The DEVELOPMENT of a NEW LANGUAGE OF

STRUCTURES in ARCHITECTURE
during the second half of the 20th century
(with student case studies)

For SAP2000 problem solutions refer to Wolfgang Schueller: Building

Support Structures examples model files:
https://wiki.csiamerica.com/display/sap2000/Wolfgang+Schueller%3A+Building+Su
pport+Structures+-

If you do not have the SAP2000 program get it from CSI. Students should
request technical support from their professors, who can contact CSI if necessary,
to obtain the latest limited capacity (100 nodes) student version demo for
SAP2000; CSI does not provide technical support directly to students. The reader
may also be interested in the Eval uation version of SAP2000; there is no capacity
limitation, but one cannot print or export/import from it and it cannot be read in the
commercial version. (http://www.csiamerica.com/support/downloads)
See also,
(1) The Design of Building Structures (Vol.1, Vol. 2), rev. ed., PDF eBook by
Wolfgang Schueller, 2016, published originally by Prentice Hall, 1996,
(2) Building Support Structures, Analysis and Design with SAP2000 Software, 2nd
ed., eBook by Wolfgang Schueller, 2015.
The SAP2000V15 Examples and Problems SDB files are available on the
Computers & Structures, Inc. (CSI) website:
http://www.csiamerica.com/go/schueller

This presentation will introduce the new generation of structures

that has developed primarily during the 1950s to about 1990. It is
emphasized that structure is architecture and not just plugged
into architectural space.

I will concentrate on the experience of building structures from a

visual point of view primarily, as seen through the eyes of a
design engineer and architect, rather than a detailed discussion
of structural behavior, refinement of structural performance, or
efficient construction methods. In other words, this lecture will
celebrate the joy of structures as architecture and
engineering art.
The cases are shown in the context of education as unique
solutions, which demonstrate the complexity and creative mind
of designers and express the infinite richness of architectural
form.

I like to briefly remind you of the basic position of the structural engineer
which often is perceived by architects as a very narrow one. The structural
engineer is responsible for safety, to him the building is a body that is alive,
its bones and muscles are activated by external and internal forces. As
it reacts, it deforms and suggests the pain it must endure at points of stress
concentration.
The arrangement of space, which defines members and their spans,
becomes most important in controlling the force flow to the foundations and
reducing stress concentrations to a minimum. In other words, engineers
visualize buildings in an animated state moving back and forth as can
be convincingly expressed by computers through virtual modeling.
In contrast architects must respond in the design of buildings to the
broader issues of the environmental context, be it cultural or physical.
I like to emphasize that the theme of my presentation is not addressing the
difference between structural engineers and architects is, but that
STRUCTURE DOES NOT ONLY PROVIDE

BE ARCHITECTURE.

SUPPORT BUT ALSO CAN

A.

Introduction:

STRUCTURE IS ARCHITECTURE

First I like to remind you that the development of modern building

support structures has its origin in the inventive spirit of structural
engineering and the rapid progress in the engineering sciences during
the 19th century, as reflected by:

The enormous volume of the iron-glass structure system of the

Crystal Palace in London (1851, Joseph Paxton), constructed in the
short period of only six months.
The longest span of 480 m (almost 1600 ft) of the Brooklyn Bridge in
New York (1883, John and Washington Roebling),
The unbelievable height of the 300 m Eifel Tower (nearly 1000 ft) in
Paris (1889, Gustave Eifel)

The longest span of 480 m (almost 1600 ft) of the Brooklyn

Bridge in New York (1883, John and Washington Roebling),

The unbelievable height of the 300 m

Eifel Tower (nearly 1000 ft) in Paris
(1889, Gustave Eifel)

The enormous volume of the iron-glass structure system

of the Crystal Palace in London (1851, Joseph Paxton),
constructed in the short period of only six months.

This world of engineering was absorbed into

architecture by the early modernists at the beginning
of the 20th century. They were concerned with the
articulation of the functional spirit: FORM FOLLOWS
FUNCTION, and the honest expression of building
construction by freeing the hidden structure from its
imprisonment of the wall, by exposing it. A celebrated
example of this new philosophy of architecture is the
Villa Savoye by Le Corbusier.

Villa Savoye, 1929, Poissy-sur-Seine, France, Le Corbusier; the new aesthetics of modernism is
expressed by: (1) the pilotis or ground-level supporting columns, (2) the flat roof used as living
space, (3) the free plan made possible by elimination of bearing walls, (4) the freely designed
facade unrestrained by load-bearing considerations consisting of thin skin and windows

Maison Domino 1914 domus (house) and domino (suggesting serial production).
Maison Dominos serially reproducible units introduce greater horizontal spatial freedom
(the free plan) achieved via pilotis (thin structural columns) and non-load-bearing walls
freely arranged as spatial dividers

Bauhaus 2, Dessau,
Germany, 1925, Walter
Gropius

The full integration of the spirit of structural engineering into architecture happened
during the 1950s and early 1960s or so, i.e. STRUCTURE IS ARCHITECTURE.
One group of architects even went so far to claim, ARCHITECTURE IS
STRUCTURE. It was the work of the pioneer design engineers Robert Maillart,
Eduardo Torroja and Pier Luigi Nervi that had a strong impact on the new
generation of architectural designers of the 1950s such as Eero Saarinen, Kenzo
Tange, Marcel Breuer, and many others.
The expression of structures during this era of the 1960s took many directions
ranging from the minimal and functional forms of Mies van der Rohe, Philip
Johnson, SOM (e.g. Bruce Graham/ Fazlur Khan, Myron Goldsmith), and I.M.
Pei, to the more sculptural forms of Paul Rudolph, Marcel Breuer, Kisho
Kurokawa, and Bertrand Goldberg.
During this period, the experimentation with structures, as started by the design
engineers of the 19th century, continued by adding the integration of complex
geometry and bionics (i.e. natural systems), especially as related to minimum
weight and surface structures which was brought to a high level of sophistication by
Frei Otto, Robert LeRicolais, Buckminster Fuller, Felix Candela, Heinz Isler, and
many others. This world of structural experimentation was convincingly represented
by the space frames, cable structures, prestressed membranes, and

pneumatics skins of the Expos in Montreal (1967) and Osaka (1970).

The experimentation with structures is also reflected by the constructivist art

of modernism and was first articulated particularly by the dreams of
designers such as the pioneers Antoine Pevsner and Naum Gabo at the
early part of the 20th century in Russia, and later by Alexander Calder's
kinetic art and Kenneth Snelson's tensegrity sculptures.

The early position of architecture as structure is very much reflected by the drawing of Mies van der Rohe's
52-story, 212-m IBM Tower in Chicago (1973) celebrates the frame and the geometrical order of the grid the
building organization is controlled by the geometry of the 9 x 12 m bays (30 x 40 ft); the mathematical regularity of
the frame layout almost subdues the expression of its structural action. This regular frame layout is typical for
many buildings today because of its simplicity of construction

Lake Shore Drive Apts, Chicago, Ludwig Mies van der

Rohe, at Chicago, 1948 to 1951

This expression of minimal geometry, however, is surely not dated as expressed by the rational, neo-classicistic
Fuji Television Headquarters in Tokyo (1996) , designed by Kenzo Tange more recently. Here office and media
towers are connected by 100 m long sky corridors providing urban spaces and elements such as small plazas,
promenades, stair cases, bridges, and terraces at various levels. The mega-framework consists of
Vierendeel steel columns and beams with reinforced concrete that support a 32-m titan covered globe containing
a restaurant.

B.

THE

BIRTH OF UNIQUE STRUCTURES:

a period of transition

During the late 1960s and early 1970s or so, architects understood
the spirit of the engineering discipline and began to separate
themselves from the predominance of structural engineering
thinking. They had matured and developed the necessary courage to
invent their own structures by superimposing upon them other ideas
and meanings such as the effect of context, symbolism, possibly
fragmentation in geometry and material. In other words, during this
period, also sophisticated individual structures occurred in response
to particular situations quite in contrast to the catalogued structure
systems as identified by numerous types of line diagrams and rules
of thumb.

The 22-story, 100-m high,

BMW Building in Munich,
Germany (1972, Karl
Schwanzer) consists of four
suspended cylinders. Here,
four central prestressed
suspended huge concrete
hangers are supported by a
post - tensioned bracket cross
at the top that cantilevers
from the concrete core.
Secondary perimeter columns
are carried in tension or
compression by story-high
radial cantilevers at the
mechanical floor level. Cast
aluminum cladding is used as
skin.

BMW Building consists of four suspended

cylinders. Here, four central prestressed
suspended huge concrete hangers are
supported by a post - tensioned bracket
cross at the top that cantilevers from the
concrete core.
Secondary perimeter columns are carried
in tension or compression by story-high
radial cantilevers at the mechanical floor
level. Cast aluminum cladding is used as
skin.

C.

A NEW GENERATION OF STRUCTURES:

the beginning

It was during the time of post-modernism of the late 1970s and early 1980s
when the progress of new structural thinking went unnoticed by most
architects in the USA and particularly in architectural education where
architectural theory began to flourish. The potential of those new
structures as space makers was not studied; the structures remained
hidden and solely used to do their job as support. In contrast, in Europe
the experimentation with structures continued by often brutally exposing
structures and expressing them in a rather animated fashion.

Citicorp Center (59 stories), New York,1977, Stubbins + William LeMessurier

An early example of this new type

of structure in the USA is the 59story, 279-m, 46 m square (152 ft)
Citicorp Building, New York (1977,
Stubbins), where the powerful
expression of structure
unfortunately is hidden behind the
post-modern skin. The renowned
structural engineer William J.
LeMessurier introduced a new way
of thinking about the building body
and structures with his spatial 8story series of chevron braced
stacks which act as 3-dimensional
units. This new breed of
megastructure looks so simple but
is so complex in behavior. Here,
the core acts as an interior vertical
beam with respect to wind within
the stacks.

In contrast in Europe, Richard Rogers, in

his love for technology exposes in the
Lloyd's of London (1978 - 86) the
functioning of the building body by
introducing a much freer and exuberantly
decorative treatment of the structure
recalling the 1960s plug-in cities of
Archigram. In the typical Rogers kit-ofparts fashion, he broke the monotony of
the classic frame and expressed, a piece
of machinery with flexible kits, moving
parts, a network of ductwork and a
mechanically ventilated cavity faade (i.e.
3 layers of glass). He freely manipulated
the form of the concrete skeleton
structure by stepping it at various floor
levels and surrounding the braced
perimeter concrete frame by six
structurally independent satellite
service towers with permanent
maintenance cranes located on top of
them, while the internal perimeter columns
carry the elaborate 240-ft (about 73 m)
high central atrium structure crowned
by a barrel vault.

Pompidou Center, Paris, 1977, Piano and Rogers

Naturally, it all started with the 6-story

Pompidou Center in Paris (1977) by
Piano and Rogers, which introduces a new
generation of structures by exposing its
functional layers of structure assembly,
stairs, corridors, escalators and air ducts.
Its tension-braced hinged assembly
structure is quite opposite in spirit to the
conventional rigid monolithic
construction. The basic structure consists
of parallel 2.4 m (8-ft) deep Warren truss
beams that span c. 45 m (147 ft) across
the building to rest on small cantilever
beams called gerberettes, which are caststeel beams pin connected to interior
water-filled cast steel tubular columns and
tied down by exterior vertical tension rods.
For the first time cast steel was used to
articulate the joints

University Clinc (Klinikum), Aachen, Germany, 1981,

Weber + Brand

University Clinc (Klinikum), Aachen,

Germany, 1981, Weber + Brand

D.

THE

NEW LANGUAGE

Of

STRUCTURES
A new language of structures may be characterized by the breakdown of
the building into smaller assemblies, by complex shapes and geometry, by
fractured forms as represented by fractal mathematics, by hinged
assemblies, multi-layered construction, forms in tension and compression
(i.e. buildings have muscles), mixed and hybrid structures, cast metals,
lightweight composite materials, complex spatial geometry, and so on.

There is even an indication that certain passive structures may be

replaced eventually by active structures with their own intelligence. We
are already quite familiar with smart materials and energy dissipation
systems. Computers and advanced technology give us answers that we
will have to face, if we like it or not.

In the following discussion of cases, structures may take more or less three positions:

The complex hidden structure derived from intricate geometry and not from
the nature of the support structure; a convincing example is the Guggenheim
Museum in Bilbao, Spain, by Frank Gehry (1997). In other situations computers
find the optimum layout of structures within given boundaries

The structure as the primary idea of architecture, but not necessarily derived
from traditional engineering thinking of optimization or tectonic expression, but
other intentions: architects invent structures - subjectivity and creativity are
introduced in spite of the limits imposed by the rules and physical laws of
engineering.

The dialogue (or play) of architecture with structure, or symbolism with

tectonics, on a more local scale, possibly as a leitmotif: architecture as
structure detail.

I will present some of those characteristics by addressing the following six topics:

the large scale of the high-rise building

the smaller and more human scale of lower buildings

the effect of the building section, or columns as space makers

achieving the long span through arches and the corresponding

effect on space

the transparency of the glass-skin structures

the conclusion, a new dimension of structure

THE LARGE SCALE:

high-rise buildings

First I will be showing several high-rise buildings of this new generation that
are broken up, hollowed out, lifted up, subdivided into smaller buildings, placed
on top of each other, or by using mega-structures. An early example of this
free manipulation of material space is,

the 21-story bridge-like concrete structure of

the Hypobank in Munich, Germany (1981,
Walter and Bea Betz), where the structural
concept demonstrates another kind of a new
generation of structures. Its shape reminds
one of the metabolist architecture of the
1960s in Japan although somewhat softened
by less articulation of tectonics and through
the use of the skin and the lightness of the
triangular prisms. Here, four cylindrical
towers with a story high platform at the 11th
service level (that consists of three rigidly
connected prestressed box-like girders) form
an irregular spatial rigid megaframe. This
structure supports 15 stories above and the
hanging 6 stories below.

The 43-story, c. 200-m high, Hongkong Bank

in Hong Kong (1985, Foster/Arup) is an ikon of the
1980s - it is a celebration of technology and
architecture of science as well of function as art. It
expresses the performance of the building and the
movement of people. The stacked bridge-like
structure allows opening up of the central space
with vertically stacked atria and diagonal
escalator bridges by placing structural towers with
elevators and mechanical modules along the sides
of the building. This approach is quite opposite to
the central core idea of conventional high-rise
buildings. The support structure is clearly expressed
by the clusters of eight towers forming four parallel
megaframes. A megaframe consists of two
towers connected by cantilever suspension
trusses supporting the vertical hangers which,
in turn, carry the floor beams. Obviously, it was
not the intention for the structure to articulate
structural efficiency.

Hiroshi Hara, the architect of the Umeda Sky

City, Osaka (1993) called the building with
the urban roof and floating gardens, city in
the air. The building expresses postmodern
sensibilities, challenging the unity of form by
articulating diversity. The 40-story, 173 m
high double-tower (54 m apart) is connected
by a huge 2-story 54-m span roof bridge
structure with a large circular sky
window. This square platform- bridge (150
m above the ground) provides urban space
and gardens in the air. The human scale is
reinforced by a pair of almost floating
escalators, free-standing transparent
elevator shafts and staircases, as well as a
6-m wide steel sky bridge that links the
buildings at the 22 level.
Although the building required advanced
structural engineering especially in
earthquake country, Hara did not express the
effort of the support structure; he softened
structural engineering by the finish of
reflective glass, polished aluminum plates,
undulating surfaces, etc.

The 19-story City Gate in Duesseldorf , Germany

(1998, H. Petzinka + Fink Arch./Ove Arup preliminary
design of structure) consists of 80 m towers with the
top three floors connected. The space between
forms a 58 m (184 ft) tall atrium with suspended
glass curtain facades enclosing the enormous
volume. The twisted composition of the rhombuslike arched building adds a daring futuristic
image to the city skyline. Exposed are the two
triangular trussed framed core towers, which clearly
give lateral support to the building. These megacolumns are connected to form three portal
frames that is a Z-like bracing system in plan
view; they seem to tie the vertical open atrium space
visually together. The support of the mega columns
is suggested to the outside through the transparent
glass skin. The steel pipes of the trussed frames are
filled with concrete. Not only the futuristic space
atmosphere (which includes air bridges at various
levels), but also the highly energy efficient design
must be recognized.

The Commerzbank in Frankfurt, Germany,

(1997, Norman Foster/Arup) is with nearly 300
m height the tallest office building in Europe. It is
the world's first ecological (green) high-rise
tower , energy efficient and user friendly. In
other words, the goal was an environmentally
friendly architecture that is living in harmony
with nature and the integration of innovative
concepts of energy conservation. Four-story
gardens spiral around the gently curved
triangular plan with a central atrium serving as a
natural ventilation chimney. In other words,
fresh air penetrates the central vertical atrium
through the winter gardens to provide natural
ventilation. The building structure consists of
the vertical cores at each of the corners of
the triangular plan linked and braced along
the perimeter by staggered 8-story
Vierendeel frames, which in turn, bridge the
4-story open garden spaces at various levels
that are connected to the central atrium
shaft. The steel /concrete structure acts as a
perforated tube providing the necessary lateral
and torsional stability.

In contrast, the monumental Tokyo City

Hall (1991) by Kenzo Tange is designed
in the postmodern style reminding us of
French cathedrals composed with
computer chips. The double-tower
structure, a 48-story, 243-m high
building consists of 6.4-m
supercolumns (i.e. shafts) forming a
megaframe. The supercolumn is made
up of four 1.02-m steel box columns
linked by K-braces. The megacolumns
are interconnected by 1-story deep
belt trusses at the 9th, 33rd, and 44th
floors. Column-free space is allowed
between the super- columns using twoway beam grids

In contrast, the 18-story, 87-m high N.V. Nederlandse Gasunie in Groningen, 1994, Alberts and Van Huut
bv, is more organically shaped. It seems to be the skin, which is constantly in movement under the change
of sun and weather. The slender tall building (1:6.69) consists of load bearing concrete walls anchored
front to back by two nearly 0.5 m thick (20-in.) diaphragm cross walls. The central foyer is spanned by a
3-story, 2-legged A-frame which carries the central column around which the concrete stair case
seems to be suspended and spirals upward thereby articulating the dynamics of space. This
complicated, 3-dimensional structure forms the central vertical backbone of the building body. The 60-m
glass wall in front appears almost like a waterfall; it is carried by an enormous steel space frame.

THE HUMAN SCALE:

low-rise buildings

The next group of buildings represents smaller scale structures

articulating similar concepts as before, such as: expressing the assembly
character together with lateral bracing, or freedom of form giving from
traditional construction, possibly resulting in irrational organization of
materials and spaces

The Kandel apartment building, Heidenheim,

Germany, 1997, Hoefler Arch., appears like
several buildings on top of each other, each one
with its own support structure. In other words,
the building mass is broken up into different
structures. Notice the red column running
diagonally all the way up to the roof relaxing the
hierarchy of the support structure.

The Information Box is a temporary structure at the Potsdamer Platz in Berlin,

Germany, 1995 - 2001, (Schneider + Schumacher), it looks like a container sitting
on a forest of columns. The container floats high above the ground and sits on the
inclined exposed steel columns suggesting the building support. The window areas
indicate large open inside spaces.

The dramatic building massing of the Hamburg Ferry and Cruise Ship Terminal (1994, William Alsop/ Ove
Arup) reminds one of shipbuilding construction. The upper building portion and the balcony at the building end
are supported by inclined pylons and tie rods reminiscent of the cranes and derricks along the quay side.

Frank O. Gehry's, three building complex (one is clad in metal, one in plaster, one in brick), Neuer Zollhof
(1998) in Duesseldorf, Germany, looks like an unstable collage. The walls of the center building have a
surface whose shape is much like that of folds of hanging fabric, where the undulating wall is clad in
polished stainless steel. It is an example of how computers are required to deal with the complexity of form
in designing and building a structure. The architect used the design software Catia to model the distorted
and twisted faade walls with window boxes sticking out, which are identical for all three buildings. In
contrast to Gehry's Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao where the complex surfaces were formed by
skeletons, which were skinned, in the Neuer Zollhof they were solid concrete walls for the middle portion of
the building group (but for the 13-story tower concrete frame construction with fill-in masonry walls was
used). The walls were constructed from prefab panels (i.e. first Styroform molds, then steel reinforcing and
finally concrete) all different from each other using Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM). In other words,
the construction of the houses was approached similar to the production of car bodies or airplane wings.

In the Saibu Gas

Museum (1989) in
Fukuoka, Japan, by
Shoei Yoh, 4 floors are
suspended from column
shafts from within the
building to liberate the
ground floor from
columns. The
design with its central
trees articulates an
almost poetic expression
of industrial technology

The School of Architecture at Lyons, France

(1989, Jourda and Perraudin) incorporates a
variety of structural forms and materials
including arches, trabeation, cross-vaulting
bearing walls, glass skins, and fabric
membranes. The idea of the architecture is
derived from the education of architects. It
introduces a vocabulary of materials, details,
and construction systems. The building
consists of a massive concrete base, an
open 2nd floor studio space covered with a
timber framed vaulted structure (i.e. inclined
radiating glulam timber struts rising to the
roof), a central spine covered with a lightweight glass structure and cable trusses, and
along the outside a fabric membrane to
provide shade. At the junction of the glulam
wood members castings are used to articulate
the joining between beams and columns.

Nick Grimshaw clearly expresses the structure of the Sainsbury Supermarket Camden Town, London (1988).
The main parallel 40-m span frames consist of slightly arched roof trusses suspended from tapered cantilever
steel girders, where the flat profiles preclude the benefit from arch action. These girders form the long interior
arms of asymmetrical double cantilever beams supported on concrete-filled stunchions, while the short
arms project outside beyond the wall cladding where the arches are tied down by back-stays that consist of four
50 mm vertical tension rods.

In contrast, the main structure for the Wilkhahn Factory, Bad Muender, Germany, 1992, by Thomas Herzog
Arch., is parallel to the faade (i.e. longitudinal); the building integrates function, construction, ecological
concern and architecture. The 5.4 m wide (18 ft) tower structures that contain the offices and service zones,
are centered at 30 m (98 ft) and give support to the long spans of the cable-supported beams (24.6 m/81 ft).
The formal configuration of the cables (1.5 m deep) convincingly reflects the moment flow of
continuous beams under gravity load action. The diagonal bracing of the towers gives lateral support to the
post-beam timber structure to resist wind with a minimum effort.

Of exact opposite character is the Vitra Museum, Weil am Rhein, Germany, 1989,
Frank O. Gehry: complex building bodies and irrational arrangement of shapes
together with distorted geometry and construction cause an exciting space
interaction.

In the Palais du Cinema (former American

Center in Paris, 1994) Frank Gehry expresses
the explosive nature of form and complex
geometry, he articulates volumes that seem to
tumble out. The inside of the building is as
resolved and eroded as the outside (inverse of
the outside) almost like medieval urban spaces.
The intersection of stairs, corridors, openings,
intersecting planes, cause a very dynamic
explosive inside space. The complex geometry
requires complex hidden structures.

The Hysolar Institute at the University of Stuttgart, Germany (1988, G. Behnish and Frank Stepper) reflects
the spirit of deconstruction, it looks like a picture puzzle of a building - it is a playful open style of building
with modern light materials. It reflects a play of irregular spaces like a collage using oblique angles causing
the structure to look for order. The building consists of two rows of prefabricated stacked metal
containers arranged in some haphazard twisted fashion, together with a structural framework
enclosed with sun collectors. The interior space is open at the ends and covered by a sloped roof
structure. The bent linear element gives the illusion of an arch with unimportant almost ugly
anchorage to the ground.

THE COLUMN AS SPACE MAKER

The next group of slides addresses the COLUMN as space makers, or

demonstrates the effect of the building SECTION as a controlling design determinant
rather than solely considering the DOGMA OF THE PLAN. Column types include slender and
stocky ones, compression and tensile columns, straight and inclined or branched columns, but
they all are space makers.

The Netherlands Architectural

Institute in Rotterdam (1993, Jo
Coenen) is clearly divided into several
sections. The concrete skeleton
dominates the image supplemented by
steel and glass. The main glazed
structure appears to be suspended, and
allows the concrete load-bearing
structure behind to be seen. The high,
free-standing support pillars and the
wide-cantilevered roof appear more in a
symbolic manner rather as support
systems.

Art Museum, Wolfsburg, Germany, 1993, Peter

Schweger Arch.: the building floats intospace.
The building is laid out on an approximately 8.10 x
8.10 m (27 x 27 ft) grid and is further subdivided
into 1.35 m (4'5" ) square bays. The plaza seems
to reach/move into the building - the building is
naturally grown allowing the interaction of building
and urban space, where the diagonal access
ramps/stairs forming the connecting element (i.e.
entrance at building corner). The interaction of
the building is especially articulated by the
thin cantilevering roof at 19 m (62 ft) height
carried by the slender columns. The building
gives a feeling of openness and and permeability.
The logic of construction, transparency, lightness,
quality of detail all transmit a sense of clarity (i.e.
no deliberate confusion as in some of the other
cases).

Axel Schultes, the architect for the City

Museum, Bonn, Germany (1992) calls the
building the house of light. The curved flat roof
sits on a forest of irregularly arranged columns.
The grouped columns seem almost to generate
a human quality in articulating space rather than
supporting the roof, the columns seem to
penetrate through the roof.

The 300-m long oval-shaped Grand Palais, Lille (1995, Rem Koolhaas/ Ove Arup
for structures), is divided into concert hall, conference center, and exhibition halls.
Koolhaas uses exposed concrete surfaces and a great deal of plywood and plastic
to reduce the costs. The combination of unusual materials and unexpected angles
seem to reflect an anti-poetic mood (a punk-like aesthetics) and redundancy of
structure. The structure takes the place of language and reflects only the illusion
of support (e.g. arch vs. columns, and hanging columns or tension ties to reduce
bending moment at center span). Notice the stairs as an important architectural
element.

For the multi-bay structure of the shopping center near Nantes, France (1988, Rogers/Rice) 94-ft (29 m)
high tubular masts, spaced at 47 ft (14 m), support the roof framework in a spatial fashion from above
without penetration of the roof. Only certain combinations of the 3-dimensional network of rods and struts
are activated under various load actions. Under wind uplift, the tensile rod-strut system forms an inverted Vshaped truss.

An example of Rogers first stayed structures is the Patscenter in Princeton, USA (1984, Rogers/Rice).
The building consists of parallel planar guyed structures along the central spine consisting of c.9 m wide
portal frames set 11 m on center that support on top c.15-m high A-frames which consist of inclined
pipe columns connected to a large ring plate from which are suspended steel rods to other ring plates on
each side of the spine. Inverted truss action is required for wind uplift where the central hangers act in
compression, hence had to be tubes.

The immense, c.153-m span roof of the beautiful Lufthansa Hangar at the Munich Airport, Guenter Buechl + Fred
Angerer Arch., 1992, is supported by the diagonal cables suspended from the c.56-m tall concrete pylons

The Renault Center, Swindon, U.K. (1983) by Norman Foster and Ove Arup is a spatially guyed structure.
Truss-like portal frames are placed along the 24 x 24m (79-x79-ft) square bays, but also along the diagonal
directions. Rods are suspended from the top of the 16-m (53-ft) high tubular steel masts in the orthogonal and
diagonal directions to support the tapered portal beams at their quarter points. In the center portion the sloped
beams are cable-supported from below. The cable configuration follows the moment diagram of a
multibay portal frame with hinged basis under uniform gravity loading by efficiently resolving the moment
into compressive and tensile forces. The slender tubular columns are laterally braced with four prestressed
rods that are connected to their sloped beams thereby providing a moment connection.

Whereas before, the cables supported a rigid cylindrical roof structure, in the Schlumberger Research
Center, Cambridge, UK (1985, Hopkins/Hunt) it is a spatial domelike undulating tensile fabric
membrane. The ship like masts and rigging as well as its high level technology and detailing reminds
one of Roger's earlier work. The central portion of the building is subdivided by four parallel exposed
portal steel frames into three bays, each 24 x 18 m (79 x 59 ft) in size. It consists of horizontal 24-m (79ft) open triangulated truss girders and nearly 8-ft (c.2.5 m) wide vertical trusses which support two pairs
of upper and lower booms. The two inclined upper tubular masts are supported by tie rods, which are
braced by lower masts (struts). Cables are suspended from the masts to give support to two parallel ridge
cables at certain pick-up points. The translucent Teflon coated fiberglass membrane is clamped and
stretched between ridge cables and steel work.

Quite different in spirit are the slender

and minimal abstract planar, tree-like
c.30-m (100-ft) high masts for the Horst
Korber Sports Center in Berlin,
Germany (1990, Christoph Langhof) with
their five branches linked by cables from
which the light cable roof trusses are
hung but only on one side (i.e.
asymmetry). The symmetrical abstract
forms of the masts are completely
opposite in expression from the tectonic
shapes of most of the other examples
which have been shown, they don't
seem to give support.

The huge steel trees of the Stuttgart Airport Terminal, Stuttgart, Germany (1991, von
Gerkan & Marg, Schlaich) with their spatial strut work of slender branches give a continuous
arched support to the roof structure thereby eliminating the separation between column
and slab. The tree columns put tension on the roof plate and compression in the branches;
they are spaced on a grid of about 21 x 32 m (70 x 106 ft).

a.

b.

c.

THE

TECTONICS OF CONSTRUCTION

The tectonic organic world of structural resistance has become quite

fashionable especially with the architect/engineer Santiago Calatrava. He
is fascinated with how the structure works and how the loads are carried to
the ground, which he demonstrates by articulating its tactile quality and the
organic nature of the skeleton comprised of sculptural, bony-shaped
elements asymmetrically arranged. He is concerned with the logic of
material and the beauty of the section, he emphasizes the dynamics of
structure by making the potential movement of forces visible. He
achieves that by expressing the unbalance of forces.

The supporting cantilever frames of the glazed canopy

structure of the Stadelhofen Station, Zurich,
Switzerland (1990, Santiago Calatrava) capture
movement. The columns seem to be just caught in
time by the vertical struts. In other words, it seems as if
the cantilevers are on the verge of rotating by
articulating the hinge like tubular beam and by letting
the slanted columns be just caught on time by the
vertical struts. They are surely influenced by biological
forms where the steel profile of the tapering members
suggests a tectonic presence, frozen suspension and
almost organic joints. The sword-like steel plates of the
cantilever beams carry the glass roof and are welded to
a continuous 12 cm (5 in.) dia. steel tube that acts as a
beam and torsion ring to transfer the loads to the
inclined, branching Y-columns of triangular crosssection which, in turn, are stabilized by vertical hinged
pendulum columns. The 2-legged composite columns
are spaced at almost 6 m (20 ft).

The Public Library in Munster, Germany (1993, Bolles + Wilson) is divided into two sections
connected by a bridge. The asymmetrical, inverse A-frame not only carries the sculptured roof
structure but also provides a vigorous energy and dynamics to the urban space.

The grandstand of the Charlety

Stadium at the Cite Universitaire in
Paris (1994, Henri and Bruno Gaudin)
is brought alive by its organic and
tectonic presence. From the highly
articulated slanted concrete
buttress piers is cantilevered the
stayed steel canopy on top and the
upper seating below. The play
between tension and compression,
between force resolution at the joints
and stress concentrations in the
members is forcefully articulated.
From the inclined, 50-m high corner
light masts at the lower level a
conical Teflon membrane is
suspended to give lateral
protection to the grandstand.

SPANNING

SPACES

WITH ARCHES

This collage type visual study introduces the next theme that of the structure
as span, in this case achieved through the A R C H; it attempts to articulate
the spirit of the support structure resisting lateral thrust, in other words the
tectonics of construction.

This collage type visual study introduces the

next theme that of the structure as span, in
this case achieved through the arch; it
attempts to articulate the spirit of the support
structure resisting lateral thrust, in other
words the tectonics of construction.

The lateral thrust

The curved roof of the Kansai Air Terminal (1994) by Renzo Piano (and Peter Rice
for structures) spreads over an artificial island like a glider. The irregular roof curve
consisting of arcs of different radii, is shaped by the aerodynamics of the largescale air jets ventilating the whole space, that is the regulation of air
movement. The three-dimensional, triangular truss-arches span 83 m and have a
total length of 150 m each is supported by inclining columns and by vertical columns
at the curb; the arches seem barely connected the building.

The column supports at the Novotel Belfort, Belfort, France (1994, Bouchez),
almost seem human and express how effortless the arch action is transferred down
to the ground.

The visually dominant arches of the new Leipzig Fair, Leipzig, Germany, 1996, (van
Gerkan+Marg Arch, Ian Ritchie Arch. for glazing, Polonyi Struct. Eng.), make a strong
statement and remind one of the glass and iron architecture of the 19th century (e.g. Crystal
Palace, Galerie des Machines in Paris, 1889). The hall is about 243 m long, has a clear span
of 80 m (262 ft), and 30 m (98 ft) up to the vertex. The primary system consists of the
trussed triangular arches that contain a service walkway, and where the top chords span
across the adjacent service roads. The sole purpose of the arches is to give lateral support to
the tubular steel grid vault through its steel outriggers. The depth of the arches varies from 4
m at the crown to 10 m at the ground. The steel grid vault is formed by 3.125 x 3.125 m
(appr.10 x 10 ft) cells, from which is suspended by frog fingers the glass vault beneath. The
glass panes are approximately 3.1 x 1.5 m and are joined with silicone. It is the largest
suspended glass shell in existence today.

Oguni Glass Station, Kumamoto Pref., 1993, Shoi Yoh Arch., is a small gas and service
station covered with a unique glass canopy suspended from arched concrete frames. The
thin glass membrane of glass plates with an inlayed layer of perforated aluminum sheet
comes alive with sparkling brilliance when the sun shines through it.

The 100-m span tied arch Japan Bridge in Paris (1993, Kisho Kurokawa) consists of the two
main inward leaning tubular steel arches, the walkway of triangular precast concrete panels
covered by a curved glass enclosure, and the support of the arched spatial cable-strut
network. The walkway and glass enclosure are suspended from the arches. The lateral arch
thrust is taken by the cable-strut network at the base. Torsion due to lateral loads is efficiently
resisted by the triangular cross-section of the bridge (i.e. torsion box).

Kempinski Hotel, Munich,

Germany, 1997, H. Jahn/Schlaich:
the elegance and lightness of the the
40-m (135-ft) span glass and steel
lattice roof is articulated through the
transparency of roof skin and the
almost non-existence of the diagonal
arches which are cable- supported
by a single post at their
intersection at center span. This
new technology features construction
with its own aesthetics reflecting a
play between artistic, architectural
mathematical, and engineering
worlds. The depth of the box arches
is reduced by the central
compression strut (flying column)
carried by the suspended tension
rods. The arches, in turn, are
supported by tubular trusses on each
side, which separate the roof from
the buildings.

The Munich Airport Business Center, Munich, Germany, 1997, Helmut Jahn Arch.
Ove Arup Eng.: also is an open public atrium as transition between building blocks or
walled boundaries to form a square which is covered by 6 arch-supported membrane
leaves. In other words, a transparent roof is carried by spatial triangular column
frames. Here a minimum of structure gives a strong identity to space.

The Satolas Airport TGV Train Station, Lyons, France (1995, Santiago Calatrava) consists of the big entrance
hall and the long naves. The 40 m high (131-ft), 100 m wide, 120 m long entrance hall appears like a huge
sculpture reminding us of a bird or butterfly that has a triangular plan with asymmetrical cantilevers. Here, the
central spine is a 90-m (295-ft) span 3-dimensional arched torsion ring steel truss with a variable triangular
cross-section where the two tubular bottom chord arches are anchored in immense single-fluted concrete
thrust blocks or buttresses (one in front and two at the buildings rear) that look like animated. Steel ribs
laterally brace the huge curtain wall box columns, which also carry most of the cantilever wing weight. The
columns, in turn, rest on massive concrete arches on each side, which carry most of the building weight. The
bird consist of 1300 tons of steel resting on the two concrete arches. The heavy closely set black steel
members seem over structured because of the density of the layout. The oversized members obscure the
relationship between the structure of the roof and the support of the glazing.

The long naves over the 3-bay track level are covered by 53-m (174-ft) wide lamella vaults of slender ribs
on a c. 9-m (30-ft) structural bay. Each of the three vault segments rests on the apex of two triangular
concrete supports (i.e. the side walls are rows of multi-faceted V- shaped concrete columns). The middle
tracks are for through trains that move over 300 km/h requiring careful calculations of shock waves. The
thrust of the vault at the middle segment is released by the box at the core, i.e. the triangular supports at the
middle part of the vault are tied together at lower level creating an enclosed box tunnel at the core of the
station.
The lattice like barrel vaults can also be visualized as diagonally intersecting two-way arches, or almost
like a triangular folded plate membrane with a maximum of material removed, leaving only folds. The roof
panels are either glazed (clear), opaque (concrete panels) or left open, creating defused light and mystical
spatial qualities. The wings are clad in reflected aluminum. The long naves represent a spectacular vaulted
space, airy, translucent, with an effortless organic fluidity and lightness.

How opposite in spirit is the delicate roof structure of the Lille Euro Station, Lille,
France (1994, Jean-Marie Duthilleul/ Peter Rice) consists of two asymmetrical
transverse slender tubular steel arches (27 cm or 10.75-in dia., set at about 12 m
or 40 ft on center) braced against buckling by deceitfully disorganized ties and
rods; this graceful and light structure, in harmony with the intimate space, was not
supposed to look right. A series of slender tubes are supported on arches which, in
turn, carry the approximately 1.8 m (6-ft) deep longitudinal cable trusses that
support the undulating metal roof. The support structure allowed the gently curved
roof almost to float or to free it from its support, emphasizing the quality of light.

GLASS STRUCTURES

The next topic addresses briefly glass-skin structures, or glass as a structural

material, where many of them are tension supported. Here the tensile glazing
support structure becomes part of the glass skin; the traditional nonstructural
members of glass and sash become structural. Special, non-conventional details
are used as based on forging, casting, and machining steel. The glass weight is
transferred across star-shaped (e.g. H-, or X-shaped) castings to vertical
tension rods or each panel is hung directly from the next panel above.
Vertical or horizontal cable-truss systems give lateral support to the glass
wall. The glass panels are glued together with silicone, which makes them
quite rigid so that racking movement is allowed in the sliding of the bolt
connections to the star-shaped castings. Some typical examples are:

Shopping Center, Dalian, China

Xinghai Square shopping mall, Dalian

Museum of Science and Technology, Parc de

la Villette, Paris (1986), Fainsilber/Rice).

three monumental greenhouses equivalent

to a 10-story building that are attached to
the south side of the museum

The development of suspended glass skins has

been significantly influenced by the glass walls for
the three monumental greenhouses equivalent to a
10-story building that are attached to the south side
of the Museum of Science and Technology, Parc
de la Villette, Paris (1986, Fainsilber/Rice). The
tower like structures are about 32 m wide by 32 m
high and 15 m deep. They capture and store heat
for the museum. The glass wall is subdivided into 16
approximately 8-m square (27-ft) modules, which
form the basis for the primary stainless steel tubular
frame which is laterally supported against wind by
cable trusses. Each of the 8-m (27-ft) square
modules consists of sixteen 2-m square glass
sheets laterally supported by a secondary system of
horizontal cable beams (tension mullions), which are
stabilized by the glass. The glass panels are
suspended from the main frame. They are
attached to each other with clear silicone sealant
and are joined at the corners by a molded steel fixing
that allows movement and reduces stress
concentrations. The glass weight is transferred in
tension from the lower to the upper panels and is
hung from the main frame beam by prestressed
spring devices that act as shock absorbers and
allow readjustment in case of unusual loading.

The composition and materials of the massive skeletal support structure for the glass houses in the Parc AndreCitroen, Paris (1992, Patrick Berger/ Peter Rice) remind one of the past in contrast to the language of the minimal
glass walls. The 15-m high portal frames are cladded in wood and stone (spaced at 15 m) and are connected by
edge beams at the roof level. The glass walls seem to be independent of the internal support structure and are
suspended from the top edge beam by spring connections as in the Museum of Science, La Villette. The
connections act as solid support under normal loads but as shock absorbers under shock (over) loads to prevent
accidental damage to the glass. The glass walls are laterally supported by the primary vertical cable trusses
adjacent to the steel columns (which also provide the connection to the building skeleton) and the secondary
horizontal lens-shaped cable beams with a central spine compression member that resists the tension in the
cables. Vertical cables resist the buckling of the horizontal trusses vertically..

An extraordinary complex spatial steel

framework supports the glass skin of
the 22-m (71-ft) high, 35 x 35 m (115 x
115 ft) Pyramid at the Louvre in Paris
(1989, I.M. Pei/ Roger Nicolet). Here,
stainless steel bowstring trusses form
a two-way diagrid structure on each
plane of the structure. In other words,
sixteen crossed beams of different
lengths are placed parallel to the
diagonal edges. By extending the truss
struts, the aluminum mullion frame is
supported. To prevent the outward
thrust of the pyramid and to stabilize
and stiffen the shape, the four faces are
tied together by 16 horizontal counter
cables (i.e. belts) in a third layer
thereby bracing and stressing the
diamond-shape network. In their search
for visual lightness the designers
developed a difficult layout of structure,
which reflects a celebration of structural
complexity and still achieving the goal of
transparency and an almost immaterial
lightness with its thin member fabric.

NEW DIMENSIONS OF

STRUCTURES

As conclusion I like to present three cases that represent truly the new dimension of structures.
With the elliptical glass atrium hall of the Tokyo International Forum, (1997), Rafael Vinoly
together with the structural engineer Kunio Watanabe express true structural originality. The
unique 208-m long roof structure that is about 31.7 m wide, resembles an exposed ship hall
or prehistoric structure which floats 60 m above the ground and together with the suspended
lightweight ramps and bridges reflects an almost medieval cathedral like impression.

The main span of the roof structure which is about of 12-m depth at mid-span, consists of a pair of 1.2- m
tubular inclined steel arches that span 124 m between the columns and curve up in half-arches in the
cantilever portion. A series of 16 tension rods inversely curved to the compression arches complete the
beam action. The layout of the compression arches and tension rods that follow directly the bending
moment diagram under gravity load action of a beam with double cantilevers, are separated by 56
curved steel arch-ribs which also support the roof beams. The glass walls are supported laterally by 2.6-m
deep free-standing vertical cable trusses which also act as tie-downs for the spatial roof truss.

The parabolic spatial roof arch

structure with its 42-m cantilevers
is supported on only two
monumental conical concrete-filled
steel pipe columns spaced at 124
m. The columns taper from a
maximum width of 4.5 m at roughly
2/3 of their height to 1.3 m at their
bases and capitals, and they are
tied at the 4th and 7th floors into
the structure for reasons of lateral
stability.

As impressive, possibly more heroic is the TGV Station,

Paris-Roissy (1994, Paul Andreu/ Peter Rice). Here, the roof
is freed (separated) from the structural support, it seems to
float above the walls - they never touch. It consists of
parallel crescent-shaped transverse trusses (48 m or 156ft span, 4 to 7 m or 13 to 23 ft deep) of triangular crosssection. The two 36 cm or 14-in. dia. bottom chords form an
arched ladder where the members merge at the ends (i.e.
lens-shape) and are connected by the diagonal ties and
slender vertical tubular web members to the horizontal solid
rods of the top chord which are prestressed to keep them in
tension. The trusses are hanging at the top chords near
the center-span from asymmetrical tree columns on
concrete pylons in the longitudinal direction. The truss
ends are pulled down by prestressed vertical tension
rods to control truss movement. The concrete pylons are
located between the trusses so that the bottom chords seem
unsupported. A further confusion is caused by the heavy
suspended arch and the thin horizontal tie, which
should be the other way around according to
conventional thinking, but the truss is not simply
supported at the ends as the form suggests. The main
trusses support longitudinal triangular steel trusses which, in
turn, carry the orthogonal steel grillage with glass panels.

The glass wall is laterally

supported by vertical
tubular cantilever masts
with cantilever arms and
are spaced at 4.75 m; the
glass panels are hung
from the cantilever arms.
The masts are as much as
17 m high and are braced
by pretensioned cables
against twisting. The
building column grid is
offset from the trusses
and vertical tension rods
to avoid the impression
that the roof is hanging or
the masts carry the roof.

I like to conclude my presentation with La Grande

Arche, Paris (1989, Johan Otto von Sprechelsen/
Peter Rice for the canopy) where the architecture
masterfully interweaves the spontaneity of the
moment and technology as reflected by the
tensile roof and elevator tower, with the
symbolism of the giant arch, a modern version
of the Arc de Triomph.
La Grande Arche is a giant nearly 110 m hollow
cube. The 35-story side buildings are bridged by 3story frame beams at the top. The primary structure
of each of the about 18-m wide side buildings
consists of four post-tensioned concrete megaframes tied together every seven floors and
stabilized by diagonal walls at the corners thereby
forming nearly 21 meter squares in elevation. The
frames and walls rest on neoprene cushions, the
only movement joints, on top of huge caissons.

The floating, tensile textile membrane over

the base reflects the lightness and
spontaneity of the cloud and contrasts the
perfect geometry of the giant cube thereby
introducing a human scale besides providing
shelter and improving wind conditions. The
complex cloud structure consists of
diagonally cross-braced parallel lensshaped cable beams prestressed against
free-form edge cables. The translucent fabric
membrane is stressed against the underside
of the cable beams and also supported by
small flying struts at the center of the meshes.
The composite prestressed structure is
suspended from the walls of the cube.
The free-standing nearly 92-m (300-ft) high
cable-braced steel lattice elevator tower is
anchored laterally to the building with
horizontal guyed columns.

The architecture clearly demonstrates that there can be

harmony between the preservation of the past and the
inventions of the present, and that they do not necessarily
represent opposite positions.