SPE 98128

Employee Violence Risk Assessment

W.H. Kuo, SPE, Saudi Aramco Healthcare

Copyright 2006, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE International Conference on Health,
Safety, and Environment in Oil and Gas Exploration and Production held in Abu Dhabi, U.A.E.,
24 April 2006.
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Abstract
Perhaps the worst nightmare of any supervisor is dealing with
an employee who is violent. Nevertheless, before there is an
actual violent episode, or a serious threat of violence, there are
background information, past history, and behavioral clues to
forewarn a supervisor of an impending event. Applying
current forensic psychiatry knowledge, this paper provides
supervisors with useful tools to recognize early warning signs
for risk assessment.
Introduction
The newspaper headlines read:
Shot on Job, Woman Dies Four Days Later
Four days after she was shot in the head by a disgruntled
former employee, the office manager of a Hudson Valley
cosmetics company died yesterday, the authorities said...
- New York Times, October 1, 2005
Ex-Employee Kills Himself after Shooting 3 in Factory
A man who lost his job at a nail polish factory in the Hudson
Valley last year after child pornography was found on his
office computer returned yesterday and hunted down and shot
two owners as well as an office manager before fatally
shooting himself, the police said
- New York Times, September 27, 2005
According to the National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health (NIOSH), Homicide in the workplace is the third
leading cause of job-related fatalities and the second leading
cause of job-related fatalities for women. Each week in the
U.S., 17 employees on average are murdered at work, and
33,000 on average are assaulted.
While most of these homicides are not perpetrated by fellow
workers and the majority of violent incidents occur in the
industries such as taxi services and convenience stores;

employee violence has been on the rise over the past 30 years,
epitomized by the clich, going postal.
This paper explores these personal history and behavior clues
to empower supervisors with the knowledge in hiring risk
management, and to prevent, or at least forewarn, such volatile
and perilous situations.
Demographics of Violence
Violent males are 10 times more common than violent
females. The late teen and early 20s are the most dangerous
times. Lower IQ and social class correlate with increased
incidents of violence.
Large scale epidemiologic studies show that the incident of
violent acts in the preceding 12 months are committed by 2%
of the population without psychiatric diagnoses. Subjects with
major mental illness are five times more likely to have
committed violent acts. Paranoid psychotics are more likely
to be violent than other types of psychotic patients. Alcohol
abusers commit violence at 10 times the baseline rates; those
who abuse substances other than alcohol or marijuana have
even higher rates of 15 times the baseline.
Psychiatric research has shown that childhood fire-setting and
cruelty to animals are antecedents to adult violence.
A man who was physically or sexually abused as a boy is
more likely to be violent toward others, as he identifies with
the aggressor. A woman who was physically or sexually
abused is more likely to repeat victimization - more likely to
become a prostitute, marry an alcoholic or abusive spouse, and
more likely to be raped as an adult. Such domestic conflicts
may spill over to the work place, causing physical assault or
even homicide at work.
Personality Traits Associated with Violence
The two personality disorders that correlate with significantly
elevated incidents of violence are Antisocial Personality
Disorder and Borderline Personality Disorder, which are
defined, by the American Psychiatric Association in the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th
Edition, (DSM-IV) as:
1.

Antisocial Personality Disorder

A. A pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of
rights of others occurring since age 15, as indicated
by three or more of the following:

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SPE 98128

Failure to conform to social norms with respect

to lawful behaviors as indicated by repeatedly
performing acts that are grounds for arrest.
Deceitfulness, as indicated by repeated lying, use
of aliases, or conning others for personal profit
or pleasure.
Impulsivity or failure to plan ahead.
Irritability and fights or aggressiveness, as
indicated by repeated physical fights or assaults.
Reckless disregard for safety of self or others.
Persistent irresponsibility, as indicated by
repeated failure to sustain consistent work
behavior or honor financial obligations.
Lack of remorse, as indicated by being
indifferent to or rationalizing having hurt,
mistreated, or stolen from another.
B. The individual is at least 18 years old.
C. There is evidence of conduct disorder with onset
before the age of 15 years.
D. The occurrence of antisocial behavior is not exclusive
during the course of a schizophrenia or a manic
episode.
2.

Borderline Personality Disorder. A pervasive pattern

of instability of interpersonal relationships, selfimage, and affects, and marked impulsivity beginning
by early adulthood and present in a variety of
contexts, as indicated by five or more of the
following:
Frantic efforts to avoid real or imagined
abandonment.
A pattern of unstable and intense interpersonal
relationship characterized by alternating between
extremes of idealization and devaluation.
Identity disturbance: markedly and persistently
unstable self-image or sense of self.
Impulsivity in at least two areas that are
potentially self-damaging (e.g., spending, sex,
substance abuse, reckless driving, or binge
eating).
Recurrent suicidal behavior, gestures, threats, or
self mutilating behavior.
Affective instability due to a marked reactivity of
mood (e.g., intense episodic dysphoria,
irritability, or anxiety usually lasting a few hours
and only rarely more than a few days).
Chronic feeling of emptiness.
Inappropriate and intense anger or difficulty
controlling anger (e.g., frequent displays of
temper, constant anger, or recurrent physical
fights).
Transient, stress-related paranoid ideation or
severe dissociative symptoms.

Specific personality traits that are particularly dangerous

include repeated antisocial acts, impulsivity, low tolerance of
frustration, inability to tolerate criticism, reckless driving, and
failure to take personal responsibility/projection of blame onto
others.

Risk Assessment for Potential Violence and Current

Dangerousness
The old adage, The best single predictor of future violence is
past violence is absolutely correct. In particular, young age
at first arrest is highly predictive of adult criminality. In this
respect, public court records can be useful in assessing
violence risk. Military records such as any history of court
martial, Article 15s (akin to misdemeanors), and less than
honorable discharges are all potential red flags.
The important information to gather, regarding past history of
violent episodes, includes, why (did it occur?), what (set him
off?), pre-meditated? drugs or alcohol used? extent of injury?
It is important to obtain such information from many
collaborative sources if possible.
Alcohol acts as a de-inhibitor, which means one may lose
his normal inhibition against violence. The use of stimulants
(cocaine, amphetamines, and methamphetamines) promotes
violent behavior not only through disinhibition, but also a
feeling of grandiosity and paranoia.
The ownership of firearms is also a dangerous sign,
particularly if the subject has relocated weaponry (i.e., from
storage or closet to nightstand), or if he has recently purchased
them.
A history of frequent job changes is associated with a higher
incidence of violence, and should raise red flags for more indepth investigation.
Threats should always be taken seriously. It is also important
to have the subject explain the details of his threats and the
potential ramifications. Exploring the details of a threat helps
the aggressor consider alternate ways of handling the situation.
This action may be inherently dangerous and is best left to the
professionals such as psychiatrists, psychologists, and the
police.
In an at risk individual, a mixture of fear, anger, and lack of
empathy are the triad of danger, and can rapidly deteriorate
into violence. In contrast, empathy is a barrier to violence.
An angry and fearful person without the capacity for empathy
is particularly prone to physical violence.
Conclusion
Large epidemiologic studies tell us that important
demographics of violence are: male sex, late teen or early 20s
in age, lower IQ scores, lower social class, people afflicted
with major mental illness (particularly paranoid psychotics),
alcohol or drug abusers, childhood physical or sexual abuse
history, childhood history of fire-setting and cruelty to
animals.
The two psychiatric personality disorder diagnoses that are
associated with increased incidents of violent behavior are
antisocial personality disorder and borderline personality
disorder. The specific personality traits that are particularly
serious and dangerous are: repeated antisocial acts,
impulsivity, a low tolerance of frustration, inability to tolerate

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SPE 98128

criticism, reckless driving, and failure to take personal

responsibility/projection of blame onto others.
To assess a persons risk for future violence and current
dangerousness, one needs to gather extensive background
information about the subject, such as: past history of
violence (the single best predictor), age at first arrest (through
court records), military records of less than honorable
discharge or any disciplinary actions, use of alcohol or drugs,
ownership of firearms, and any history of frequent job
changes.
Threats must always be taken seriously. Furthermore, having
the subject explain the details of his plan and potential
ramifications not only helps to defend against specific violent
acts, but also enables the subject to consider alternatives to
violence. This action may be dangerous and is best left to the
professionals such as psychiatrist, psychologists, and police.
Most importantly, in an at risk individual, a mlange of fear,
anger, and lack of empathy are the triad of danger, while
empathy is an antidote to violence.
It is hoped that these research findings will provide
supervisors with the knowledge in hiring risk management and
to be cognizant of potential violence in the work place.
References:
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.

Holl, J.: Shot on Job, Woman Dies 4 Days Later New York
Times, October 1, 2005.
ODonnell, M. and Holl, J.: Ex-Employee Kills Himself After
Shooting 3 in Factory New York Times, September 27, 2005.
New DVD on Workplace Violence Offers Resources,
Recommendations for Safety Measures on the Job. National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH),
Washington, DC, USA, July 7, 2004.
Resnick, P.: Violence Risk Assessment Audio-Digest
Psychiatry, 31:09 (May 7, 2002).
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth
Edition, [DSM-IV] 474-477, American Psychiatric Association,
Washington, DC.

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