Die casting is the process of forcing molten metal under high  Thickest section should be less than 13 mm (0.
han 13 mm (0.5 in.).
pressure into mold cavities (which are machined into dies).
Most die castings are made from non-ferrous metals,
specifically zinc, copper, aluminium, magnesium, lead, and tin
[1]
based alloys , although ferrous metal die castings are
[2]
possible. The die casting method is especially suited for
applications where a large quantity of small to medium sized
parts are needed with good detail, a fine surface quality and
dimensional consistency
Hot-chamber machines rely upon a pool of molten metal to
feed the die. At the beginning of the cycle the piston of the
machine is retracted, which allows the molten metal to fill the
"gooseneck". The gas or oil powered piston then forces this
metal out of the gooseneck into the die. The advantages of this
system include fast cycle times (approximately 15 cycles a
minute) and the convenience of melting the metal in the
casting machine. The disadvantages of this system are that
high-melting point metals cannot be utilized and aluminium
cannot be used because it picks up some of the iron while in
the molten pool. Due to this, hot-chamber machines are
primarily used with zinc, tin, and lead based alloys.
[4]
Cold-chamber machines are used when the casting alloy
cannot be used in hot-chamber machines; these include
aluminium, zinc alloys with a large composition of aluminium,
magnesium and copper. This machine works by melting the
material, first, in a separate furnace. Then a precise amount of
molten metal is transported to the cold-chamber machine
where it is fed into an unheated shot chamber (or injection
cylinder). This shot is then driven into the die by a hydraulic or
mechanical piston. This biggest disadvantage of this system is
the slower cycle time due to the need to transfer the molten
metal from the furnace to the cold-chamber machine.
[6]
Advantages and disadvantages
[8]
Advantages:
 Excellent dimensional accuracy (dependent on casting
material, but typically 0.1 mm for the first 2.5 cm
(0.005 in. for the first inch) and 0.02 mm for each
additional centimeter (0.002 in. for each additional
inch).
 Smooth cast surfaces (1—2.5 μm (40—100 μin.) rms).
 Thinner walls can be cast as compared to sand and
permanent mold casting (approximately 0.75 mm
(0.030 in.).
 Inserts can be cast-in (such as threaded inserts,
heating elements, and high strength bearing surfaces).
 Reduces or eliminates secondary machining
operations.
 Rapid production rates.
 Casting tensile strength as high as 415 MPa (60 ksi).
Disadvantages:[8]
 Casting weight must be between 30 grams (1 oz) and
10 kg (20 lb).
 Casting must be smaller than 600 mm (24 in.).
 High initial cost.
 Limited to high-fluidity metals.
 A certain amount of porosity is common.
 A large production volume is needed to make this an
economical alternative to ther processes
Solidification process:
Casting is a solidification process, which means the
solidification phenomenon controls most of the properties of
the casting. Moreover, most of the casting defects occur during
solidification, such as gas porosity and solidification
[4]
shrinkage.
Solidification occurs in two steps: nucleation and crystal
growth. In the nucleation stage solid particles form within the
liquid. When these particles form their internal energy is lower
than the surrounded liquid, which creates an energy interface
between the two. The formation of the surface at this interface
requires energy, so as nucleation occurs the material actually
undercools, that is it cools below its freezing temperature,
because of the extra energy required to form the interface
surfaces. It then recalescences, or heats back up to its
freezing temperature, for the crystal growth stage. Note that
nucleation occurs on a pre-existing solid surface, because not
as much energy is required for a partial interface surface, as is
for a complete spherical interface surface. This can be
advantageous because fine-grained castings possess better
properties than coarse-grained castings. A fine grain structure
can be induced by grain refinement or inoculation, which is the
[5]
process of adding impurities to induce nucleation.
All of the nucleations represent a crystal, which grows as the
heat of fusion is extracted from the liquid until there is no liquid
left. The direction, rate, and type of growth can be controlled to
maximize the properties of the casting. Directional solidification
is when the material solidifies at one end and proceeds to
solidify to the other end; this is the most ideal type of grain
growth because it allows liquid material to compensate for
shrinkage
Powder metallurgy is a forming and fabrication technique
consisting of three major processing stages. First, the primary
material is physically powdered, divided into many small
individual particles. Next, the powder is injected into a mold or
passed through a die to produce a weakly cohesive structure
(via cold welding) very near the dimensions of the object
ultimately to be manufactured. Pressures of 10-50 tons per
square inch are commonly used. Also, to attain the same
compression ratio across more complex pieces, it is often
necessary to use lower punches as well as an upper punch.
Finally, the end part is formed by applying pressure, high
temperature, long setting times (during which self-welding
occurs), or any combination thereof.
Two main techniques used to form and consolidate the powder
are sintering and metal injection molding. Recent
developments have made it possible to use rapid
manufacturing techniques which use the metal powder for the
products. Because with this technique the powder is melted
and not sintered better mechanical strength can be
accomplished.
Powder metallurgy uses sintering process for making
various parts out of metal powder. The metal powder is
compacted by placing in a closed metal cavity (the die) under
pressure. This compacted material is placed in an oven and
sintered in a controlled atmosphere at high temperatures and
the metal powders coalesce and form a solid. A second
pressing operation, repressing, can be done prior to sintering
to improve the compaction and the material properties.
The properties of this solid are similar to cast or wrought
materials of similar composition. Porosity can be adjusted by
the amount of compaction. Usually single pressed products
have high tensile strength but low elongation. These properties
can be improved by repressing as in the following table.
Rolling
is a fabricating process in which the metal, plastic, paper,
glass, etc. is passed through a pair (or pairs) of rolls. There are
two types of rolling process, flat and profile rolling. In flat
rolling the final shape of the product is either classed as sheet
(typically thickness less than 3 mm, also called "strip") or plate
(typically thickness more than 3 mm). In profile rolling the
final product may be a round rod or other shaped bar, such as
a structural section (beam, channel, joist etc). Rolling is also
classified according to the temperature of the metal rolled. If
the temperature of the metal is above its recrystallization
temperature, then the process is termed as hot rolling. If the
temperature of the metal is below its recrystallization
temperature, the process is termed as cold rolling. Another
process also termed as 'hot bending' is induction bending,
whereby the section is heated in small sections and dragged
into a required radius.
Heavy plates tend to be formed using a press process, which
is termed forming, rather than rolling.
Hot Rolling
Hot/Cold Rolling
Hot rolling is a hot working metalworking process where large
pieces of metal, such as slabs or billets, are heated above
their recrystallization temperature and then deformed between
rollers to form thinner cross sections. Hot rolling produces
thinner cross sections than cold rolling processes with the
same number of stages. Hot rolling, due to recrystallization,
will reduce the average grain size of a metal while maintaining
an equiaxed microstructure where as cold rolling will produce a
hardened microstructure.
Cold rolling is a metalworking process in which metal is
deformed by passing it through rollers at a temperature below
its recrystallization temperature. Cold rolling increases the
yield strength and hardness of a metal by introducing defects
into the metal's crystal structure. These defects prevent further
slip and can reduce the grain size of the metal, resulting in
Hall-Petch hardening.
Cold rolling is most often used to decrease the thickness of
plate and sheet metal.
Extrusion
is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional
profile. A material is pushed or drawn through a die of the
desired cross-section. The two main advantages of this
process over other manufacturing processes is its ability to
create very complex cross-sections and work materials that
are brittle, because the material only encounters compressive
and shear stresses. It also forms finished parts with an
[1]
excellent surface finish.
Extrusion may be continuous (theoretically producing
indefinitely long material) or semi-continuous (producing many
pieces). The extrusion process can be done with the material
hot or cold.
Commonly extruded materials include metals, polymers,
ceramics, concrete and foodstuffs.
Hollow cavities within extruded material cannot be produced
using a simple flat extrusion die, because there would be no
way to support the center barrier of the die. Instead, the die
assumes the shape of a block with depth, beginning first with a
shape profile that supports the center section. The die shape
then internally morphs along its length into the final shape, with
the suspended center pieces supported from the back of the
die.
Hot extrusion
See also: Hot working
Hot extrusion is done at an elevated temperature to keep the
material from work hardening and to make it easier to push the
material through the die. Most hot extrusions are done on
horizontal hydraulic presses that range from 250 to 12,000
tons. Pressures range from 30 to 700 MPa (4,400 to
102,000 psi), therefore lubrication is required, which can be oil
or graphite for lower temperature extrusions, or glass powder
for higher temperature extrusions. The biggest disadvantage of
this process is its cost for machinery and its upkeep
Cold extrusion
Cold extrusion is done at room temperature or near room
temperature. The advantages of this over hot extrusion are the
lack of oxidation, higher strength due to cold working, closer
tolerances, good surface finish, and fast extrusion speeds if
the material is subject to hot shortness.
[1]
Materials that are commonly cold extruded include: lead, tin,
aluminum, copper, zirconium, titanium, molybdenum,
beryllium, vanadium, niobium, and steel.
Examples of products produced by this process are:
collapsible tubes, fire extinguisher cases, shock absorber
cylinders, automotive pistons, and gear blanks
OXY Feul Welding
Oxy-fuel is one of the oldest welding processes,
though in recent years it has become less popular in industrial
applications. However, it is still widely used for welding pipes
and tubes, as well as repair work. It is also frequently well-
suited, and favored, for fabricating some types of metal-based
artwork. Oxyfuel equipment is versatile, lending itself not only
to some sorts of iron or steel welding but also to brazing,
braze-welding, metal heating (for bending and forming), and
also oxyfuel cutting.
In oxy-fuel welding, a welding torch is used to weld metals.
Welding metal results when two pieces are heated to a
temperature that produces a shared pool of molten metal. The
molten pool is generally supplied with additional metal called
filler. Filler material depends upon the metals to be welded.
Uses
Oxy-gas torches are used for or have been used for:
 Welding metal: see below.
 Cutting metal: see below.
 Also, oxy-hydrogen flames are used:
o In Stone Work for "flaming" where the stone is
heated and a top layer crackles and breaks. A
steel circular brush is attached to an angle
grinder and used to remove the first layer
leaving behind a bumpy surface similar to
hammered bronze.
o In the glass industry for "fire polishing".
o In jewelry production for "water welding" using
a "water torch". [1].
o Formerly, to heat lumps of quicklime to obtain
a bright white light called limelight, in theatres
or optical ("magic") lanterns.
o Formerly, in platinum works, as platinum is
only fusible in the oxy-hydrogen flame and in
an electric furnace.
Plasma arc cutting is a process that is used to cut steel and
other metals of different thicknesses (or sometimes other
materials) using a plasma torch. In this process, an inert gas
(in some units, compressed air) is blown at high speed out of a
nozzle; at the same time an electrical arc is formed through
that gas from the nozzle to the surface being cut, turning some
of that gas to plasma. The plasma is sufficiently hot to melt the
metal being cut and moves sufficiently fast to blow molten
metal away from the cut. Plasma can also be used for plasma
arc welding and other applications
Process
Freehand cut of heavy metal
The HF Contact type typically found in budget machines uses
a high-frequency, high-voltage spark to ionise the air through
the torch head and initiate an arc. These require the torch to
be in contact with the job material when starting, and so are
not suitable for applications involving CNC cutting.
The Pilot Arc type uses a two cycle approach to producing
plasma, avoiding the need for initial contact. First, a high-
voltage, low current circuit is used to initialize a very small
high-intensity spark within the torch body, thereby generating a
small pocket of plasma gas. This is referred to as the pilot arc.
The pilot arc has a return electrical path built into the torch
head. The pilot arc will maintain itself until it is brought into
proximity of the workpiece where it ignites the main plasma
cutting arc. Plasma arcs are extremely hot and are in the
range of 15,000 degrees Celsius.
Plasma is an effective means of cutting thin and thick materials
alike. Hand-held torches can usually cut up to 2 in (48 mm)
thick steel plate, and stronger computer-controlled torches can
pierce and cut steel up to 12 inches (300 mm) thick. Formerly,
plasma cutters could only work on conductive materials;
however, new technologies allow the plasma ignition arc to be
enclosed within the nozzle, thus allowing the cutter to be used
[citation needed]
for non-conductive workpieces such as glass and
[citation needed]
plastics.
Since plasma cutters produce a very hot and very localized
"cone" to cut with, they are extremely useful for cutting sheet
metal in curved or angled shapes
Ultrasonic welding
is an industrial technique whereby high-frequency ultrasonic
acoustic vibrations are locally applied to workpieces being held
together under pressure to create a solid-state weld. It is
commonly used for plastics, and especially for joining
dissimilar materials. In ultrasonic welding, there are no
connective bolts, nails, soldering materials, or adhesives
necessary to bind the materials together.
Explosion welding
(EXW) is a solid state process where welding is accomplished
by accelerating one of the components at extremely high
velocity through the use of chemical explosives. This process
is most commonly utilized to clad carbon steel plate with a thin
layer of corrosion resistant material (e.g., stainless steel, nickel
alloy, titanium, or zirconium). Due to the nature of this process,
producible geometries are very limited. They must be simple.
Typical geometries produced include plates and tubing.
Advantages and disadvantages
Explosion welding can produce a bond between two metals
that cannot necessarily be welded by conventional means. The
process does not melt either metal, instead it plasticizes the
surfaces of both metals, causing them to come into intimate
contact sufficient to create a weld. This is a similar principle to
other non-fusion welding techniques, such as friction welding.
Large areas can be bonded extremely quickly and the weld
itself is very clean, due to the fact that the surface material of
both metals is violently expelled during the reaction.
A major disadvantage of this method is that an expansive
knowledge of explosives is needed before the procedure may
be attempted. Explosion welding is therefore far less
commonly used than fusion welding alternatives.
BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF CASTING PROCESSES
Six basic requirements are associated with most casting
processes:
1 . A mold cavity, having, the desired shape and size, must
be produced with due allowance for shrinkage of the solidifying
material. Any geometrical feature desired in the finished
casting must exist in the cavity. Consequently, the mold
material must be able to reproduce the desired detail and also
have a refractory character so that it will not contaminate the
molten material that it will contain.
2. A melting process must be capable of providing molten
material not only at the proper temperature, but also in the
desired quantity, with acceptable quality, and at a reasonable
cost.
3. A pouring technique must be devised to introduce the
molten metal into the mold. Provision should be made for the
escape of all air or gases present in the cavity prior to pouring,
as well as those generated by the introduction of the hot metal.
The molten material is then free to fill the cavity, producing a
high-quality casting that is fully dense and free of defects.
4. The solidification process should be properly designed and
controlled. Castings should be designed so that solidification
and solidification shrinkage can occur without producing
internal porosity or voids. In addition, the molds should not
provide excessive restraint to the shrinkage that accompanies
cooling. If they do, the casting may crack when it is still hot and
its strength is low.
5. It must be possible to remove the casting from the mold.
With single-use molds that are broken apart and destroyed
after each casting, mold removal presents no serious difficulty.
With multiple-use molds, however, the removal of a complex-
shaped casting may be a major design problem.
6. After the casting is removed from the mold, various
cleaning, finishing, and inspection operations may be required.
Extraneous material is usually attached where the metal
entered the cavity, excess material may be present along mold
parting lines, and mold material often adheres to the casting
surface. All of these must be removed from the finished
casting.
THE SOLIDIFICATION PROCESS
Casting is a solidification process where the molten material is
poured into a mold and then allowed to freeze into the desired
final shape. Many of the structural features that ultimately
control product properties are set during solidification.
Furthermore, many casting defects, such as gas porosity and
solidification shrinkage, are solidification phenomena, and they
can be reduced or eliminated by controlling the solidification
process.
Solidification occurs in two stages, nucleation and growth, and
it is important to control both of these processes. Nucleation
occurs when a stable particle of solid forms from within the
molten liquid. As the material changes stale, its internal energy
is reduced since at lower temperatures the solid phase is more
stable than the liquid. At the same time, however, interface
surfaces are created between the new solid and the parent
liquid. Formation of these surfaces requires a positive
contribution of energy. As a result, nucleation generally occurs
at a temperature somewhat below the equilibrium melting
point. The difference between the melting point and the actual
temperature of nucleation is known as the amount of under
cooling.
In most practical situations, the nucleation process occurs on
some form of existing surface since solidification no longer
requires the creation of a full, surrounding interface. These
surfaces are usually present in the form of mold or container
walls, or solid impurity particles contained within the molten
liquid.
Each nucleation event will then produce a crystal or grain in
the final casting. Since fine-grained materials possess
enhanced mechanical properties efforts to promote nucleation
tend to be beneficial to the final product. It is not uncommon,
therefore, to intentionally introduce impurities into the liquid
before pouring into the mold. These small particles of solid
provide numerous sites for nucleation and promote formation
of a uniform, fine-grained product. The practice of intentionally
introducing impurities is known as inoculation or grain
refinement;
The second step in the solidification process is growth, which
occurs as the heat of fusion is extracted from the liquid
material. The direction, rate, and type of growth can be
controlled by the way in which the heat is removed. Directional
solidification, in which the solidification interface sweeps
continuously through the material, can be used to assure the
production of a sound casting. The molten material on the
liquid side of the interface can flow into the mold to
continuously compensate for the shrinkage that occurs as the
material changes from liquid to solid. Faster rates of cooling
generally produce products with finer grain size and superior
mechanical properties.
SANDS AND SAND CONDITIONING
The sand used to make molds must be carefully prepared if it
is to provide satisfactory and uniform results. Ordinary silica
(Si02), zircon, olivine, or chromite sands are compounded with
additives to meet four requirements:
1. Refractoriness: the ability to withstand high temperatures
2. Cohesiveness (also referred to as bond): the ability to retain
a given shape when packed into a mold
3. Permeability: the ability to permit gases to escape through it
4. Collapsibility: the ability to permit the metal to shrink after it
solidifies and ultimately to free the casting by disintegration of
the surrounding mold.
Refractoriness is provided by the basic nature of the sand.
Cohesiveness, bond, or strength is obtained by coating the
sand grains with clays, such as bentonite, kaolinite, or illite that
become cohesive when moistened. Collapsibility is sometimes
enhanced by adding cereals or other organic materials, such
as cellulose, that burn out when they come in contact with the
hot metal. The Combustion reduces both the volume and
strength of the restraining sand. Permeability is a function of
the size of the sand particles, the amount and type of clay or
bonding agent, the moisture content, and the compacting
pressure.
Good molding sand always represents a compromise between
conflicting factors. The size of (he sand particles, the amount
of bonding agent (such as clay), the moisture content, and the
organic additives are all selected to obtain an acceptable
compromise of the four requirements. The composition must
be carefully controlled to assure satisfactory and consistent
results. A typical green-sand mixture contains about 88% silica
sand, 9% clay, and 3% water. Since molding material is often
reclaimed and recycled, the temperature of the mold during
pouring and solidification is also important. If organic materials
have been incorporated into the mix to provide collapsibility, a
portion will burn during the pour. Adjustments will be
necessary, and ultimately some or all of the mold material may
have to be discarded and replaced with new.
To achieve good molding, it is important for each grain of sand
to be coated uniformly with the additive agents. This is
achieved by putting the ingredients through a muller, a device
that kneads, rolls, and stirs the sand. Figure 14-8 shows both a
continuous and batch-type Muller, that utilize blades and
wheels to produce the mixing. After mulling, the sand is often
discharged through an aerator, which fluffs it so that it does not
pack too hard during handling.
SAND TESTING
Maintaining consistent sand quality may be of little concern to
the casting designer, but it is a significant matter to the foundry
that is expected to produce consistent, high-quality products.
Sands can be characterized by grain shape, surface
smoothness, density, and contaminants. In addition, standard
tests and procedures have been developed to evaluate grain
size, moisture content, clay content, and compactability, as
well as mold hardness, permeability, and strength.
Grain size is determined by shaking a known amount of clean,
dry sand downward through a set of 11 standard sieves of
decreasing mesh size. After shaking for 15 minutes, the
amount remaining on each sieve is weighed, and the weights
are converted into an AFS (American Foundrymen's Society)
grain fineness number.
Moisture content is to measure the weight lost from a 50-g
sample after it has been subjected to a temperature of about
110°C for sufficient time to drive off all the water.
Clay content can be determined by washing the clay from a
50-g sample of molding sand, using water that contains
sufficient sodium hydroxide to make it alkaline. Several cycles
of agitation and washing may be required to fully remove the
clay. The remaining sand is then dried and weighed to
determine the amount of clay removed from the original
sample.
Permeability and strength tests are conducted on a standard
rammed specimen, A sufficient amount of sand is placed into a
2-in.-diameter steel tube so that after a 14-lb weight is dropped
three times from a height of 2 in the final height of the
specimen is within 1/32 in. of two inches.
The compressive strength of the sand is a measure of these
properties It is determined by removing the rammed specimen
from the compacting tube and placing it in a mechanical
testing device. A compressive load is then applied until the
specimen breaks, which usually occurs in the range of 10 to 30
psi.
The hardness of the compacted sand can provide a quick
indication of mold strength and give additional insight into the
strength and permeability characteristics. Hardness can be
determined by the resistance of the sand to penetration by a
0.2-in diameter spring-loaded steel ball.
Compatibility is determined by sifting loose sand into a steel
cylinder, leveling off the column, striking it three times with a
standard weight and then measuring the final height. The
percent compatibility is the change in height divided by the
original height, times 100%. This value can often be correlated
with the moisture content of the sand, where a compactibility of
around 45% indicates a proper level of moisture. A low
compactibility is usually associated with too little moisture.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF POWDER METALLURGY
Like all other manufacturing processes, powder metallurgy has
distinct advantages and disadvantages that should be
considered if the technique is to be employed economically
and successfully. Among the important advantages are:
1. Elimination or reduction of machining. The dimensional
accuracy and surface finish of P/M products are such that
subsequent machining operations can be totally eliminated for
many applications. If unusual dimensional accuracy is
required. simple coining or sizing operations can often give
accuracies equivalent to those of most production machining.
2. High production rates. All steps in the P/M process are
simple and readily automated. Labor requirements are low,
and product uniformity and reproducibility are among the
highest in manufacturing.
3. Complex shapes can be produced. Subject to the limitations
discussed previously, complex shapes can be produced, such
as combination gears, cams, and internal keys. It is often
possible to produce parts by powder metallurgy that cannot be
machined or cast economically.
4. Wide variations in compositions are possible. Parts of very
high purity can be produced. Metals and ceramics can be
intimately mixed. Immiscible materials can be combined, and
solubility limits can be exceeded. In most cases the chemical
homogeneity of the product exceeds that of all competing
techniques.
5. Wide variations in properties are available. Products can
range from low-density parts with controlled permeability to
high-density parts with properties that equal or exceed those of
equivalent wrought counterparts. Damping of noise and
vibration can be tailored into a P/M product. Magnetic
properties, wear properties, and others can all be designed to
match the needs of a specific application.
6. Scrap is eliminated or reduced. Powder metallurgy is the
only common manufacturing process in which no material is
wasted. In casting, machining, and press forming, the scrap
can often exceed 50% of the, starting material. This is
particularly important where expensive materials are involved
and may make it possible to use more costly materials without
increasing the overall cost of the product. An example of such
a product would be the rare-earth magnets.
The major disadvantages of the powder metallurgy
1. Inferior strength properties. Because of the residual porosity,
powder metallurgy parts generally have mechanical properties
that arc inferior to wrought or cast products of the same
material. Their use may be limited when high stresses are
involved. The required strength and fracture resistance,
however can often be obtained by using different materials or
by employing alternate or secondary processing techniques
that are unique to powder metallurgy.
2. Relatively high tooling cost. Because of the high pressures
and severe abrasion involved in the process, the P/M dies
must be made of expensive materials and be relatively
massive. Because of the need for part-specific tooling,
production quantities of less than 10,000 identical parts are
normally not practical.
3. High material cost. On a unit weight basis, powdered metals
are considerably more expensive than wrought or cast stock.
However, the absence of scrap and the elimination of
machining can often offset the higher cost of the starting
material. In addition, powder metallurgy is usually employed
for rathgr small parts where the material cost per part is not
Very great.
4. Design limitations. The powder metallurgy process is simply
not feassible for many shapes Parts must be able to be
ejected from the die. the thickness ratio is limited. Thin vertical
sections are difficult, and the overall size must be within the
capacity of available presses. Few parts exceed 150 cm2 in
pressing area.
5. Density variations produce property variations. The
nonuniform product density that is frequently produced in
compacting operations generally results in property variations
throughout the part. For some products, these variations may
be unacceptable.
FORMING PROCESSES: INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
Independent variables are those aspects of the process over
which the engineer has direct control, and they are generally
selected or specified when setting up a process.
1. Starting material. When specifying the starting material, we
may define not only the chemistry of that material, but also its
condition. The properties and characteristics of the material to
be deformed help for easy fabrication, to achieve the required
final properties directly through the deformation process.
2. Starting geometry of the workpiece. The starting
geometry of material provides influence to change shape
which is required and it's retaining to its crystal structure.
3. Tool or die geometry. This is an area of major significance
and has many aspects, such as the diameter and profile of a
rolling mill roll, a bend radius in a sheet-forming operation, and
the cavity details when forging. Since the tooling will induce
and control the metal flow as the material goes from starting
shape to finished product, success or failure of a process often
depends on tool geometry.
4. Lubrication. It is not uncommon for friction to account for
more than 50% of the power supplied to a deformation
process. In addition, lubricants can also act as coolants,
thermal barriers, corrosion inhibitors, and parting compounds.
Hence, their selection is an aspect of great importance to the
success of an operation. Specification includes type of
lubricant, amount to be applied, and the method of application.
5. Starting temperature. Since material properties can vary
greatly with temperature, temperature selection and control is
often key to the success or failure of a metal forming
operation.
6. Speed of operation. Most deformation processing
equipment can be operated over a range of speeds. Since
speed can directly influence the forces required for
deformation the lubricant effectiveness, and the time available
for heat transfer, its selection affects far more than the
production rate.
7. Amount of deformation. While some processes control this
variable through the design of tooling, others, such as rolling,
may permit its adjustment at the discretion of the operator.
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Dependent variables are those aspects of the process over
which the engineer has no direct control.
1. Force or power requirements. To convert a selected
material from a starting shape to a final shape, with a specified
lubricant, tooling geometry, speed, and starting temperature,
will require a certain amount of force or power. We cannot
directly specify the force or power without a reasonable
estimate of forces or power, compare various die designs or
deformation methods, and ultimately optimize a process.
2. Material properties of the product. While we can easily
specify the properties of the starting material, the combined
effects of deformation and temperature experienced during the
deformation process will certainly change. Also change the
properties of material.
3. Exit (or final) temperature. Deformation generates heat
within the material. Hot workpieces will cool when in contact
with cold tooling. Lubricants can break down or decompose
when overheated, or may react with the workpiece. So we
don't have control on the temperature of final product.
4. Surface finish and precision. Both surface finish and
dimensional precision are characteristics of the resultant
product that are dependent on the specific details of the
process.
5. Nature of the material flow. Deformation processes
generally exert forces or pressures on material surfaces and
control the movement of the external surfaces through dies or
tooling. The product properties can be significantly affected by
the details of material flow, and material flow depends on all of
the details of a process.
EXTRUSION
In the extrusion process, metal is compressed and forced to
flow through a suitably shaped die to form a product with
reduced but constant cross section. Although extrusion may
be performed either hot or cold, hot extrusion is commonly
employed for many metals to reduce the forces required,
eliminate cold-working effects, and reduce directional
properties. Basically, the extrusion process is like squeezing
toothpaste out of a tube. In the case of metals a common
arrangement is to have a heated billet placed inside a
confining chamber. A ram advances from one end, causing the
billet to first upset and conform to the confining chamber. As
the ram continues to advance, the pressure builds until the
material flows plastically through the die and extrude. The
stress state within the material is one of tri-axial compression.
Aluminum, magnesium, copper, lead, and alloys of these
metals are commonly extruded, taking advantage of the
relatively low yield strengths and low hot-working temperatures
Steels, stainless steels, nickel-based alloys, and titanium are
far more difficult to extrude. Their yield strengths are high, and
the metals have the tendency to weld to the walls of the die
and confining chamber under the required conditions of
temperature and pressure. With the development and use of
phosphate-based and molten glass lubricants, however, hot
extrusions can be routinely produced from these high-strength,
high-temperature metals These lubricants are able to
withstand the required temperatures and adhere to the billet,
flowing and thinning in a way that prevents metal to metal
contact throughout the process.
Almost any cross-sectional shape can be extruded from the
nonferrous metals. Size limitations are few because presses
are now available that can extrude any shape that can be
enclosed within a 75-cm diameter circle.
Extrusion has a number of attractive features. Many shapes
can be produced as extrusions that are not possible by rolling,
such as ones containing reentrant angles or longitudinal holes.
No draft is required, so extrusions can offer savings in both
metal and weight. Since the deformation is compressive, the
amount of reduction in a single step is limited only by the
capacity of the equipment. Billet-to-product cross-sectional
area ratios can be in excess of 100-to-1 for the weaker metals.
In addition, extrusion dies can be relatively inexpensive, and
one die may be all that is required to produce a given product.
Conversion from one product to another requires only a single
die change, so small quantities of a desired shape can be
produced economically. The major limitation of the process is
the requirement that the cross section be uniform for the entire
length of the product.
Extruded products have good surface finish and dimensional
precision. For most shapes, tolerances of ±0.003 cm/cm or
in./in. with a minimum of ±0.075 mm (±0.003 in.) are easily
attainable. Grain structure is typical of other hot-worked
metals, but strong directional properties (longitudinal versus
transverse) are usually observed. Standard product lengths
are about 6 to 7 m (20 to 24 ft), but lengths in excess of 12 m
(40 ft) have been produced.
EXTRUSION METHODS
Extrusions can be produced by various techniques and
equipment configurations. Hot extrusion is usually done by
either the direct or indirect method. In direct extrusion, a solid
ram drives the entire billet to and through a stationary die and
must provide additional power to overcome the frictional
resistance between the surface of the moving billet and the
confining chamber. In indirect extrusion, a hollow ram pushes
the die back through a stationary, confined billet. Since there is
no relative motion, friction between the billet and the chamber
is eliminated. The required force is lower and longer billets can
be used with no penalty in power or efficiency. The areas
below the lines have units of Newton-meters or foot-pounds,
and are therefore proportional to the work or power required to
produce the part. The area between the two curves is the
power required to overcome the billet chamber friction during
direct extrusion, an amount that can be saved by conversing to
indirect extrusion. Unfortunately, the added complexity of the
indirect process (applying force through a hollow ram,
extracting the product through the hollow, and removing
residual billet material at the end of the stroke) serves to
increase the purchase price and maintenance cost of the
required equipment
With either process, the speeds of hot extrusion are usually
rather fast, so as to minimize the cooling of the billet within the
chamber. Extruded products can emerge at rates up to 300
m/min (1000 ft/min). The extrusion speed may be restricted,
however, by the large amounts of heat that arc generated by
the massive deformation and the associated rise in
temperature. Sensors are often used to monitor the
temperature of the emerging product and feed this information
back to a control system. For materials, whose properties are
not sensitive to strain rate, ram speed may be maintained at
the highest level that will keep the product temperature below
some predetermined value.
Lubrication is another important area of concern. If the
reduction ratio (cross section of billet to cross section of
product) is 100, the product will be 100 times longer than the
starting billet. If the product has a complex cross section, its
perimeter can be significantly greater than a circle of
equivalent area. Since the surface area of the product is the
length times the perimeter, this value can easily be an order of
magnitude.
COLD FORGING (COLD FORMING)
Large quantities of products are now being made by cold
forging (or cold forming), a family of processes in which slugs
of material are squeezed into shaped die cavities to produce
finished parts of precise shape and size. Cold heading,
illustrated schematically in figure 19-4, is used for making
enlarged sections on the ends of rod or wire, such as the
heads of nails, bolts, rivets, or other fasteners. Two variations
of the process are common. In the sequence illustrated a piece
of rod is first sheared to a preset length and then transferred to
a holder ejector assembly. Heading punches then strike one or
more blows on the exposed end to perform the upsetting. If
intermediate shapes are required, the piece is transferred from
station to station, or the various heading punches sequentially
rotate into position. When the heading is completed, the
ejector stop advances and expels the product.
In the second variation, a continuous rod (or wire) is fed
forward to produce a preset extension clamped, and the head
is formed. The rod is then advanced to a second preset length
and sheared, and the cycle repeats. This procedure is
particularly attractive for producing nails, since the point can
be formed in the shearing or cutoff operation.
Enlarged sections can also be produced at locations other
than the ends of a rod or wire. To produce the deformation and
control final dimensions, ejector stops must be provided in
both segments of the opposing tooling.
By using various types of dies and combining high-speed
operations such as heading. upsetting, extrusion, bending,
coining, thread rolling, and knurling, a wide variety of relatively
complex parts can be cold formed to close tolerances. The
larger parts are generally hot formed and machined, while the
smaller ones are cold formed. Since cold forming is a chipless
manufacturing process, producing parts by deformation that
would otherwise be machined from bar stock or hot forgings.
the material is used more efficiently and waste is reduced.
The manufacture of a spark-plug body by machining from
hexagonal bar stock with manufacture by cold forming.
Material is saved, machining time and cost are reduced, and
the product is stronger, due to cold work, and tougher. By
converting from screw machining to cold forming, a
manufacturer of cruise-control housings reduced material
usage by 65%, while simultaneously increasing production rate
by a factor of 5.
Cold forming is generally associated with the manufacture of
small parts from the weaker nonferrous metals, but the
process is now used extensively on steel, and parts can be up
to 45 kg (100 lb) in weight and 18 cm (7 in.) in diameter. At the
small end of the scale, microformers are now cold forming
extremely small electronic components with dimensional
accuracies within 0.005 mm (0.0002 in.). Shapes arc usually
axisymmetric or those with relatively small departures from
symmetry. Production rates are high, dimensional tolerances
and surface finish are excellent, and the amount of machining
can generally be reduced (material savings). Strain hardening
can provide additional strength, and favorable grain flow can
enhance toughness and fatigue life. Unfortunately, the cost of
the required tooling, coupled with the high production speed,
generally requires large volume production.
RIVETING
In riveting, an expanded head is formed on the shank end of a
fastener to permanently join sheets or plates of material.
Although riveting is usually done hot in structural applications,
in manufacturing, it is almost always done cold. Where there is
access to both sides of the work, is commonly used. The
shaped punch may be driven by a press or contained in a
special, hand-held riveting hammer. When a press is used, the
rivet is usually headed in a single squeezing action, although
the heading punch may also rotate so as to to shape the head
in a progressive manner, an approach known as orbital
forming. Special riveting machines, like those used in aircraft
assembly, can punch the hole, place the rivet in position, and
perform the heading operation, all in about 1 second.
It is often desirable to use riveting in situations where there is
access to only one side of the assembly. Figure 19-15 shows
two types of special rivets that can be used for one-side
access applications The shank on the "blind" side of an
explosive rivet expands to form a retaining head when a
heated tool is touched against the exposed segment and deto-
nates the charge. In the pull type, or pop-rivet, a pull-up pin is
used to expand a tubular shank. After performing its function,
the pull pin breaks or is cut off flush with the head.
OXYFUEL GAS WELDING PROCESSES
Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) refers to a group of welding
processes that use as their heat source the flame produced by
the combustion of a fuel gas and oxygen. It was the devel-
opment of a practical torch to burn acetylene and oxygen, that
brought welding out of the blacksmith's shop, demonstrated its
potential, and started its development as a manufacturing
process. Other processes have largely replaced gas-flame
welding in large-scale manufacturing, but the process is still
popular for small scale and repair operations because of its
portability, versatility, and the low capital investment required.
Acetylene is still the principal fuel gas The combustion of
oxygen and acetylene (C2H2) by means of a welding torch of
the type produces a temperature Of about 3250°C in a two-
stage reaction. In the first stage, the supplied oxygen and
acetylene react to produce carbon monoxide and hydrogen:
C2H2 + 02 ----► 2CO + H2 + heat
This reaction occurs near the tip of the torch and generates
intense heat. The second stage of the reaction involves the
combustion of the CO and H2 and occurs just beyond the first
combustion zone. The specific reactions of the second stage
are:
2CO + 02 ----► 2CO2 + heat
H 2 + 1/2O2 ----► H 2 0 + heat
The oxygen for these secondary reactions is generally
obtained from the surrounding atmosphere.
The two stage combustion process produces a flame having
two distinct regions. The maximum temperature occurs near
the end of the inner cone, where the first Stage of combustion
is complete. Most welding should be performed with the torch
positioned so that this point of maximum temperature is just
above the metal being welded. The outer envelope of the
flame serves to preheat the metal and. at the same time,
provides shielding from oxidation, since oxygen from the
surrounding air is consumed in the secondary combustion.
Three different types of flames can be obtained by varying the
oxygen/acetylene ratio.
Acetylene and oxygen gases are store separately. All
acetylene fittings have left-hand threads, while those for
oxygen are equipped with right-hand threads. This prevents
improper connections.
The tip size (or orifice diameter) of the torch can be varied to
control the shape of the inner cone and the flow rate of the
gases. Larger tips permit greater flow of gases, resulting in
greater heat input without the higher gas velocities that might
blow the molten metal from the weld puddle. Larger torch tips
are used for the welding of thicker metal.
USES, ADVANTAGES, AND LIMITATIONS
Almost all oxyfuel gas welding is fusion welding.The metals to
be joined are simply melted .where a weld is desired and no
pressure is required. Because a slight gap often exists be-
tween the pieces being joincd, filler metal can be added in the
form of a solid metal wire or rod. Welding rods come in
standard sizes, with diameters from 1.5 to 9.5 mm (1/16 to 3/8
inch) and lengths from 0.6 to 0.9 m (24 to 36 in.).Thcy are
available in standard grades that provide specified minimum
tensile strengths or in compositions that match the base metal.
Figure 36-3 shows a schematic of oxyfuel gas welding using a
consumable welding rod.
To promote the formation of a better bond, fluxes may be used
to clean the surfaces and remove contaminating oxide. In
addition, the gaseous shield produced by vaporizing flux can
prevent further oxidation during the welding process, and the
slag produced by solidifying flux can protect the weld pool as it
cools. Flux can be added as a powder, the welding rod can be
dipped in a flux paste, or the rods can be precoated.
The oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) processes can produce good-
quality welds if proper caution is exercised. Welding can be
performed in all positions, the temperature of the work can be
easily controlled, and the puddle is visible to the welder.
However, exposure of the heated and molten metal to the
various gases in the flame and atmosphere makes it difficult to
prevent contamination. Since the heat source is not
concentrated. heating is rather slow. A large area of metal is
heated, and distortion is likely to occur. Thus, in production
applications, the flame-welding processes have largely been
replaced by arc welding. Nevertheless, flame welding is still
quite common in field work, in maintenance and repairs, and in
fabricating small quantities of specialized products.
PLASMA ARC CUTTING
Plasma arc cutting is used for cut the steel and others mental.
The torches used in plasma arc cutting (PAC) produce the
highest temperatures. With the nontransferred type of torch,
temperature of about 16,500°C is obtained. With the transfer-
type torch, the arc is as high as 33,000°C. Ionized gases
flowing at these temperatures and near supersonic speeds are
capable of cutting virtually any electrically conductive material
simply by melting it and blowing it away from the cut.
Transferred-type torches are usually used for cutting metals,
while the nontransferred type are employed with the low-
conductivity nonmetals. Ordinary air or inexpensive nitrogen
can be used as the plasma gas for the cutting of all types of
metal.
This technique showed that the'speed, versatility, and
operating cost were far superior to those of the oxyfuel cutting
methodt. Compared to oxyfuel cutting, plasma cutting is more
economical. more versatile and much faster. Cutting speeds bond strength, however, requires optimum processing and
up to7.5 m/min have been obtained in 6-mm thick aluminum, design.
and up to 2.5 m/min in 12.5-mm thick steel. It provides Of all of the factors contributing to joint strength, joint
remarkably smooth surfaces, nearly as smooth as can be clearance is the most important. If the joint is too tight, it may
obtained by sawing, Plasma-cut surfaces are often within 2° of be difficult for the braze metal to flow into the gap (leaving
vertical, and surface oxidation is nearly eliminated-by the unfilled voids), and flux may be unable to escape (remaining in
cooling effect of the water spray. Combining a plasma torch locations that should be filled with braze material). There must
with robotic or CNC manipulation can provide fast, clean, and be sufficient clearance so that the braze metal will wet the joint
accurate cutting. and flow into it under the force of capillary action. As the gap is
BRAZING increased beyond this optimum value, however, the joint
Brazing is the permanent joining of similar or dissimilar metals strength decreases rapidly, dropping off to that of the braze
or ceramics through the use of heat and a filler metal whose metal itself If the gap becomes too great, capillary forces may
melting temperature is above 450°C but below the melting be insufficient to draw the material into the joint or hold it in
point of the materials being joined. The brazing process is place during solidification. The tensile strength of a butt joint
different from welding in a number of ways: braze as a function of joint clearance.
1. The composition of the brazing alloy is significantly different Proper clearance can vary considerably, depending primarily
from that of the base metal. on the type of braze metal being used. The ideal clearance is
2. The strength of the brazing alloy is usually lower than that of usually between 0.01 and 0.04 mm (0.0005 and 0.0015 in.), an
the base metal. "easy-slip" fit. A press. fit can even be acceptable if fluxes are
3. The melting point of the brazing alloy is lower than that of not used and
the base metal so none of the base metal is melted.
4. Bonding requires capillary action to distribute the filler metal
between the closely fitting surfaces of the joint. The specific
flow is dependent upon the viscosity of the liquid, the geometry
of the joint, and surface wetting characteristics.
Because of these differences, the brazing process has several
distinct advantages:
1. A wide range of metallic and nonmetallic materials can be
brazed. The process is ideally suited for joining dissimilar
materials, such as ferrous metal to nonferrous metal, metals
with widely different melting points, or even metal to ceramic.
2. Since less heating is required than for welding, the process
can be performed quickly and economically.
3. The lower temperatures reduce problems associated with
heat-affected zones (or other material property alteration),
warping, and distortion. Thinner AND more complex assemblies
can be joined successfully. Thin sections can be joined to thick.
4. Assembly tolerances are closer than for most welding
processes, and joint appearance is usually quite neat.
5. Brazing is highly adaptable to automation and performs well
when mass-producing complex or delicate assemblies.
6. A strong permanent joint is formed.
Successful brazing or soldering requires that the parts have
relatively good fit-up (i.e., small joint clearances) to promote
capillary flow of the filler metal. The parts must be thoroughly
cleaned prior to joining, and many parts will require flux
removal after joining. In addition, remember that any
subsequent heating of the assembly can cause inadvertent
melting of the braze metal, thereby weakening or destroying
the joint. surface roughness is sufficient to assure adequate flow of the
Another concern with brazed joints is their enhanced filler metal into the joint. Clearances up to 0.075 mm (0.003 in.)
susceptibility to corrosion. Since the filler metal is of different can be accommodated with a more sluggish filler, metal. Such
composition from the materials being joined, the brazed joint is as nickel. However, when clearances range between 0.075
actually a localized galvanic corrosion cell. Corrosion problems and 0,13 mm (0.003 and 0.005 in.), acceptable brazing
ean often be minimized, however, by proper selection of the becomes somewhat difficult, and joints with gaps in excess of
filler metal. 0.13 mm (0.005 in.) are almost impossible to braze Finally, it
should be noted that the surfaces to be brazed should be
parallel, maintaining the specified gap over the entire area of
NATURE AND STRENGTH OF BRAZED JOINTS contact. It is also important to note that the dimensions cited
Just as in welding, brazing forms a strong metallurgical bond above are the clearances that Should exist at the temperature
at the interfaces. Clean surfaces, proper clearance, good of the brazing process. Any effects of thermal expansion
wetting, and good fluidity will all enhance the bonding. The should be compensated when specifying the dimensions of the
strength of the resulting bond can be quite high, certainly starting components. This is particularly significant when
higher than the strength of the brazing alloy and often greater dissimilar materials are to be joined, for here the joint
than the strength of the metal being brazed. Attainment of high clearance will change as one material expands at a faster rate
than the other. Consider a joint between brass and steel, like
the one depicted in Figure 39-2. Brass expands more than
steel when temperature is increased. Therefore, if the insert
tube is the brass component, the initial fit should be somewhat
loose. The brass will expand more than the steel as the
temperature is increased, and at the brazing temperature, the
gap will assume the desired dimensions. Conversely, if a steel
tube is to be inserted into a brass receiver, an initial force fit
may be required since the interface will widen as the brass
expands more than the steel. It should also be noted that
reverse dimensional changes will occur during cooldown, and
these can result in significant residual stresses or even
cracking of the joint.
Wettability is a strong function of the surface tensions between
the braze metal and the base alloy. Generally, the wettability is
good when the surfaces are clean and the two metals can form
intermediate diffused alloys. Sometimes the wettability can be
improved, as is done when steel is tin plated to accept a lead-
tin solder, or plated with nickel or copper to enhance brazing.
Fluidity is a measure of the flow characteristics of the molten
braze metal and is a function of the metal. its temperature,
surface cleanliness, and clearance.

ULTRASONIC WELDING Ultrasonic welding (USW) is a solid-

stale process in which coalescence is produced by the seldom form, and there is no contamination of the weld or
localized application of high-frequency (10,000 to 200.000 Hz) surrounding area. The equipment is simple and reliable, and
shear vibrations to surfaces that arc held together under rather only moderate skill is required of the operator. The required
light normal pressure. Although there is some increase in surface preparation is less than for most competing processes
temperature at the faying surfaces, they generally do not (such as resistance welding), and less energy is needed to
exceed one-half of the melting point of the material (on an produce a weld. Typical applications include joining the
absolute temperature scale). Instead, it appears that the rapid dissimilar metals in oimctallics, making microcircuit electrical
reversals of stress along the contact interface break up and contacts, welding refractory or reactive metals, bonding
disperse the oxide films and surface contaminants allowing the ultrathin metal, and encapsulating explosives or chemicals.
clean metal surfaces to coalesce into a high strertgth bond.
Figure 38-19 depicts the basic components of the ultrasonic
welding process. The ultrasonic transducer is essentially the
same as that employed in ultrasonic machining. It is coupled to
a force-sensitive system that contains a welding tip on one
end, either stationary for spot welds, or rotating for seams. The
pieces to be welded are placed between this tip and a
reflecting anvil, thereby concentrating the vibratory energy.
Ultrasonic welding is restricted to the lap joint welding of thin
materials sheet, foil, and wire—or the attaching of thin sheets
to heavier structural members. The maximum thickness is
about 2.5 mm (0.1 in.) for aluminum and 1.0 mm (0.04 in.) for
harder metals. As indicated in Table 38-3, the process is
particularly valuable because of the number of metals and
dissimilar metal combinations that can be joined. It is even
possible to bond metals to nonmetals, such as aluminum to
ceramics or glass. Because the temperatures are low and no
arcing or current flow is involved, the process is also attractive
for heat-sensitive electronic components. Intermetallic
compounds