change
Chemical change
New substance
No new substance is formed.
A new substance is formed.
Particles
Particles are the same (although they may

move differently).
New particles are formed (atoms have been

rearranged).
Reversal
Easy to reverse by physical methods.
Usually difcult to reverse.
Energy
Small energy changes usually involved.
Energy changes are usually large.
4.2.1
(a)
Molecules of H2O each consisting of atoms of hydrogen and oxygen combined in the ratio 2:1.
E
1R:KHQ\RXKHDWDOLTXLGDQ\GLVVROYHGJDVHJDLUZLOOFRPHRXWRIVROXWLRQ7KLVRFFXUVEHFDXVHJDVHVDUHOHVV
VROXEOHLQKRWOLTXLGVWKDQLQFROGOLTXLGVWKHRSSRVLWHRIVROLGV6RWKHEXEEOHVLQVLGHDEHDNHURIZDUPZDWHUDUHDLU
bubbles coming out of solution.
(c)
H2O molecules gain energy and move faster. They do not break up as they are held together by strong covalent bonds.
(d)
H2O molecules then have enough energy to leave the surface of the water we say the water is changing state from
OLTXLGWRJDV
(e)
No. Heat cannot break up a water molecule. It can only give them more energy so they move fast enough to break the
weak intermolecular forces and pull away from each other.
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
182
4.2.2
Cold water
Boiling water
Water particles escaping
(changing state)
Water particles moving more slowly
Water particles moving rapidly
Bunsen burner
4.2.3
Bunsen burner
Boiling is a physical change because no new substance is produced. The only change is to the movement of the particles, the
particles themselves do not change, they remain water (H2O) particles.
Electrolysis is a chemical change because new substances are produced hydrogen and oxygen. The particles of oxygen and
hydrogen differ from the original water particles.
4.3.1
(a)
Tap to release gas
Reservoir
O2
gas
H2
gas
Water
Inert anode
Inert cathode
e
(b)
Water molecules before electrolysis
H
H
O
F
Molecules present after electrolysis of water
H H
:DWHUK\GURJHQR[\JHQ
2H22O+2(g) + O2(g)
(d)
To produce hydrogen and oxygen (from water) for use in fuel cells.
(e)
Hydrogen Place a lighted taper in the gas if it pops, the gas is hydrogen.
2[\JHQ3ODFHDJORZLQJVSOLQWLQWKHJDVLILWUHOLJKWVEXUVWLQJLQWRDPHVWKHQWKHJDVLVR[\JHQ
I
DWHUFDQEHFODVVLHGDVDFRPSRXQGEHFDXVHGXULQJHOHFWURO\VLVLWLVGHFRPSRVHGLQWRVLPSOHUVXEVWDQFHVWKH
:
HOHPHQWVK\GURJHQDQGR[\JHQ(OHFWURO\VLVRIZDWHUDOZD\VSURGXFHVK\GURJHQDQGR[\JHQLQWKHUDWLR7KLVWV
WKHGHQLWLRQRIDFRPSRXQGDVDVXEVWDQFHPDGHRIWZRRUPRUHHOHPHQWVFRPELQHGLQDGHQLWHUDWLR
Science Press
183
The Chemical Earth
4.4.1
Boiling of water
4.4.2
Changes in water.
Water changes state from liquid to gas

(two different forms of water liquid water
and water vapour).
Water decomposes to form two new

substances hydrogen gas and oxygen gas.
Changes in particles.
Particles stay the same but move faster and

become further apart.
Particles have changed. Water particles

(H2O) have disappeared and new particles
(H2 and O2) have appeared.
Reversal of process.
Easy to reverse cool water vapour and it

changes back to a liquid.
Reversal is not as easy. To convert hydrogen

and oxygen back to water a chemical
reaction is needed you have to burn the
hydrogen in the presence of oxygen.
Physical or chemical change.
Physical.
Chemical.
D
:DWHUJZDWHUO
H22J+2O(l)
E
+\GURJHQR[\JHQZDWHU
2H2(g) + O2J+2O(l)
4.5.1
(a)
Silver chloride changes from white to purple and then black.

Deposit of silver metal is formed.
The mass of the silver chloride decreases.
(b)
Decomposition
F
6LOYHUFKORULGHVLOYHUFKORULQH
$J&OV$JV&O2(g)
4.5.2
LOYHUEURPLGHLVDSSOLHGWRSKRWRJUDSKLFOP:KHQWKHOPLVH[SRVHGWROLJKWWKHVLOYHUEURPLGHGHFRPSRVHVIRUPLQJD
6
silver deposit in the shape of the image on the negative.
4.6.1
(a)
Various, e.g.
Tubing
Test tube
Green copper
carbonate
decomposing
Bunsen
E
Test tube
Limewater
(calcium
hydroxide
solution)
&RSSHUFDUERQDWHFRSSHUR[LGHFDUERQGLR[LGH
CuCO3V&X2V&22(g)
(c)
CuO I added dilute sulfuric acid to the black powder. A blue colour was produced indicating the presence of copper ions.
CO2 the gas produced was bubbled through limewater (calcium hydroxide solution) and the limewater turned milky.
CO2(g) + Ca(OH)2DT&D&23(s) + H2O(l)
(d)
To identify and address any potential hazards so we do not cause damage to the environment or to people.
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
184
(e)
Various, e.g. the risk of the test tube breaking while being heated and hot chemicals entering and burning the eye.
To prevent this, wear goggles and point the test tube away from all people.
When heating is complete or the production of carbon dioxide gas slows down the cold limewater could be drawn
back into the hot test tube causing it to crack and releasing the hot chemicals. This could damage the bench and/or
burn students.
To prevent this, the tube must be removed from the limewater as soon as heating is complete and the production of
carbon dioxide gas slows down.
4.7.1
(a)
Decomposition is a chemical reaction in which a compound is broken down into simpler substances.
Example
(b)
Method used
Production of metals from their ores,

e.g. copper from copper carbonate.
Heat in a furnace.
Heat energy used to decompose

the copper carbonate.
Production of aluminium from

aluminium oxide in bauxite.
Pass electricity through molten

aluminium oxide.
Electrical energy used.
Development of lm.
Action of sunlight on silver bromide

(on the lm).
Solar energy used to decompose

the silver bromide.
Synthesis is a chemical reaction in which simple substances combine to form a more complex substance.
Example
How it occurs
The rusting of iron.
Iron reacts with oxygen in air, in the

presence of water to form a hydrated
form of iron(III) oxide.
Energy released in the form of heat.
Photosynthesis.
Carbon dioxide and water combine to form

glucose and oxygen.
Solar energy is used.
Formation of nitrogen oxides in

the atmosphere.
Lightning causes atmospheric nitrogen

to combine with oxygen to form nitrogen
monoxide.
Electrical energy is used.
Burning of coal or coke to produce

electricity or to make steel.
Coal is heated in industrial furnaces

forming carbon dioxide.
Energy is used to start the reaction

and then energy is released.
4.7.2
Various, e.g.
'HFRPSRVLWLRQDOXPLQLXPR[LGHDOXPLQLXPR[\JHQ
2Al2O3V$OV22(g)
6\QWKHVLVQLWURJHQR[\JHQQLWURJHQPRQR[LGHQLWULFR[LGH
N2(g) + O2J12J
4.7.3
Synthesis a,b,e
Decompositiom c,d,f
4.8.1
Potassium is more active than mercury so it forms stronger bonds with oxygen than mercury. Therefore more heat energy is
needed to break the bond between potassium and oxygen than between mercury and oxygen.
4.8.2
(a)
Potassium and sodium.
(b)
Chlorides and oxides.
(c)
(i)
Calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.
(ii)
Silver and chlorine.
(iii)
None aluminium oxide is stable to heat.
(d)
5.1.1
Electric current provides more energy than heating. These substances are stable compounds, a great deal of energy
holds their atoms together in the compound. Thus a lot of energy is needed to pull them apart.
Physical properties: (c) boiling point, (d) colour, (f) density, (h) conductivity, (i) melting point, (j) hardness.
Chemical properties: (a) ability to burn, (b) ability to react with water, (e) high reactivity, (g) unreactive or inert.
Science Press
185
The Chemical Earth
5.1.2
(a)
Element
(b)
Melting point (C)
Boiling point (C)
Calcium
838
1440
1.55
Mercury
38
357
13.6
Nitrogen
210
196
Element
5.1.3
Ability to burn
Hydrogen
No reaction
Silver
Does not react
Burns explosively
Does not burn
Magnesium
Reacts slowly with steam
Burns with a white light
Elements and compounds are pure substances. This means that they always have the same composition so their properties stay
the same, e.g. the element magnesium is always made of magnesium atoms only. The compound magnesium oxide (MgO) is
always made of magnesium atoms and oxygen atoms, chemically combined in the ratio 1:1.
Mixtures are not pure substances. This means that mixtures do not always have the same composition. Their components
(parts) and the proportion of each can vary, so their properties can vary.
5.1.4
(a)
Compound
(b)
Melting point (C)
Boiling point (C)
Calcium iodide
575
718
4.0
Mercury(I) chloride
302
384
7.2
Nitric acid
47
86
1.5
Compound
5.2.1
Decomposition
Copper sulfate
No reaction, dissolves
Decomposes to form copper oxide and sulfur trioxide.
Silver chloride
No reaction
Stable to heat does not decompose.

Will decompose with light.
Magnesium carbonate
No reaction
Decomposes to form magnesium oxide and

carbon dioxide.
Various, e.g.
(a)
magnesium oxide
(b)
magnesium:oxygen = 1:1
(c)
Physical melting and boiling points, colour, malleability.

Chemical effect of heat, reaction with water.
(d)
We observed colour, malleability and reaction with water individually and then compared our observations. All
agreed, so the observations were accurate.
We compared our observations with those in textbooks, and they agreed with ours, indicating that our results are
reliable.
+RZHYHUZHZHUHXQDEOHWRREVHUYHPHOWLQJDQGERLOLQJSRLQWVDVZHFRXOGQRWDFKLHYHDVXIFLHQWO\KLJK
temperature. Thus we had to rely solely on results published in data books and on the Internet. Our data book was
SXEOLVKHGE\DUHSXWDEOHFRPSDQ\DQGHGLWHGE\8QLYHUVLW\SURIHVVRUVVRZHDVVXPHGWKDWWKHJXUHVZHUHDFFXUDWH
:HDOVRDVVXPHGWKDWWKHJXUHVKDGEHHQREWDLQHGIURPUHSHDWHGUHDGLQJVDQGWKDWWKH\ZRXOGWKHUHIRUHEHUHOLDEOH
7RLQFUHDVHRXUUHOLDELOLW\ZHDOVRFRPSDUHGWKHVHJXUHVZLWKWKRVHRQDUHSXWDEOH,QWHUQHWVLWH7KHJXUHVDJUHHG
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
186
5.2.2
(a)
When the element magnesium burns, it combines with the element oxygen to form the compound magnesium oxide.
Magnesium is a metal (shiny lustre, silver, high melting and boiling point).
2[\JHQLVDQRQPHWDOORZPHOWLQJSRLQWDQGERLOLQJSRLQWFRORXUOHVVJDVDWURRPWHPSHUDWXUH
Magnesium oxide is a NEW substance, so it has its own properties they are not the same as those of magnesium or
oxygen. Magnesium oxide is a white powder.
(b)
When sodium and chlorine combine to form sodium chloride, a new substance (sodium chloride), with different
properties, is formed. Compounds have different properties to those of the elements used to make them. Sodium chloride
is soluble in water (it does not react explosively) and it is composed of white crystals which are not poisonous.
5.2.3
Chemical properties
5.3.1
Puts out res.

Good solvent.
Colourless liquid, boils at 100C
Hydrogen
Burns explosively in air.
Colourless gas, boils at 253C
Oxygen
Combines chemically with substances

when they burn.
Colourless gas, boils at 183C
(a)
sodium chloride
ionic
(b)
silicon dioxide
covalent network
(c)
ammonia
covalent molecular
(d)
carbon dioxide
covalent molecular
(e)
carbon tetrachloride
covalent molecular
5.3.2
Melting and boiling points, electrical conductivity and hardness.
5.3.3
(a)
ionic, strong, high
(b)
intermolecular, dispersion, low
(c)
covalent, high
(a)
solid, lattice, conduct
(b)
ions, electrons
5.3.4
Physical properties
Water
5.3.5
Property
5.4.1
5.4.2
Ionic
Covalent molecular
Very high
Low
Covalent network
Extremely high
Hardness.
Hard
Soft
Hard
Electrical conductivity when solid.
Poor
Poor
Poor
Electrical conductivity when

dissolved in water.
Good
Poor
Poor
Electrical conductivity when

molten.
Good
Poor
Poor
Various, e.g.
(a)
Magnesium, oxygen, water, carbon dioxide, sodium chloride, sodium hydroxide, silicon dioxide.
(b)
Melting and boiling points, conductivity, lustre, state.
(a)
metal, (b) covalent molecular, (c) covalent network, (d) covalent molecular, (e) ionic
Science Press
187
The Chemical Earth
5.4.3
Various, e.g.
Factor
Copper
Sodium chloride
Nitrogen
Silicon dioxide
Type of substance.
Metal.
Ionic compound.
Covalent molecular
element.
Covalent network
compound.
Use.
Electric wires.
Cooking to avour food.
Snap-freeze vegetables.
Making glass insulators.
Property that allows for

this use.
Good conductor of
electricity.
Soluble in water.
Very low boiling point.
Poor conductor of
electricity.
Reason for this property.
Mobile delocalised
electrons.
Ions present form bonds

with water.
Weak attractive forces

between molecules.
No mobile electrons and

no ions present.
5.5.1
e
Positive
metal ions
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
Delocalised
electrons
5.5.2
Physical property of metal
Explanation in terms of structure
Good conductor of electricity.
Outer shell electrons are delocalised (not held in place in the atom)
and thus they are mobile and free to carry charge.
Good conductor of heat.
The mobile, delocalised outer shell electrons can carry heat.
Strong metallic bonds between the positive metal ions and the sea of
negatively charged delocalised electrons. A lot of energy is needed to
break these metallic bonds.
Malleable and ductile.
The rows of metallic ions in the lattice can slide over each other
without coming apart or disrupting the bonds.
Shiny lustre.
The sea of delocalised electrons reects light.
5.6.1
6RGLXPFKORULGHLVFRPSRVHGRIVRGLXPDQGFKORULGHLRQVLQWKHUDWLRDUUDQJHGLQDWKUHHGLPHQVLRQDOODWWLFH
5.6.2
three, lattice, negatively, ions, ionic, lattice
5.7.1
(a)
Molecular formula shows the number of atoms of the elements present in a molecule of a compound the smallest
amount that can exist independently as that compound. The atoms are bonded together by covalent bonds.
(b)
Empirical formula shows the simplest, whole number ratio of atoms or ions present in a compound.
(c)
(i)
molecular
(ii)
empirical
(iii)
empirical
(iv)
molecular
5.7.2
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1
dimensional lattice by electrostatic forces (ionic bonds). The formula tells us the ratio of ions present, it does not tell us the
number of ions in a unit. There are no molecules in sodium chloride. Thus it is an empirical formula rather than a molecular
formula.
5.8.1
Various, e.g.
(a)
neon, oxygen, nitrogen
(b)
carbon
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
188
5.8.2
(a)
Forms of the same element in which the atoms are identical but they are arranged differently and have different
physical properties.
(b)
Diamond, graphite, fullerenes.
(c)
Tin, oxygen, sulfur.
5.9.1
Structural feature of ionic compounds
Physical property determined by structure
Strong ionic bonds throughout the crystal lattice. A lot of energy is

needed to break these bonds.

Hard and crystalline.
Heating makes the ions vibrate. This breaks the bonds and the ions
are then free to move and carry the current.
Good electrical conductors when molten.
Water moves between the ions, pushing them apart and breaking
the ionic bonds. The ions are then free to move and carry the electric
charge.
Good electrical conductors when in solution.
Ions are held in xed positions by strong ionic bonds that extend
throughout the lattice. The ions can only vibrate, they are not free to
move and carry the charge.
Poor electrical conductors when solid.
5.9.2
Property
Metallic
Ionic
Covalent molecular
Covalent network
High
Very high
Low
Extremely high
Hardness.
Hard
Hard
Soft
Hard
when solid.
Good
Poor
Poor
Poor
Insoluble
Good
Poor
Poor
when molten.
Good
Good
Poor
Poor
5.9.3
Properties
Structure
No free electrons, no ions present.
Hardness.
Weak dispersion forces between molecules result in low boiling points so usually gases at
room temperature. Thus hardness does not apply.
5.9.4
Properties
5.10.1
5.10.2
Structure
No free electrons, no ions present.
Hardness.
Hard due to strong covalent bonds that extend throughout the lattice.
(a)
metals, electrons, ions
(b)
ionic, metal ions, electrostatic
(c)
molecular (covalent), V, VI and VII, sharing, electrons
(d)
covalent, atoms, dispersion
(a)
metallic
(b)
ionic
(c)
covalent molecular
(d)
covalent molecular
(e)
ionic
Science Press
189
The Chemical Earth
5.11.1
D
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(b)
This model is useful because it can account for:
7
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outer shell electrons.
7
KHDELOLW\RIPHWDOVWRFKDQJHVKDSHWKH\DUHPDOOHDEOHDQGGXFWLOH7KHDWRPVFDQHDVLO\PRYHVOLGLQJRYHU
each other.
7KHKDUGQHVVRIPHWDOV6WURQJERQGVWKURXJKRXWWKHODWWLFHKROGWKHLRQVWRJHWKHU
The model is limited because:
, WFDQQRWDFFRXQWIRUWKHGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQPHWDOV7KH\GRQRWDOOKDYHWKHVDPHFRQGXFWLYLW\PHOWLQJSRLQWV
boiling points or hardness and the model does not explain this.
7KHPRGHOLVDVWDWLRQDU\VWUXFWXUHZKHUHDVLRQVDUHYLEUDWLQJDQGHOHFWURQVDUHPRELOH
5.11.2
(a)
This model does tell us that the substance consists of ions held closely together, but it suggests that ionic solids exist
as small units. This is not correct. The formula only tells us the ratio of ions present in the crystal.
(b)
This model is more useful as it accounts for the crystal structure and the shape of crystals according to how the ions
are packed together. It also shows that there are many ions within a crystal.
5.11.3
These models do provide some information as to the structure of molecules. However, they can be misleading as they are
RQO\WZRGLPHQVLRQDOZKHUHDVPRVWPROHFXOHVDUHWKUHHGLPHQVLRQDO$OVRDWRPVDUHQRWVROLGVSKHUHVDVLQGLFDWHGLQWKHVH
models.
The following diagram illustrates this with a model of ammonia.
These 2 hydrogens are
behind the plane of the paper
N
H
This hydrogen is in
front of the plane
of the paper
Science Press
The Chemical Earth
190

Preliminary Chemistry: Marilyn Schell Kevin Molyneux

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PRELIMINARY CHEMISTRY

Science Press 2007

All rights reserved. No part of this publication

Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry

Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry

Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry

Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry

The Chemical Earth

Mixtures of the Earth

3.11 Atoms share electrons in

Particle theory of matter

Mixtures in the biosphere, lithosphere,

3.12 Formulas of ionic and

Separation of naturally occuring mixtures

Energy in the extraction of elements

Physical and chemical changes

Boiling and electrolysis of water

Uses of gravimetric analysis

Boiling and electrolysis as physical and

Industrial separation of a mixture

Applied Question Section 1

Elements occurrence and properties

Reactivity and occurrence of elements

Energy changes in decomposition

Investigation: Physical properties

Energy needed to break

Bonding, structure and properties

Physical and chemical properties

Uses and properties of metals

Applied Question Section 2

Compounds, molecules and ions

Physical properties of ionic,

Matter is made of moving particles

Mass number and atomic number

Energy levels of electrons

Atoms gain or lose electrons to form ions 19

Empirical formulas of ionic compounds

Ion formation and the Periodic Table

Elements as molecules or lattices

Lewis electron dot structures

Properties, structure and

Attraction of ions and ionic compounds

5.10 Metallic, ionic and covalent bonds

5.11 Limitations of models

Answers to The Chemical Earth

3.10 Atoms in molecules

Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry

The Chemical Earth

The Chemical Earth

Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry

Uses of metals and alloys

Uses of metals through history

Energy for metal extraction

Availability of metals over time

Uses and properties of alloys

Composition and uses of alloys

Bronze Age, Iron Age and

Applied Question Section 1

Recognising patterns in properties

Applied Question Section 3

Measuring chemicals in reactions

The mole concept

Mass changes in combustion of metals