Professional Documents
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ENGLISH
LANGUAGE I
INDO-EUROPEAN
Nomenclature: Aryan (19th century) Indo-Germanic (20th century, but
undue emphasis to Germanic languages) Indo-European (more
widespread).
There is no written record of the Indo-European language. It is possible to
reconstruct it by the comparison of its descendants.
Chronology: it must have extended over a considerable stretch of time,
commonly placed between 3500 and 2500 B.C.
Location:
a) It was considered to have been originated in Asia (19th century) confirmed
on the basis of the discovery of Sanskrit.
b) The larger part of these languages have been in Europe, supporting the
hypothesis of an European origin (send half 19th century).
Comparative reconstruction: the IE languages have a common word for
winter and for snow. It is likely that the original home was found in a cold
climate. Words designating fauna and flora corroborate this hypothesis (i.e.
beech).
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King kingdom kingship kingly kingless
Exceptions: words coming from French or other borrowings. Prefixes are
never stressed: beget forget overthrow abide.
THE ROMANS
Romans went to England to protect the empire, in order to prevent people to
come from outside the Empire. They only went there in order to protect the
Empire
Two invasions:
-Julius Caesar (55 B.C:):
It was not hugely successful and it took a further year and another invasion for
Caesar to establish a settlement in Britain (54 B.C.). Moderate success.
To secure the borders of the Roman Empire.
-Claudius (one hundred years later, 43 A.C): he wanted to dominate the whole
Britain.
North and West of Britain
Shortcomings:
61 A.C. Boudica (Boadicea), a widow of a native leader of the Britons,
led a revolt against the occupying forces over 70,000 Romans killed.
Picts and Scots threats Hadrians wall (122 A.C.) and Antonines Wall
(142 A.C.) Purpose: a) to keep intact the empire; b) to control
immigration, smuggling and custom; c) to reflect the power of Rome.
Not a Romanization process as in the continent: rather an
Administrative and a commercial occupation.
THE ANGLO-SAXONS
Why did they arrive? Background before the arrival.
-The last Roman legion left Britain in the year 410. Why?
-The Roman Empire was being seriously attacked by the Goths in the
continent.
-They left to secure the Roman borders in the continent
-After the Romans departure, the people in Britain feeling the effects of
the occupations were: the Britons, the Picts and the Scots.
-The Britons, throughout the isle.
-The Picts had arrived in Britain from Scythia and had settled in what is now
Scotland. The Picts had come to Scotland via Ireland, where the native
inhabitants, were called Scots. The scots refused to let the Picts settle in
Ireland and so they were forced to move on, ending up in Britain.
-The Scots, despite their apparent uncongenial treatment of the Picts, also
tried out Britain, and numerous groups settled in Pictish areas.
A problem:
-During the Roman occupation, the attacks of Picts and Scots in the
border regions had been easily suppressed.
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-There were originally three separate communities: the Angles, the Jutes
and the Saxons.
-Bede, however, uses the Latin terms Anglii and Saxones interchangeably
-Anglii / Engle / Englalande: referred to any inhabitant of the country.
-Angli Saxones: to differentiate it from the Old Saxons living in the
continent.
-11th-onwards: Britain was elsewhere referred to as England and
English.
The Anglo-Saxon heptarchy:
-By the 7th century, a number of significant settlements had become
established, politically organized into 7 main kingdoms.
-Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex and Wessex.
-The boundaries between these kingdoms were by no means stable and
over the next 200 or so years, the balance of power fluctuated between them.
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-Kentish: the dialect of the Jutes who has settled around Kent.
-West Saxon: the dialect of the Saxons and spoken south of the River
Thames.
-There was not a clear dividing line between them.
Mutually understandable.
Cases of Michsprache.
Why West Saxon viewed as prestigious?
- The language variety used by the group that has a considerable degree of
political and economic power.
-King Alfred: political and cultural supremacy.
Chronology:
-For all these reasons, the terms Anglo-Saxon / West Saxon / Old English are
used to refer to the same language (spoken from the 5[Anglo-Saxon
conquest]th to the 11th century).
-For convenience, it is usually divided into two sub-periods.
-Early Old English (Alfredian Old English): 7th-9th centuries
-Late Old English (classical Old English): 10th-11 centuries (Normand
invasion.
There is no many Old English texts between the 5 and the 7 th century.
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-3rd stage:
-New attack on Wessex (875). The Danes were pushed back and Guthrum
accepted Christianity.
-Danelaw (886). They went back without disturbing the Anglo-Saxons. A
treaty through which the Vikings agreed to settle in a territory to the east of a
line from the Thames to Chester Danish law applied there.
-The Battle of Maldon (991): Old English poem narrating how Byrhnoth, an
East Saxon leader, was defeated by a Viking army led by Olaf Tryggvason.
-Tryggvason (king of Norway) and Svein Forkbeard (king of Denmark)
(994) continued the attacks and managed to control London.
-Svein Forkbeard and his son Cnut manage to defeat the second king
Ethelred and was eventually crowned the king of England.
-Knut becomes the King of England (1016), Denmark (1019) and Norway
(1018). From the very first time we have a king controlling England and
Scandinavia.
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Althorp; -toft (piece of ground): Brintoft, Eastoft; -thwaite (isolated piece of
land): Applethwaite.
-Family names: -son i.e. Williamson, Johnson, etc.
-Lexical words: take, die, wrong, call, law.
-Structural words: though, till, both, same.
EFFECTS:
England became trilingual:
-French the vernacular language of the Royal Court
-Latin the language of administration and of religion
-English the status of English downgraded, spoken by the Saxons
-French was coming into contact with English
-French attained the prestige that English had formerly enjoyed, as it was the
language of the ruling class.
-English developed from being the language of officialdom to being primarily
a spoken language. It was the language spoken by the majority of people in
the country.
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Linguistic consequences:
-Inflectional simplification
-Casual simplification
-Grammatical gender vs. natural gender: introduction of the (just, masculine or
feminine naturally and neutral things).
-Stricter word order (dependence on prepositions)
-Vocabulary the source of a lot of new vocabulary in English (Anglo-Saxon +
Scandinavian + French)
-Spelling
MIDDLE ENGLISH:
-Term used to refer to English from around 1100 to 1500
-Not dated from the arrival of William the Conqueror in 1066 because
linguistic change is not overnight, and takes several years to start having an
influence on English
-Early Middle English: from 1100 to 1300
-Late Middle English: from 1300 to 1500
-The status of English was to rise again after a gradual decline in the use
of French.
THE REVIVAL OF ENGLISH:
English people begin to reject things related to French people, because of the
Hundred years War
-The use of English increased throughout the 14th century
-The Hundred Years War (1337-1453) between England and France: using
English emphasized the division between the English and the French and
worked to create a greater sense of national identity.
-The Black Death (bubonic plague) arrived in England in 1348: a third of
the population killed it reduced the countrys workforce and inevitably
pushed up workers wages.
-The working classes were able to climb the social ladder attaining a level of
prosperity the language spoken by that group is considered to be as
prestigious.
OLD ENGLISH (5th- 11th; 449-1066)
MIDDLE ENGLISH (11th-15th; 1066-printing Press)
MIDDLE ENGLISH DIALECTS:
No standard form of English, either written or spoken
Northern (Old Northumbrian)
West Midland (Old Mercian)
East Midland (Old Mercian)
SouthWest (West Saxon)
South East (Kentish)
The East Midland dialect becomes now the more prominent variety the
origin of Present-day English the triangle London Cambridge Oxford
and Chancery English.
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Linguistic change is not overnight, so there is no consensus among scholars
about when EModE should begin and end
-1500-1700: different historical events help us propose those dates
-The Great Vowel Shift (1400-1650): a gradual modification in the
Pronunciation of the long vowels in English the GVS may have been
motivated by the merchant classes being influenced by varieties of
English viewed as more prestigious (write in one way, but you pronounce in
another way).
2. OLD ENGLISH
THE ANGLO-SAXON RUNES
-The Anglo-Saxon runes, also known as futhork or fuphork, is a runic
alphabet.
-Used probably from the 5th century onward, recording Old English and Old
Frisian.
-In Anglo-Saxon England, they were in use from 6 th-10 centuries. They
disappeared after the Normand conquest.
-These are competing theories as the origin of the Anglo-Saxon futhore:
-Originally developed in Frisia
They preserve 4 letters, 2 from the Germanic system, and 2 from the Irish
system.
OLD ENGLISH PHONOLOGY
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TEXT 2
The city is old. The city that he built is very old. The king gave the city to an
abbot. In the city, the queen died. Someone takes the body. With the body of
the queen, in the field, was the abbot.
ANOMALOUS VERBS:
This group contains four verbs in OE: bon, gn, dn, willan
They are so irregular that they cannot go with any other class of verbs,
They are so irregular. They have a set of particular features:
-bon: (to be) it has three different roots in OE
-gn: (to go) it has 2 roots, one for the present and another one for the past
tense.
-dn: (to do) it has 2 roots, one for the present and another one for the past
tense.
-willan: (to want) it has two roots as well.
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sentences
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