Professional Documents
Culture Documents
STRIUCTURE SYSTEMS
BEAMS
including SAP2000
Prof. Wolfgang Schueller
Axial StructureSystems
Beams
Frames
Arches
Cable-supported Structures
SURFACE STRUCTURES
SPACE FRAMES
LATERAL STABILITY OF STRUCTURES
L I NE E L E M E NT S
AXIAL STRUCTURE
SYSTEMS
TENSILE MEMBERS
COMPRESSIVE
MEMBERS
BEAMS
FLEXURAL STRUCTURE
SYSTEMS
BEAM-COLUMN
MEMBERS
FRAMES
S UR F A CE E L E M E NT S
TENSILE MEMBRANES
SOFT SHELLS
MEMBRANE FORCES
PLATES
SHELLS
RIGID SHELLS
presented in a
casual fashion
Berlin
stationary tower
cranes vs.
mobile cranes
TU Munich, Germany
Auditorium
Maximum, TU
Munich, 1994, Rudolf
Wienands
Atrium, Germanisches
Museum, Nuremberg,
Germany, 1993,
me di um Arch.
Cologne/Bonn Airport, Germany, 2000, Helmut Jahn Arch., Ove Arup USA Struct. Eng.
Marie-Elisabeth-Lders-Steg, Berlin,
2003, Axel Schultes Arch
FM Constructive system,
Elmag plant, Lissone,
Milano, 1964, Angelo
Mangiarotti Arch
Philharmonie
Berlin, 1963,
Hans
Scharoun
Arch, Werner
Koepcke
Struct. Eng.
Modern Art
Museum, Fort
Worth, TX, 2002,
Tadao Ando Arch,
Thornton Tomasetti
Struct. Eng
Auditorium Parco
della Musica, Rom,
Italy, 2002, Renzo
Piano Arch
London Aquatic
Center, 2012,
Zaha Hadid
Arch, Arup
Struct. Eng.
Residence, Aspen,
Colorado, 2004,
Voorsanger & Assoc.,
Weidlinger Struct. Eng.
Barajas Airport,
0Rogers, Anthony
Hunt Associates
(main structure),
Arup (main faade)
Steel Tree
House, Tahoe
Donner, 2008,
Joel Sherman
Arch
Fallingwater, Pittsburgh,
1937, Frank Llyod Wrigh Arch,
Mendel Glickman and William
Wesley Peters staff engineers
Rutgers
Business
School,
Piscataway
Township, New
Jersey, USA,
2013, TEN Arch,
WSP Cantor
Seinuk Struct.
Eng
VitraHaus, Vitra
Campus, Weil am
Rhein, Germany, 2009,
Herzog & De Meuron
Arch, ZPF Struct Eng
Veteran's Memorial
Coliseum, New Haven
Connecticut, 1972, Kevin
Roche Arch
Tokyo International Forum, 1997, Rafael Vinoly Arch, Kunio Watanabe Struct. Eng
Maxxi, the new museum of contemporary art, Rome, Italy, Zaha Hadid, 2009
MAXXI National Museum of XXI Century Arts, Rom, Italy, 2009, Zaha Hadid
Arch, Anthony Hunts Struct. Eng.
School of Art and Art History, Universi Guy Nordenson Struct Eng
ty of Iowa, Ames, 2006, Steven Holl Arch,
William J. Clinton Presidential Center, Little Rock, AR, 2004, Polshek Partnership
Guthrie Theatre, Minneapolis, 2006, Jean Nouvel Arch, Ericksen & Roed Struct. Eng.
Hirshorn Museum,
Washington, 1974,
Gordon Bunshaft/ SOM
Beinecke Rare
Book &
Manuscript
Library, Yale
University, 1963,
Gordon Bunshaft/
SOM
Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library, Yale University, 1963, Gordon Bunshaft/ SOM
La Grande Arche, Paris, 1989, Johan Otto von Sprechelsen/ Peter Rice for the canopy
Beams constitute
FLEXURAL SYSTEMS.
It is apparent that loads cause a beam to deflect. External loads initiate the
internal forces: shear and moment (disregarding axial forces and torsion),
deflection must be directly dependent on shear and moment.
Typical beams are of the shallow type where deflection is generally
controlled by moments. In contrast, the deflection of deep beams is
governed by shear.
examples of member
cross-sections
REBARS
TABLE B.3
Nominal Dimensions
Diameter
in
mm
Bar Sizea (SI)b
Cross-Sect.
Area
in2
mm2
Weight Mass
lbs/ft
kg/m
#3
#10
0.375
9.5
0.11
71
0.376
0.560
#4
#13
0.500 12.7
0.20
129
0.668
0.944
#5
#16
0.625 15.9
0.31
199
1.043
1.552
#6
#19
0.750 19.1
0.44
284
1.502
2.235
#7
#22
0.875 22.2
0.60
387
2.044
3.042
#8
#25
1.000 25.4
0.79
510
2.670
3.973
#9
#29
1.128 28.7
1.00
645
3.400
5.060
#10
#32
1.270 32.3
1.27
819
4.303
6.404
#11
#36
1.410 35.8
1.56
1006
5.313
7.907
#14
#43
1.693 43.0
2.25
1452
7.650 11.380
#18
#57
2.257 57.3
4.00
2581
13.600 20.240
TABLE B.2
Typical allowable stresses of common materials for preliminary design
purposes
Approximate Allowable Stresses
Material
STEEL
(carbon),
A36
ksi (MPa)
ALUMINUM
ALLOY
6061-T6
ksi (MPa)
CONCRETE
4000 psi
(28 MPa)
WOOD
(small
sections)
psi (MPa)
CLAY
MASONRY
f 'm = 2000
psi
psi (MPa)
SOIL
Compres
s.
Stresses,
Fc
Tension
Stresses,
Ft
Bending
Stresses,
Fb
Shear
Stresses,
Fv
Bearing
Stresses,
Fcp
0.6Fy
22 (150)
0.6Fy
22 (150)
0.66Fy
24 (165)
0.4Fy
14.5 (100)
0.66Fy
24 (165)
0.6Fy
21 (150)
0.6Fy
21 (150)
0.6Fy
21 (150)
circ. tubes:
24 (165)
12 (83)
21 (150)
0.25 f 'c
1000 (7.0)
1.6(f 'c)0.5
101 (0.7)
compress.
0.45 f 'c
1800
(12.0)
1.1(f 'c)0.5
70 (0.5)
0.3 f 'c
1200 (8.0)
1400
(10.0)
600 (4.1)
1200 (8.3)
160 (1.1)
500 (3.4)
0.2f 'm
400 (2.8)
28 (0.2)
compress.
0.33 f 'm
660 (4.5)
23 (0.16)
0.25f 'm
500 (3.4)
Compress.
St. N/mm2
(MPa)
Tensile Stress
N/mm2
(MPa)
Flexural Str.
N/mm2
(MPa)
Shear Stress
N/mm2
(MPa)
150
150
150
100
Fy = 360
0.7
12
0.5
Masonry
0.2
0.2
Wood
10
Dead loads
Live loads
Snow loads
Wind loads
kN/m2
kN/m2
kN/m2
kN/m2
Floors
4.00
3.00
Roofs
2.00
1.00
1.00
Walls
1.00
The
BEHAVIOR of BEAMS
FLEXURAL SYSTEMS: shallow beams, deep beams
BEAM TYPES
LIVE LOAD ARRANGEMENT
EFFECT of SPAN
DESIGN of BEAMS
steel
concrete
BEHAVIOR of BEAMS
Beams, generally, must be checked for the primary structural
determinants of bending, shear, deflection, possibly load effects of
bearing, and lateral stability.
Usually
short beams
medium-span
beams
On the other hand, with decrease of span or increase of beam depth (i.e.
increase of depth-to-span ratio), the effect of shear must be taken into
account, which is a function of the span (L) and primarily dependent on
the cross-sectional area of the beam (A). Deflections in the elastic range
are independent of material strength and are only a function of the
stiffness EI, while shear and bending are dependent on the material
strength.
The direction, location, and nature of the loads as well as the member
shape and curvature determine how the beam will respond to force
action.
In this context it is assumed that the beam material obeys Hookes law
and that for shallow beams a linear distribution of stresses across the
member depth holds true.
Shallow beams
vs deep beams
Wall beams
MOMENT SHAPE
For general loading conditions, it is extremely helpful to derive the shape of the
moment diagram by using the funicular cable analogy.
The single cable must adjust its suspended form to the respective transverse
loads so that it can respond in tension. Under single loads, for example, it takes the
shape of a string or funicular polygon, whereas under distributed loading, the polygon
changes to a curve and, depending on the type of loading, takes familiar geometrical
forms, such as a second- or third-degree parabola. For a simple cable, the cable sag at
any point is directly proportional to the moment diagram or an equivalent beam on the
horizontal projection carrying the same load. In a rigid beam, the moments are resisted
by bending stiffness, while a flexible cable uses its geometry to resist rotation in pure
tension.
The various cases in the figure demonstrate how helpful it is to visualize the
deflected shape of the cable (i.e. cable profile) as the shape of the moment
diagram.
The effect of overhang, fixity, or continuity can easily be taken into account by lifting up
the respective end of the moment diagram.
SHALLOW BEAMS
The general form of the flexure formula: fb = Mc / I = M/S
Where I is defined as Moment of Inertia, a section that measures the size and
"spread-outness" of a section with respect to an axis.
Tables for standard steel and timber sections list two values for moment of
inertia
A strong axis value called Ixx, for the section bending in its strongest
orientation.
A weak axis value called Iyy, for the section bending in its weakest
orientation.
The general definition of section modulus: S = I/c
Where c is the distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fiber of the
section.
Section modulus is also defined in terms of strong axis and weak axis
properties: Sxx = Ixx / cxx , Syy = Iyy / cyy
shallow beam
SHEAR IN BEAMS
Shear causes a racking deformation, inducing diagonal tension and compression on mutually
perpendicular axes.
Shear failure in beams may manifest itself in several forms
Diagonal cracking (concrete).
Diagonal buckling (thin plates in steel beams).
Horizontal cracking (timber).
In beams, the shearing stresses are maximum at the neutral axis because this is where the
tension and compression resultants of the unbalanced moment create the greatest horizontal
sliding action.
Since maximum bending stresses occur at the extreme edge of a beam section while
maximum shear stresses occur at the neutral axis, shear and bending stresses can be
considered separately in design. They are uncoupled.
Deep concrete
beams
simple beams
cantilever beams
overhanging beams
hinge-connected cantilever beams
fixed-end beams
continuous beams
simple folded and curved beams
A.
SIMPLE BEAMS
B.
C.
F.
HINGE-CONNECTED BEAMS
G
FIXED BEAMS
BEAM TYPES
MEMBER ORIENTATION
Is defined by local coordinate system
DESIGN
OVERHANGING BEAMS
Usually, cantilever beams are natural extensions of beams; in other words, they are
formed by adding to the simple beam a cantilever at one end or both ends, which
has a beneficial effect since the cantilever deflection counteracts the field deflection,
or the cantilever loads tend to lift up the beam loads. The beam is said to be of
double curvature, hence it has positive and negative moments. It is obvious that at
the point of contraflexure or the inflection point (where the moment changes signs)
the moment must be zero.
For demonstration purposes, a symmetrical overhanging beam with double
cantilevers of 0.35L span has been chosen. The negative cantilever moments at
each support are equal to
-Ms = w(.35L)0.35L/2 wL2/16 = M/2
The cantilever moments must decrease in a parabolic shape, in response to the
uniform load, to a maximum value at midspan because of symmetry of beam
geometry and load arrangement. We can visualize the moment diagram for the
simple beam to be lifted up to the top of the support moments that are caused by
the loads on the cantilever portion (i.e. moment diagrams by parts in contrast to
composite M-diagrams). Therefore, the maximum field moment, Mf , must be
equal to the simple beam moment, M, reduced by the support moment Ms.
+Mf = M Ms = wL2/8 wL2/16 = wL2/16 = M/2
In general, with increase of span, the simply supported beam concept becomes
less efficient because of the rapid increase in moment and deflection that is
increase in dead weight. The magnitude of the bending stresses is very much
reduced by the cantilever type of construction as the graphical analysis
demonstrates. The maximum moment in the symmetrical double cantilever beam
is only 17% of that for the simple beam case for the given arrangement of supports
and loading! Often this arrangement is used to achieve a minimal beam depth for
conditions where the live load, in comparison to the dead load, is small so that the
effect of live load arrangement becomes less critical. As the cantilever spans
increase, the cantilever moments increase, and the field moment between the
supports decreases. When the beam is cantilevered by one-half of the span, the
field moment at midspan is zero because of symmetry and the beam can be
visualized as consisting of two double-cantilever beams. For this condition the
maximum moment is equal to that of a simple span beam.
A powerful design concept is demonstrated by the two balanced, double-cantilever
structures carrying a simply supported beam; this balanced cantilever beam
concept is often used in bridge construction. It was applied for the first time on
large scale to the 1708-ft span Firth of Forth Rail Bridge in Scotland, 1890. The
form of the balancing double-cantilever support structures is in direct response to
the force flow intensity, in other words, the shape of the trusses conforms to that
of the moment diagram.
DOUBLE CANTILEVER
STRUCTURES
Firth of Forth Bridge (1708 ft), Scotland, 1890, John Fowler and Benjamin Baker
Nelson Mandela Bay Stadium, Port Elizabeth, South Africa, 2009, GMP Architect
(Berlin), Schlaich Bergermann Struct. Eng.
The shear is constant between single loads and translates vertically at the loads.
The shear due to a uniform load varies linearly (i.e. first-degree curve).
The shear due to a triangular load varies parabolically (i.e. second-degree curve).
The moment varies linearly between the single loads (i.e. first-degree curve).
The moment due to a uniform load varies parabolically (i.e. second-degree curve).
The moment due to a triangular load represents a cubic parabola (i.e. third degree curve).
LOAD TYPES
LOAD ARRANGEMENT
PATTERN LOADING
D, L1
L2
L3
L4
COMB1 (D + L1)
COMB2 (D + L2)
COMB3 (D + L3)
COMB4 (D + L4)
EFFECT OF SPAN
A.
SIMPLE BEAMS
B.
C.
F.
HINGE-CONNECTED BEAMS
G
FIXED BEAMS
1 k/ft
A.
1 k/ft
1 k/ft
1 k/ft
1 k/ft
B.
I.
C.
12 kft
D.
12 kft
1 k/ft
J.
18 kft
1 k/ft
K.
12 k
1 kft/ft
E.
F.
6k
2 k/ft
4k
G.
H.
6k
4k
4k
L.
M.
2 k/ft
2 k/ ft
0.5 k/ft
1.5k/ft
N.
O.
P = 97.87 k
M = 20.84 ft-k
Mt = 10 ft-k
- -2.5
2.5ftft-k
Mt
2.5
2.5ft-k
ft-k
Tapered beams
W8 x 10
W14 x 30
8'
a.
b.
c.
8'
W8 x 10
8'
W16 x 31
12'
W8 x 10
8'
12'
W14 x 30
16'
15.88"
7.89"
7.99"
7.99"/2
4"
13.84"
7.89"
5.95"
5.95"/2
2.98"
DESIGN of BEAMS
In steel design, for the condition where a given member stress is
checked that is the member input is known just assign the section to the
member. But, when the member has to be designed the Automatic Steel
Selection Feature in SAP will pick up the most economical member
available from a list that has been pre-selected, i.e. for the conditions
where the members are not known and an efficient solution must be
found, more sections for the selection process have to be stored.
The design results are based on default SAP2000 assuming, that the
frame elements (i.e. beams and columns) are laterally unsupported for
their full length. But beams are generally laterally supported by the floor
structure. Therefore assume an unsupported length of say Lb = 2 ft for
preliminary design purposes, or when in doubt, take the spacing
between the filler beams (e.g. as 33% of the actual beam span). For
example, for a beam span of L = 24 ft assume an unbraced length ratio
about the minor axis of Lb/L = 2 ft/ 24 ft = 0.083 or say of 0.1, that is
taking the minor direction unbraced length as 10% of the actual span
length.
The stress ratios in SAP represent the DEMAND/CAPACITY ratios as
reflected by the various colors ranging from gray to red.
18"
4"
be = 63
a.
bw = 10
bw = 10
b.
be
d = 14.5"
h = 18"
d = 15.5"
4"
bw = 10
a.
b.
d = 15.5"
h = 18"
d = 14.5"
4"
bw = 10
a.
NEGATIVE MOMENT @ SUPPORT
b.
POSITIVE MOMENT @ MID-SPAN
BM18x30
BM16x28
BM14x24
BM 14 x 24 in
BM 14 x 20 in
TBM 24 in deep
wD = 2 k/ft
wL= 1.0 k/ft
Ps
wp
30"
Ps cos
e = 12"
Ps
L = 32'
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
BEAM Load balancing
18"
45 deg.
wS/2
M
wS/3
wS/2
(wS/3)(3 - (s/L)2)/2
GI
3 Sp @ 8' = 24'
25'
BM
BM
BM
BM
GI
Beam design: The beam carries the following uniform load assuming the beam
weight included in the floor dead load.
w = wD + wL = 8(0.080) + 8(0.080)0.96 = 0.64 + 0.61 = 1.25 k/ft
The maximum moment is, Mmax = wL2/8 = 1.25(25)2/8 = 97.66 ft-k
The required section modulus is,
Sx = Mx/Fb = Mx/0.66Fy = 97.66(12)/0.66(36) = 49.32 in.3
Try W18x35, Sx = 57.6 in.3, Ix = 510 in.4
(W460 x 52)
The maximum live load deflection is within the allowable limits as shown,
L = 5wL4/(384EI) = 5(0.61/12)(25 x 12)4/ (384(29000)510) = 0.36 in.
L/360 = 25(12)/360 = 0.83 in.
Girder design:
The girder weight is for this preliminary design approach ignored, it will have almost
no effect upon the design of the beam. The girder must support the following reaction
forces of the beams,
P = [0.080 + 0.080(0.8)](25 x 8) = 28.80 k
The maximum moment is, Mmax = PL/3 = 28.80(24)/3 = 230.40 ft-k
The required section modulus is,
Sx = Mx/0.66Fy = 230.40(12)/0.66(36) = 116.36 in.3
Try W18 x 71, Sx = 131 in.3
Notice, SAP uses a reduction factor of 0.96 therefore yielding a W18 x 76.
LOAD MODELING
G1
G1
G4
BM5
BM5
BM5
BM5
21'
3 Sp @ 7' = 21'
BM2
BM4
3 Sp @ 7' = 21'
BM1
BM3
21'
BM5
BM5
G3
BM1
BM3
BM2
BM1
BM1
BM2
BM2
G2
8'
8'
24'
8'
20'
In concrete design you must define the frame section as a beam or column! Beams are not
designed for axial forces. Treat one-way slabs as shallow, one-foot wide beam strips.
Define material and the concrete section (e.g. rectangular, T-section).
For the design of beams enter the top and bottom concrete cover in the text edit boxes. If
you want to specify top and bottom longitudinal steel, enter reinforcement area for the section
in the appropriate text edit box, otherwise leave values of zero for SAP2000 to calculate
automatically the amount of reinforcing required.
First the load cases must be defined such as, D (dead load), L1 (live load 1), L2 (live
load 2), L3 (live load 3), etc. according to the number of live load arrangements.
Click Define, then Analysis Cases and the load cases occur, highlight load case and click
Modify/Show Case to check whether the load case is OK. In case of load factor design
change the scale factor with the load factor (e.g. 1.2 D, 1.6 L).
Then define load combinations such as for a continuous beam for D + L: go to
combinations and click Add New Combo button and define such as COMB1 (D + L1),
COMB2 (D + L2), COMB3 (D + L3), etc. Change Scale Factor for combined load action
such as 0.75(D + L + W or E)
Check the strength reduction factors in Options/Preferences.
Assign C L E A R M E M B E R LE N G T H S, select member (click on member)
then click on Assign, then Frame, then End Offsets: (total beam length -clear span, or
support width of girder, for example)/2, then Offset Lengths
Click Analysis and check results
Click Design, then Concrete Frame Design then Select Design Combos and select combos,
then click Start Design/Check of Structure. Start Design/ Check of Structure button, then
select member, then right click, then choose ReDesign button, then check under Element
Type: NonSway (for beams
and laterally braced columns), or Sway Ordinary (for ordinary frames, laterally non braced
columns). Click on member, then click right button of the mouse to obtain the Concrete
Design Information, then highlight the critical location (e.g. support and center-span for
longitudinal reinforcing, or support for shear reinforcing), then click Details to obtain the
maximum moment and shear reinforcement areas which are displayed for the governing
design combination by default
EXAMPLE 6.4:
A 6-story concrete frame office building consists of 30 x 34-ft (9.14 x 13.11-m) bays
with the floor framing shown in Fig. 6.13 The 6.5-in (165-mm) concrete slab
supports 5 psf (0.24 kPa) for ceiling and floor finish, a partition of 20 psf (0.96 kPa),
as well as a live load of 80 psf (3.83 kPa). The girders are 24 in (610 mm) high and
16 in wide (406 mm), whereas the beams have the same depth but are 12 in (305
mm) wide. Investigate a typical interior beam. The beam dead load is 1.81 klf (26.41
kN/m) and the reduced live load is 0.85 klf (12.40 kN/m).
Use a concrete strength of fc' = 4000 psi (28 MPa ), fy = fys = 60 ksi (414 MPa ) and
a concrete cover of 2.5 in.(63.5 mm).
1. Treat the typical interior span of the continuous beam as a fixed beam using
the net span.
2. Model the intermediate floor beam (i.e. beam between column lines) as a
continuous three-span beam fixed at the exterior supports. Consider live load
arrangement.
3. Use the equivalent rigid-frame method by modeling the beam along the column
lines as a continuous three-span beam to be framed into 18 x 18-in. columns and
to form a continuous frame, where the ends of the 12-ft columns are assumed
fixed. Consider live load arrangement.
4. Model six structural bays to design the beams using ETABS and then export
the floor framing to SAFE to design the floor slab. . For this preliminary
investigation, establish live load patterns for the design of the intermediate
beams only, that is not for the beams along the column lines.
18"x18"
GI
16/24
15'
15'
34'
16/24
BM
12/24
BM
12/24
BM
12/24
GI
24"
6.5"
16"
34'
FIXED BEAM
1
A1
A1
A1
12'
12'
COMB1 = D + DS + L1
COMB2 = D + DS + L2
COMB3 = D + DS + L3
Ls
LL = L S = L
0.5P
0.06P
LL = 2LS
0.25P
0.5P
0.5P
0.44P
0.44P
0.25P
0.25P
0.25P
a.
0.5P
b.
0.06P
c.
d.
b.
a.
c.
d.