ASSIGNMENT

PROGRAM BSc IT
SEMESTER FIFTH
BT0086, Mobile Computing

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Q. No.1 Write notes on FDMA and CDMA techniques.

ANSWER:
Frequency Division Multiple Access::
FDMA separates the spectrum into distinct voice channels by splitting it into uniform chunks of
bandwidth. To better understand FDMA, think of radio stations. Each station sends its signal at a different
frequency within the available band. FDMA is used mainly for analog transmission. While it is certainly
capable of carrying digital information, FDMA is not considered to be an efficient method for digital
transmission.
Code Division Multiple Access :
CDMA takes an entirely different approach from TDMA. CDMA, after digitizing data, spreads it out over
the entire bandwidth it has available. Multiple calls are overlaid on the channel, with each assigned a
unique sequence code. CDMA is a form of spread spectrum, which simply means that data is sent in small
pieces over a number of the discrete frequencies available for use at any time in the specified range.

2 Explain the three basic communication modes.

ANSWER: One way to describe a radio network is to consider the way in which signals are transmitted
and received between radio devices. This is also known as the communication mode. There are three
basic communication modes: simplex, half duplex and full duplex modes.
When in simplex mode, a radio network transmits in one direction only, or uni-directionally. Typically,
this means a single transmitter can communicate to one or more receivers. An example of a simplex mode
network is broadcast radio or TV, where the network is designed with a powerful transmitter providing
wide area coverage for many receiving devices.
When a radio network is half duplex mode, however, it is capable of two way, or bi-directional,
communications. This means that the network will consist of two or more transceivers capable of both
transmitting and receiving radio signals. However, it is important to note that a half duplex
communication mode also means that radio signals can flow only in one direction at a time. A
contemporary example of a half duplex mode network is the push to talk walkie-talkies that can be
purchased at local electronic retailers. As described above, early MTS systems are operated in half duplex
mode.
In full duplex mode a radio network is capable of simultaneous bi-directional communications. This
means that the network will be designed around two or more transceivers capable of sending and
receiving radio signals at the same time. Mobile phone service today operates in full duplex mode, which
as you can imagine creates additional demand for spectrum and therefore encourages the search for means
of increasing the spectral efficiency of the radio network. Whereas simplex mode can operate using a
single radio channel, both the half duplex and full duplex modes require two paired channels per
transceiver, which effectively doubles the number of frequencies needed to operate a network using either
of these modes of communication.

3 Differentiate circuit switching and packet switching techniques.

ANSWER: A basic technical distinction between mobile data networks is whether they are circuitswitched or packet-switched. As a rule of thumb, all analogue and early 2G digital PCS networks provide
circuit-switched data services. Newer technologies, such as 2.5G and 3G networks will also offer packetswitched service.
Here are two basic definitions of these terms:
Circuit-switched is a type of network that temporarily creates an actual physical path between parties
while they are communicating.

Packet-switched is a type of network in which small discrete units of data are routed through a network
based on the address contained within each packet.
Circuit-switched data services are like using a home telephone and a modem to connect to the Internet. It
is first necessary to dial a phone number to establish a connection. Once connected, the line remains open
until the session is over and the customer decides to terminate the call. Circuit-switched services are
usually charged for by the amount of time that the customer remains connected to the network. This
means that a longer call, even if very little data traffic is actually passed across the connection will cost
more than a brief session where lots of data is transferred. Packet-based data services are sometimes
called always-on connections. This term is used because data is transmitted in separate packets rather
than as a single continuous packet. As a result, a mobile phone can send and receive data in discrete bursts
without the need to maintain a continuously open connection with the network. This eliminates the need
to establish a dedicated circuit, which means that more users can share the data connection. The packets
of data contained in each burst will find their proper destination with address information contained in
them. Packet-switched services are typically billed by the quantity of data traffic that a customer transmits
and receives from their mobile device, usually measured in kilobytes or megabytes.
Some mobile operators provide unlimited data, especially in the home or local territory of the customer,
in order to encourage use of these services. However, this once again raises a problem of scarcity this
time with bandwidth rather because it creates a situation in which a small number of heavy data users
could degrade the quality of service for more casual data users. The tradeoff that operators face is, on the
one hand, to encourage customers to use a new service and to create positive feedback to grow it further
through customer interest and the resulting revenue stream. On the other hand, the operators also want to
derive as much revenue from their bandwidth as possible, which means effectively charging per byte.
However, such a pricing strategy could drive away potential users who might be reluctant to experiment
with a service that uses an unfamiliar pricing mechanism. One solution that operators adopt in light of this
challenge is to place a cap on the amount of free data that can be transferred, thereby striking a balance
between incentive and fair use of the scarce resource of network bandwidth.

4 Explain any two table driven routing protocol.

ANSWER: Table-driven Routing Protocols: Keeps routing tables at each node, which is updated
periodically, and the routing procedure is based on this data.
One routing-table driven method is the next-hop model. In this model, each node keeps the best next-hop
node information for all destination nodes in the network.

There are basically two kinds of table driven next-hop routing protocols:
1-

Link-state algorithms: Each node maintains a view of network topology, with a cost for each
link. Link costs are broadcasted. Each node updates its topology and applies a shortest-path
algorithm to find the next-hop for each destination.
-Short-lived routing loops (because some link states received from other nodes can be incorrect
and this can cause a short-time loops)
-Complex
-Requires large storage and requires competition, periodically.
-Not suitable for ad-hoc networks.

2-

Distance-Vector algorithms: Each node maintains, for every destination, a set of distances to
get that destination. The neighbor with the minimum distance is selected for that destination.
Periodically broadcasts its routing table, containing the best next-hop for each destination, to each
of its neighbors.
-Efficient, easier to implement and requires less storage according to Link-State algorithm.
-Originally produces short-lived and long-lived loops. But, modifications are proposed to handle
this problem. One of them is internodal coordination, but is suitable for fixed networks. DSDV
uses sequence numbers to handle this problem.

5 Explain BCH, CCCH, DCCH control channels.

ANSWER: Broadcast Channel (BCH)
The unidirectional BCHs are used by the BSS to broadcast the same information to all MSs in a cell. The
group of BCHs consists of three channels.
Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH): On this channel, a series of information elements is broadcast to the
MSs, which characterize the organization of the radio network, such as radio channel configurations (of
the currently used cell as well as of the neighboring cells), synchronization information (frequencies as
well as frame numbering) and registration identifiers (LAI, CI, BSIC). In particular, this includes
information about the structural organization (formats) of the CCCH of the local BTS. The BCCH is
broadcast on the first frequency assigned to the cell (the so-called BCCH carrier).
Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH): On the FCCH, information about correction of the transmission
frequency is broadcast to the MSs.

Synchronization Channel (SCH): The SCH broadcasts information to identify a BTS, i.e. BSIC. The SCH
also broadcasts data for the frame synchronization of a MS, i.e. Reduced Frame Number (RFN) of the
TDMA frame.
FCCH and SCH are only visible within protocol Layer 1, since they are only needed for the operation of
the radio subsystem. There is no access to them from Layer 2. In spite of this fact, the SCH messages
contain data, which are needed by Layer 3 for the administration of radio resources. These two channels
are always broadcast together with the BCCH.
Common Control Channel (CCCH)
The CCCH is a point-to-multipoint signaling channel to deal with access management functions. This
includes the assignment of dedicated channels and paging to localize a MS. It comprises the following.
Random Access Channel (RACH): The RACH is the uplink portion of the CCCH. It is accessed from the
mobile stations in a cell without reservation in a competitive multiple-access mode using the principle of
slotted Aloha (Bertsekas and Gallager, 1987), to ask for a dedicated signaling channel for exclusive use
by one MS for one signaling transaction.
Access Grant Channel (AGCH): The AGCH is the downlink part of the CCCH. It is used to assign an
SDCCH or a TCH to a MS.
Paging Channel (PCH): The PCH is also part of the downlink of the CCCH. It is used for paging to find
specific MSs.
Notification Channel (NCH): The NCH is used to inform MSs about incoming group and broadcast calls.
Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH)
The last type of signaling channel, the DCCH is a bidirectional point-to-point signaling channel. An
Associated Control Channel (ACCH) is also a dedicated control channel, but it is assigned only in
connection with a TCH or an SDCCH. The group of Dedicated/Associated Control Channels (D/ACCH)
comprises the following. Stand-alone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH): The SDCCH is a dedicated
point to- point signaling channel (DCCH) which is not tied to the existence of a TCH (standalone), i.e. it
is used for signaling between a MS and the BSS when there is no active connection. The SDCCH is
requested from the MS via the RACH and assigned via the AGCH. After the completion of the signaling
transaction, the SDCCH is released and can be reassigned to another MS. Examples of signaling
transactions which use an
SDCCH are the updating of location information or parts of the connection setup until the connection is
switched through (see Figure 12.1).
Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH): An SACCH is always assigned and used with a TCH or an
SDCCH. The SACCH carries information for the optimal radio operation, e.g., commands for
synchronization and transmitter power control and reports on channel measurements. Data must be

transmitted continuously over the SACCH since the arrival of SACCH packets is taken as proof of the
existence of the physical radio connection. When there is no signaling data to transmit, the MS sends a
measurement report with the current results of the continuously conducted radio signal level
measurements.
Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH): By using dynamic pre-emptive multiplexing on a TCH,
additional bandwidth can be made available for signaling. The signaling channel created this way is called
FACCH. It is only assigned in connection with a TCH, and its short-time usage goes at the expense of the
user data transport. In addition to these channels, a Cell Broadcast Channel (CBCH) is defined, which is
used to broadcast the messages of the Short Message Service Cell Broadcast (SMSCB). The CBCH
shares a physical channel with the SDCCH.
6 Write short notes on:
a. wireless routing protocol
b. global state routing
ANSWER: A) The Wireless Routing Protocol
The Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP) is a table-based distance-vector routing protocol. Each node in the
network maintains a Distance table, an RT, a Link-cost table, and a Message Retransmission List (MRL).
The Distance table of a node x contains the distance of each destination node y via each neighbour z of x.
It also contains the downstream neighbour of z through which this path is realized. The RT of node x
contains the distance of each destination node y from node x, the predecessor and the successor of node x
on this path. It also contains a tag to identify if the entry is a simple path, a loop, or invalid. Storing
predecessor and successor in the table is beneficial in detecting loops and avoiding counting-to-infinity
problems. The Link-cost table contains cost of link to each neighbour of the node and the number of
timeouts since an error-free message was received from that neighbour. The MRL contains information to
let a node know which of its neighbours has not acknowledged its update message and to retransmit the
update message to that neighbour.
Nodes exchange RTs with their neighbours using update messages periodically as well as on link changes.
The nodes present on the response list of update message (formed using MRL) are required to
acknowledge the receipt of the update message. If there is no change in RT since the last update, the node
is required to send an idle Hello message to ensure connectivity. On receiving an update message, the
node modifies its distance table and looks for better paths using new information. Any new path so found
is relayed back to the original nodes so that they can update their tables. The node also updates its RT if
the new path is better than the existing path. On receiving an Acknowledgement ACK, the node updates

its MRL. A unique feature of this algorithm is that it checks the consistency of all its neighbours every
time it detects a change in link of any of its neighbours. A consistency check in this manner helps
eliminate looping situations in a better way and it also has fast convergence.
B) Global State Routing
Global State Routing (GSR) is similar to DSDV. It takes the idea of link state routing but improves it by
avoiding flooding of routing messages. In this algorithm, each node maintains a Neighbour list, a
Topology table, a Next Hop table, and a Distance table. Neighbour list of a node contains the list of its
neighbours (here all nodes that can be heard by a node are assumed to be its neighbours). For each
destination node, the Topology table contains the link state information as reported by the destination and
the timestamp of the information. For each destination, the Next Hop table contains the next hop to which
the packets for this destination must be forwarded. The Distance table contains the shortest distance to
each destination node. The routing messages are generated on a link change as in link state protocols. On
receiving a routing message, the node updates its Topology table if the sequence number of the message
is newer than the sequence number stored in the table. After this, the node reconstructs its RT and
broadcasts the information to its neighbours.

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