AP Chemistry Study Guide

Inter/Intramolecular bonding:
Strong
Ionic (Cation + Anion)
Covalent (Electronegativity)
Metallic (Fixed cation and delocalized electrons)
Hydrogen (HN; HO; HF)
VDW: Dipole-Dipole (Polar Dipoles)
Weak
VDW: London-Dispersion Forces (Nonpolar)
Structure of solids:
Ionic (Lattice)

Network Covalent

Amorphous

packing of cations
into spaces
high melting points

high melting point

since covalent bonds
must be broken

dont have sharp

melting points
formed due to

and low boiling points

conductive when
dissolved
hard but brittle

insoluble b/c of the

covalent bonds
poor electrical
conductor b/c no
mobile electrons

sudden cooling of
liquid
melt over range of
temperatures

Molecular Molecular solids are characterized by relatively strong intramolecular bonds

between the atoms that form the molecules and much weaker intermolecular bonds
between these molecules. Because the intermolecular bonds are relatively weak,
molecular solids are often soft substances with low melting points.
Metals:

- Delocalized electron create a sea of electrons between metallic cations

- Properties of metallic solids:
are solids at room temperature - sea of electrons provide stability
are ductile and malleable - sea of electrons forms crystal lattice structure, which
allows crystal lattice to slide

conduct electricity in the solid and liquid phase - sea of electrons are mobile and
conduct electricity

have high thermal conductivity - heat is carried through colliding sea of electrons
are shiny - sea of electrons absorb and emit light over a wide wavelength range
Alloys:
substitutional alloy when atoms of one metal are
substituted for atoms of another metal with a similar
atomic radius
- lower electrical and thermal conductivity because the
substituted molecules interrupt the flow of the sea of
electrons
- harder and stronger because its more difficult for a
plane of atoms to slide past each other
- resulting solid remains malleable, ductile, with
similar density
interstitial alloy the atomic radius of the solute

element must be less than about 60% of the atomic radius of the host metal
- metallic lattice
- decreased conductivity and increased strength
- Resulting solid is more rigid less malleable/ductile
Solubility:
Always soluble: alkali metal ions (Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+), NH4+, NO3, ClO3, ClO4,
C2H3O2
Generally soluble: (mnemonics)
Cl, Br, I
Soluble except Hg22+, Ag+, Pb2+ (HAP)
F
Soluble except Ca2+, Ba2+, Sr2+, Pb2+ , Mg2+ (CBS airs at PM)
2
SO4
Soluble except Pb2+, Ba2+, Sr2+, Ca2+ (PBS airs Cats)
Generally insoluble:
O2, OH
Insoluble except alkali metals, and NH4+
Ca2+, Ba2+, Sr2+ (CBS) somewhat soluble
2
3
2
CO3 , PO4 , S , SO32, C2O42, CrO42
Insoluble except alkali metals and NH4+
Strong Acids:
HCl hydrochloric acid
HBr hydrobromic acid
HI
hydroiodic acid
HNO3 nitric acid
H2SO4 sulfuric acid

HClO3 chloric acid

HIO4 periodic acid

Strong Bases:
Alkali/Alkali Earth Metals + OH
NH4OH = NH3
Enthalpy/Entropy/Gibbs:
In exothermic reactions heat energy
is transferred from the system to the
surroundings so the sign of H is
negative because energy is lost. The
energy of the products is less than
that of the reactants.
In endothermic reactions heat
energy is transferred from the
surroundings to the system so the
sign of H is positive because energy
is gained. The energy of the reactants
is less than that of the products.

HClO4 perchlorate acid

E = E(final) E(initial) = q + w
- E = energy
independent of the pathway
- state function (Hesss Law)
- q = heat
q is positive in endothermic reactions
q is negative in exothermic reactions
- w = work
w is negative if the system does work
w is positive if work is done on the system
- Both w and q are pathway dependent
Entropy:
- Tends towards disorder
- State function
2nd Law of Thermodynamics: Any spontaneous process increases disorder
Spontaneous = requires no external energy
Gibbs Free Energy:
- Amount of energy available for work
- State Function
H
S
G

+
always negative

negative at lower temperatures

+
+
negative at higher temperatures
+

never negative
Gasses/Gas Laws:
Ideal gas law: P V = n R T
Limitations
- works best with gasses at low pressures and high temperatures
- relies on Kinetic Molecular Gas Theory
Gaseous molecules have no volume

 Collisions between gaseous molecules are elastic (no energy is gained or lost)
Gaseous molecules have no attraction with one another
Average kinetic energy is related to the temperature of the molecules.
Boyles Law
P1V1 = P2V2

Charles Law
V1/T1 = V2/T2

Gay-Lussacs Law
P1/T1 = P2/T2

Avogadros Law
V1/n1 = V2/n2

Combined Gas Law

P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2
Oxidation/Reduction:
OIL RIG = Oxidation: electron is lost

Reduction: electron is gained

redox - where electrons are exchanged

remember that O will always have a charge of 2+ Voltage = + G and a spontaneous reaction
electrolysis - the breaking apart of molecules by the use of electricity
Rate:
rate1 = k[A]m[B]n Where m and n can only be determined experimentally

rate2 = k[A]m[B]n
Basic Kinetics:
Determined by slowest reaction
- requiring most activation energy
require this much energy to break and form bonds (KE)
Rate Laws on Graphs:
Disappearance and Appearance should be proportional
- ex. NO2 disappears at 2 mol/sec while O2 appears at a rate of 1 mole/sec

Nuclear Chemistry:
Alpha Decay
Alpha particle = helium-4 (top 4 bottom 2)
Two protons, two neutrons bound together
Low
energy and relatively heavy

Easily stopped by a piece of paper

Beta Decay
Beta particle = electron (top 0 bottom -1)
Higher energy but stopped with aluminum foil or skin

Gamma Decay
High frequency electromagnetic energy
Gamma symbol (top and bottom both 0)
Often when electrons transition from excited state to ground state
Energy can be released into visible or UV light, X rays, or Gamma rays
Can occur simultaneously with other reactions
Can penetrate very deep (dangerous)

E = mc2

Where mass and energy can be used interchangeably

- mass defect = difference between total mass of individual
nucleons and nucleus as a whole

Acids/Bases:

M1V1 = M2V2 Where 1 is acid and 2 is base

Arrhenius Theory:
Acids are substances that produce hydrogen ions in solution
Bases are substances that produce hydroxide ions in solution
Neutralization occurs when hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions react to produce water
Brnsted-Lowry Theory
An acid is a proton (hydrogen ion) donor
A base is a proton (hydrogen ion) acceptor
Hydroxide still base because they accept hydrogen ions
Conjugates
Strong [acid/base] > Weak conjugate
Weak [acid/base] > Strong conjugate
Lewis Theory
An acid is an electron pair acceptor
A base is an electron pair donor
Electrons come from hydrogen ion and bonds with other ions