CHAPTER

5
TOXICOLOGY
(c cht hc)

A waste is considered hazardous if it exhibits any of four characteristics reactivity, corrosivity, ignitability,
or toxicity. Of these, the potential for toxicity, both to humans and to other biota (ecotoxicity), has caused the
greatest public concern and has prompted massive regulatory initiatives in hazardous waste management. It
follows that the management of hazardous waste has as its fundamental objective the protection of human
and ecological health by reducing the risk, if not the toxicity, of the substances in hazardous wastes to
acceptable levels. An understanding of toxicology is therefore needed to determine whether the management
of hazardous waste or the remediation of contaminated sites meets this objective.
Chapter 4 covered the fate and transport of substances from their release into the environment up to their
contact with receptor. This chapter addresses the toxic effects caused by hazardous substances on gaining
access to the human body and other living organisms. Toxic effects can range from mild allergic reactions to
death. Indeed, the constituents of some hazardous waste can kill humans outright as evidenced by graphic
accounts. Some constituents can cause death in insidious ways such as cancer.
What is toxicology?
What is the single most important thing for an engineer to know about toxicology?
What is the key limitation of applying toxicology?

5-1 EXPOSURE
Overview of Fate of Substances
Absorption
Absorption mechanisms
Diffusion
Specialized absorption
Absorption via the ingestion route
Absorption via the inhalation route
Absorption via the dermal contact route
Effect of exposure route on toxic response

Distribution and Storage

Biotransformation and Elimination
Pharmacokinetics
Exposure Period

5-2 TOXIC EFFECTS

Concept of Structural Affinity
Mechanism of Toxic Action and the Manifestations of Toxic Effects
Classification of Toxic Actions and Effects
Classification by end point
Classification by target organ
Classification by immediate versus delayed effects
Classification by irreversible versus reversible effects
Classification by local versus systemic effects

5-3 DOSE-RESPONSE RELATIONSHIPS

Nature of Dose-Response Relationships
Dose-Effect Relationship
Toxicological Data Human Populations
Type of epidemiological studies
Limitations of epidemiological studies

Toxicological Data Experimental Animals

Interpretation of findings
Limited number of animals
Selection of surrogate species
Other tests

Adequacy of Data

5-4 NONCARCINOGENS
Concept of Threshold
No Observed Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL)
Acceptable Daily Intakes and Reference Doses

Toxicological Databases
Calculation Procedure for Assessment of Noncarcinogenic Risk

5-5 CARCINOGENS*
Initiation of Cancer
Promotion of Cancer
Progression of Cancer
Role of Carcinogenic Chemicals
Genotoxic carcinogens
Nongenotoxic carcinogens
Complete carcinogens
Other Carcinogens
Affinity

Classes of Carcinogens
Testing for Carcinogenicity
Limited size of test groups
Relevance of tumors
Other tests

Dose-Response Relationship for Carcinogens

Low-Dose Extrapolation Models
Tolerance distribution models
Mechanistic models
Extrapolation error
Toxicological databases for carcinogens
Mixed exposure to carcinogens

Background and Lifestyle Carcinogenesis

Background carcinogenesis
Lifestyle and occupational carcinogenesis
Safe levels of carcinogenic chemicals in hazardous wastes

5-6 ECOTOXICOLOGY*

Evaluation of Toxic Effects

Toxic End Point
Bioassay
Short-Term Toxicity Tests
Long-Term Toxicity Tests
Biomarkers
Aquatic Toxicity of Trace Metals
Example of Aquatic Toxicity of Copper to Fish
Aquatic Toxicity of Hydrocarbons
Aquatic Toxicity of Pesticides
Water Quality Criteria
Terrestrial Toxicology
Feral Plants and Mammals
Avian Toxicology

DISCUSSION TOPICS AND PROBLEMS

REFERENCES