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CO-ORDINATION OF FAST NUMERICAL RELAYS AND CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

OVERDIMENSIONING FACTORS AND INFLUENCING PARAMETERS


Stig Holst
ABB Automation Products
Sweden

Bapuji S Palki
ABB Utilities
India

This paper reports on some of the results of the working


group WG 34.02, established by the Study Committee 34
to study and investigate co-ordination of relays and
conventional current transformers (CT). The objective of
the WG 34.02 work is to suggest common
recommendations on how the manufacturers should
specify the CT requirements and also suggest a guideline
for co-ordination of relays and current transformers.

certain amount of measuring errors and still maintain


acceptable operation. Different relays can allow the
current transformers to go into saturation after a certain
time and still perform correctly. To achieve specified
time to saturation the current transformer will have to be
overdimensioned. The overdimensioning is influenced by
the primary time constant, the secondary time constant of
the current transformer and the magnitude of the DC
component. The remanence also has impact on the
overdimensioning. The commonly used formulae for
calculation of the overdimensioning factor are often
simplified considering the primary time constant and
always the maximum DC component. These formulae
will not give optimum dimensioning in the co-ordination
of current transformers and modern numerical relays that
sometimes require just very short time to saturation for
correct operation. Often the overdimensioning factor is
too pessimistic. In some cases it is also important to
consider the case without any DC component.

The paper will show and discuss a more realistic and


correct method of calculating the overdimensioning
factor of current transformers when co-ordinating fast
numerical relays and current transformers, than what has
normally been the common practice.
1.

Introduction

Correct operation of most protective relays is dependent


on the relays being supplied with sufficient information
from the high voltage system. The fault current is one of
the most important quantities for the operation of the
relay. The fault current has a steady state and a transient
component. The DC transient part has a major role in the
current transformer errors.

The paper describes the basic theoretical equations for


the transient dimensioning of current transformers
considering the impact of different degrees of DC
component. The effects of various parameters on the
overdimensioning
factor
are
discussed
and
recommendations on how to calculate more relevant
overdimensioning factors are included.

The error of a conventional current transformer is


dependent on, whether the core is saturated or not. When
the core is saturated the magnetizing current is large
compared to the secondary current and the error is high.
The degree of saturation depends on the magnitude of
fault current, primary time constant, secondary time
constant of the current transformer and the magnitude of
the DC component. The remanence of the core will also
influence the saturation. Current transformer saturation
can cause both failure to operate and unwanted operation
of the protection depending on the measuring principle.

2.

Basic theory
transformers

for

dimensioning

of

current

The basic theoretical equations for the transient


dimensioning of the current transformer considering the
impact of switching angle as well as other factors are
described in this chapter. The equations may be taken as
extension to the theoretical equations given in
IEC 60044-6.

Theoretically the saturation and the maloperation of the


protection can be avoided by considering all the negative
factors when sizing the current transformer. In practice
this will often result in unrealistically large and
expensive current transformers. On the other hand it is
not necessary that current transformers are totally free
from saturation, because protective relays can tolerate a

2.1 Short circuit current


The equivalent circuit of a typical fault loop can be
represented by an inductance and a resistance in series
(See Figure1). Assuming a sinusoidal e.m.f.

where

Ts = (L0 + L2)/R2 L0/R2 is the secondary time constant


of the CT
q = L2/(L0 + L2) L2/L0 is the ratio of inductances.
L0 is the main inductance
L2 is the total inductance of the secondary circuit
R2 is the total resistance of the secondary circuit

Figure 1: Equivalent circuit of a short circuit loop.


v = 2 Vm cos(t + )

i1

i2

(1)

UL
L2

The short circuit current (i) may be written as


t
Tp

i = 2 I psc e

U1

L0

cos ( ) cos (t + )

R2

(2)

UR

where

Figure 2: Equivalent circuit of a current transformer

= Angle of switching on the voltage curve


Vm = is the r.m.s. value of the generator e.m.f.
Ipsc = Vm / (R2 + 2 L2) is the r.m.s. value of primary
symmetrical short circuit current
Tp = L/R is the primary time constant
= tan-1(L/R) is the phase angle difference between
voltage and current

By substituting the asymmetrical short circuit current in


the system equation for i1, we obtain the following
equation for the magnetizing current i0 for the case
Tp Ts.
(5)

Substituting for ( - ) the expression (2) can be


written as

i= 2

t
I psc e Tp

cos cos (t + )


qTs
cos e Tp e Ts
Tp Ts

Tp

i 0 = 2 I psc

(3)

+ 2 I psc

1
2

Ts 2 + 1

The second term in this expression is the steady state


sinusoidal variation and the first term is the transient
part, which theoretically vanishes after infinite time.

(1 q ) Ts sin + q 2 Ts 2 + 1 cos e Ts

At t = 0 it can be seen that the transient component


equals the steady state component and since both have
opposing polarities the current is zero at t = 0.

2 I psc

short

Ts

+ 1

(1 q ) Ts sin (t + ) + q 2 Ts 2 + 1 cos (t + )

In the above equation substituting,


g = (q2 Ts2 + 1)/(2 Ts2 + 1)

circuit

and assuming
2 Ts2 + 1 = 2 Ts2

A CT can be represented by the equivalent circuit


shown in Figure 2. From this circuit we can derive the
following differential equation.
di 0
di
1
1
+
i0 = q 1 +
i1
dt
Ts
dt
Ts

The transient component will be zero when = /2 and


will have maximum value when = 0. Making an
assumption that the network is predominantly inductive
this corresponds to switching taking place on the voltage
wave when it is passing through maximum and zero
respectively.

2.2 Transmission of asymmetrical


current through a CT

Equation (5) can be simplified as

(4)

Tp qTs

i 0 = 2 I psc

Tp Ts

K ssc = I psc I pn

cos e Tp

(10)

2.4 Transient dimensioning factor

+ 2 I psc g cos +

2 I psc

1 q
Tp qTs
sin
Ts
Tp Ts

cos e Ts

If the short circuit current is asymmetrical compared to


the case of symmetrical short circuit current, and due to
the DC component, saturation in the core will be reached
much earlier. If saturation must not occur during the
period a protective relay is carrying out the measurement,
the transformer will have to be over dimensioned. This
overdimensioning factor is defined by Ktf. The transient
dimensioning factor Ktf is the ratio of the theoretical total
secondary linked flux to the peak instantaneous value of
the AC component flux. Since flux values are
proportional to the corresponding magnetizing currents
Ktf can be given by

(1 q ) sin (t + ) + g cos (t + )

Ts

The flux in the CT core is directly proportional to i0 and


the proportionality constant is dependent upon the
dimensions of the core and its permeability.

K tf = i 0 i 0~ max

From the equation above it can be seen that the


magnetizing current consists of a DC component
(7)

qTs
cos e
Tp Ts

Tp

i 0 = 2 I psc

+ 2 I psc g cos +

Substituting expressions for i0 and i0~max the transient


dimensioning factor can be written as

t
Tp

Tp qTs
1 q
sin
Tp Ts
Ts

K tf =

cos e Ts

and an AC component

i 0~ = 2

I psc

(1 q ) sin (t + ) + g cos(t + )

Ts

1 q

Ts

[(1 q Ts )

cos e Tp

+ g2

1
2

cos +

1 q
Tp qTs
sin
cos e Ts
Ts
Tp Ts

[(1 q Ts )

(9)

+ g2

1
2

(12)

(1 q ) sin (t + ) + g cos (t + )
Ts

[(1 q Ts )

1
2

+ g2

Tp qTs

Tp Ts

(8)

The maximum value of the AC component i0~max can be


given by

i 0 ~max = 2 I psc

(11)

+ g2

1
2

If the burden is purely resistive as in the case of static or


numerical protection, L2 =0 and thus q = 0 and g can be
ignored. Therefore equation (12) can be simplified and
the transient dimensioning factor becomes

2.3 Symmetrical short circuit current factor

(13)

The e.m.f. to be developed by the CT to pass the secondary current Isn through a CT can be given by (Rct+Rb)Isn
K tf =

where

Rct is the CT secondary winding resistance and


Rb is the burden of the relay and the leads.

TpTs

cos e Tp e Ts + sin e Ts sin (t + )


Tp Ts

For calculating the transient factor necessary for


dimensioning purpose, equation (13) can be simplified
by writing sin (t +) = -1. The transient dimensioning

If a short circuit current Ipsc is to pass through the CT the


CT needs to be overdimensioned. Purely on the
symmetrical short circuit basis, without any transient
component, the overdimensioning factor of the CT
depends on the magnitude of the symmetrical short
circuit current and the rated primary current Ipn.

factor Ktf will then become


t

K tf

The symmetrical short circuit current factor Kssc is


defined as the ratio of the r.m.s. value of the short circuit
current Ipsc and the rated primary current Ipn.

TpTs

=
cos e Tp e Ts + sin e Ts + 1
Tp Ts

(14)

2.5 Effect of remanent flux on transient


dimensioning factor

Thus the total overdimensioning factor Ktot can be


defined as

In a current transformer with a closed grain oriented iron


core without any airgap, a remanent flux will remain
after a current interruption. An airgap in the core will
reduce the remanence. The amount of remanent flux is
dependent on the CT type. Generally there are three
different types of CTs:

K tot = K tf K rem K ssc

3.

Effect of various parameters on the transient


dimensioning of current transformers

The transient dimensioning factor Ktf has traditionally


been calculated according to the simplified equation (14)
and for the case with maximum DC component, = 0.
Figure 3 shows the Ktf factor as a function of the time
and for some different values of the secondary time
constant. The primary time constant Tp is 60 ms in this
example.

high remanence type CT


low remanence type CT
non remanence type CT

The high remanence type has no limit for the remanent


flux. This CT has a magnetic core without any airgap and
a remanent flux might remain for almost infinite time. In
this type of CT the remanent flux can be up to 70-80 %
of the saturation flux. Typical examples of high
remanence type CT are class P, TPS, TPX according to
IEC, class P, X according to BS (British Standard) and
nongapped class C, K according to ANSI/IEEE.

Ktf
Ts =

20

10 s
5s
15

3s
2s

The low remanence type has a specified limit for the


remanent flux. This CT is made with a small airgap to
reduce the remanent flux to a level that does not exceed
10 % of the saturation flux. Class TPY according to IEC
is a low remanence type CT.

10
1s

The non remanence type CT has practically negligible


level of remanent flux. This type of CT has relatively big
airgaps in order to reduce the remanent flux to practically
zero level. Class TPZ according to IEC is a non
remanence type CT.

0.5 s

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Time in seconds

Once the remanent flux is established very little of it is


dissipated under service conditions and will remain in the
core until it is demagnetized. According to studies
carried out on CTs that had been in service, the
remanence in practice can vary from 0-80 % of the
saturation flux.

Figure 3: Ktf as a function of the time and Ts


Except for CTs with big airgaps, Ts is often a few or
several seconds and the influence on Ktf is relatively
small and almost negligible during the first 100 ms. In
the following diagrams Ts is set to 3 s.

The remanence will reduce the available margin for flux


increase. This will naturally reduce the time to saturation
when the remanent flux is in the same direction as the
flux increase required to reproduce the primary fault
current. The time to saturation is prolonged when the
remanent flux is in the opposite direction.

The Ktf increases when Tp increases. This is illustrated in


Figure 4.
Ktf
80

The remanence factor Kr is defined as the ratio of r/s


where r is the remanent flux and s is the saturation
flux. If the remanence factor is taken into account, the
transient dimensioning factor increases by the remanence
dimensioning factor Krem where

K rem = 1 (1 K r )

(16)

Tp =
300 ms

60

(15)

200 ms

40

2.6 The total overdimensioning factor


100 ms

20

The total overdimensioning factor depends on the value


of the three factors described above, namely the
symmetrical short circuit factor Kssc, the transient
dimensioning factor Ktf and the remanence dimensioning
factor Krem.

50 ms
30 ms
0.5

1.5
Time in seconds

Figure 4: Ktf as a function of the time and Tp. Ts = 3 s.


4

Modern numerical relays are often designed to be able to


operate correctly even when the CT saturates after a very
short time. The required minimum time to saturation for
these relays is often very short. Sometimes the required
time to saturation can be even less than 2 ms. To get the
benefit of the short required time to saturation and be
able to reduce the size of the CT we have to consider the
complete expression of the Ktf factor according to
equation (13).

To operate correctly each specific type of protective relay


requires a certain time to saturation of the CT. In this
case it is possible to draw the Ktf as a function of the
primary time constant Tp. As an example Figure 5 shows
the required Ktf for different values of required time to
saturation.
Ktf

tsat

20

70 ms

Ktf
16

50 ms

=0
max DC

40 ms

12

30 ms

= 45

8
20 ms
4
2

50

100

150

200
Tp in ms

= 90
no DC

Figure 5: Ktf as a function of Tp for different values of


the time to saturation. Ts = 3 s.

20
=0
max DC
15
= 45

10

5
= 90
no DC
150

20
Time in ms

It is also important to notice that the case with maximum


DC component is not the most difficult case for the time
shorter than 15 ms. For example, if the required time to
saturation is below 2 ms, the case with almost no DC is
the most difficult and has to be considered when
calculating the required Ktf for the CT. For time to
saturation longer than around 15 ms, the case with
maximum DC must be considered. In this case it is also
of interest to estimate the probability of having a fault
with maximum DC. In transmission systems, where the
fault current often is almost predominantly inductive, the
inception of the fault has to take place on the voltage
wave when the voltage is close to zero to give maximum
DC component. The probability for this is normally small
and it should often be possible to reduce the required Ktf
due to this reduced risk of maximum DC component.
The theory and estimation of the probability of having
fault currents with maximum DC component is outside
the scope of this paper. However, it is important to notice
that it is not possible to reduce the calculated Ktf in the
same way if the time to saturation is shorter then 15 ms.
In this case we have to consider the switching angle that
gives the largest Ktf.

Ktf

100

15

Figure 7: The Ktf factor as a function of the time and


different degree of DC. Ts = 3 s.

So far and in all figures we have considered the Ktf factor


according to the simplified equation (14) and with
maximum DC component. In Figure 6 we can see the
difference between the simplified equation (14), and the
complete Ktf factor according to equation (13). The effect
of the switching angle and different degree of DC
component on the Ktf factor is also shown.

50

10

200
Time in ms

Figure 6: The simplified and complete Ktf as functions


of the time and different degree of DC. Ts = 3 s.

For each value of the required time to saturation it is


possible to calculate the corresponding value of the
switching angle, max, that gives the maximum value of
the Ktf factor. This relation is shown in Figure 8. We can
see that the primary time constant has only a small
influence on the value of the switching angle.

The simplification is relevant when the time is more than


15 ms in a 50 Hz system. However, for shorter time the
simplified formula for Ktf is too conservative and gives
too large values of Ktf. See Figure 7.
5

max

the CT requirements are specified for dependability


reasons. The risk of a short delay on an operation is often
acceptable. If the risk of a delay is not acceptable the
user has to add an extra margin to cover the remanence.
However, for security reasons, it is necessary to consider
the remanence when deciding the CT requirements. It is
for example not acceptable to have unwanted operations
from differential relays for external faults caused by
remanence and CT saturation.

90
75
Tp = 30 ms
60
45

Tp = 300 ms

Ktf

30

tsat

10 ms

15
3

10

12 14 16 18 20

8 ms

Time to saturation in ms
2

Figure 8: The switching angle, max, which gives the


maximum value of the Ktf factor as a function of time to
saturation. Ts = 3 s.

6 ms
1

4.

4 ms

Recommendations on how to decide the overdimensioning factor for current transformers

2 ms

To be able to specify the CT requirements and the


required Ktf factor we must know the maximum time to
saturation required by the protective relay. If the required
time to saturation is more than 15 ms in a 50 Hz system
the simplified equation (14) should be used. The Ktf for
different time to saturation is calculated and can be
shown as functions of the primary time constant Tp. (See
Figure 5.) In this case maximum DC component has been
assumed. The working group WG 34.02 will give
recommendations about the possibility to reduce the Ktf
due to the low risk of having maximum DC component
in the fault current in a high voltage transmission system.

25

50

75

100
Tp in ms

Figure 9: Ktf as a function of Tp for different small


values of the time to saturation. Ts = 3 s.
5.

Conclusions

The paper has described a more complete basic


theoretical equation for the transient overdimensioning
factor than normally has been published, or been used for
specifying of CT requirements, and co-ordination of
relays and CTs. The described equation takes into
consideration the effect on the Ktf factor for different
degree of DC in the fault current. Modern numerical
protective relays often require only a very short time to
saturation. If the required time to saturation is less than
15 ms the Ktf factor should be calculated according to the
more complete equation. For this short time to saturation
it is also important to consider less degree of DC in the
fault current. The dimensioning of the CTs will be more
correct and the overdimensioning will decrease.

When the required time to saturation of the relay is less


than 15 ms, the complete equation (13) shall be used.
The switching angle max , which gives the maximum
value of the Ktf factor, is determined for the specific
required time to saturation according to Figure 8. With
corresponding values of max and required time to
saturation, the Ktf can be calculated as a function of the
primary time constant. Figure 9 shows the results for
some different values of the time to saturation.
We can see that the necessary transient dimensioning
factor Ktf will be very small if the required time to
saturation of the relay is low. The Ktf factor is almost
independent of the Tp for very low value of the time to
saturation. This is because the Ktf factor has its maximum
value for the case when the fault current has hardly any
DC component. For higher value of the time to saturation
there is a higher degree of DC in the dimensioning case,
so the influence of the primary time constant on the Ktf
factor will increase in this case.

6.

References

N.E. Korponay, The Transient Behaviour and Use of


Current Transformers, Brown Boveri Rev. vol. 62, pp.
255-261, June 1975
N.E. Korponay, Nongapped cores, Antiremanence
Cores or Linear cores for Current Transformers, IEEE
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol.
PAS-97, pp. 569-573, March / April 1978
IEC 60044-6 (1992 - 03) Instrument transformers- Part 6:
Requirements for protective current transformers for
transient performance.

For the total overdimensioning factor we also have to


consider the remanence. This is outside the scope of this
paper
but
we will
suggest
some general
recommendations. It should not be necessary for the
manufacturer to take into account the remanence when

IEEE 76 CH 1130-4 PWR Transient Response of Current


Transformers, January 1976

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