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Name
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Golgi apparatus
Lysosomes
Structure
Two membranes.
Pores in the nuclear
envelope.
Contains chromosomes
and a dark and dense
area called the nucleolus.
A dense body within the
nucleus
Stacks of flattened,
membrane bound sacs.
Each sac is smaller than
the previous one.
Organelle enclosed by a
single membrane.
Digestive enzymes
inside.
Function
The DNA in
chromosomes contains
genes that control the
synthesis of proteins
Makes ribosomes.
Centrioles
Mitochondrion
Two membranes
Inner membrane folded
inward to form a fingerlike projection.
A series of
interconnected
membrane bound,
tubular sac.
A series of
interconnected
membrane bound,
flattened sac.
Ribosomes on the
surface.
Explain the rule of rough endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus in
protein transport within cells and including its role in formation of extracellular
enzymes.
In the beginning
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Eukaryotes
Prokaryotes
Larger cells
DNA is linear
Nucleus present DNA is inside nucleus
No cell wall (in animals), cellulose cell wall (in
plants) or chitin cell wall (in lungs)
Many organelles, mitochondria present
Large ribosomes
Explain the role of mitosis and the cell cycle for growth and asexual reproduction.
Phase
Interphase
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Main Features
Cell grows.
Chromosomes replicate
and condense.
Chromosomes continue
to condense.
Nuclear envelope breaks
down.
Nucleus disappears.
Spindles appear.
Centrioles move to
opposite poles.
Chromosomes line up in
the middle of the cell.
Spindle fibres attach to
the chromosomes.
Fibres attach at the
centromere.
Spindle fibres contract.
Fibres pull chromatids
apart with the
centromere leading.
Chromosomes
decondense.
Nucleolus reappears.
Nuclear envelope
reforms.
Sperm
Describe the process of fertilisation in mammals and flowering plants and explain
the importance of fertilisation in sexual reproduction.
Stage
Acrosome reaction
Description of events
Acrosome releases digestive enzymes when
sperm head meets the zona pellucida of
egg.
Enzymes digest a channel for sperm to
burrow through to the cell surface
membrane of egg cell.
Membranes fuse
Meiosis restarted
Fertilisation
Pollen lands on stigma. Absorbs water and break open, releasing three nuclei; two male nuclei
and a pollen tube nuclei.
The pollen tube nuclei begin to secrete digestive enzymes that create a channel to the embryo
sac.
When tube reaches the ovary, it grows through the micropyle (tiny hole in the ovule wall) and
into the embryo sac within the ovule.
In the embryo sac, the tube nucleus disintegrates and the tip of the pollen tube bursts, releasing
the two male nuclei.
The first male gamete fuses with female gamete nucleus and produces a diploid zygote (2n).
Second male gamete fuses with two polar nuclei producing a triploid primary endosperm nucleus
(3n).
The second fusion creates is for food for the embryo.
Explain the role of meiosis in the production of gametes and genetic variation
through recombination of alleles and genes including independent assortment
and crossing over.
Meiosis
Production of gametes (sex cells such as sperm and ovum) in animals; each gamete has half the
number of chromosomes (haploid number, 23 in humans) found in a body cell
To allow genetic variation to occur.
Genetic variation
1. Crossing over
During the first division of meiosis, pairs of chromosomes, known as homologous
chromosomes, line up and may swap part of their genetic material; the chromatids will twist,
break off and join the other chromosome.
2. Independent assortment
Since each of the 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes in humans line up either way round, its
highly likely for there to be different combinations when they finally separate.
Explain what is meant by the terms stem cell, pluripotency and totipotency and
discuss the way society uses scientific knowledge to make decisions about the
use of stem cells in medical therapies (e.g. regulatory authorities relating to
human embryo research, ability of stem cells to develop into specialised tissues,
potential sources of stem cells, who could benefit from the therapies, procedures
to obtain stem cells and their risks).
Stem cells
1. Undifferentiated (unspecialised) cells
2. Which keep dividing
3. And that can give rise to other cell types.
Totipotent stem cells
Can give rise to most cell types but not embryonic cells.
3.
Advantages
Easy to grow
Fused cells
Rejection risk
avoided if nucleus
taken from patient
Potential for treating
genetic disorders
Easy source of
pluripotent stem
cells.
Disadvantages
Possible rejection
Risk of cells
becoming cancerous
Difficult to extract
More difficult to
produce different
types
Risk of infection
when cells extracted
and received
Risk of infection
when cells received
Risk of stem cells
becoming
cancerous.
Cost money
Lots of storage
space.
Parkinsons disease progressive loss of nerve cells in the brain that are involved in
muscle control.
Multiple sclerosis the electrical insulating layer surrounding nerve cells breaks down.
Type 1 diabetes caused when cells in the pancreas produces less than the normal level
of insulin in response to a rise in blood glucose concentration.
Burns skin cells damaged so cannot be replaced.
Is it acceptable to fuse a human adult cell with a human egg cell to create a stem cell?
Is it acceptable for human embryos to be created for research? (embryos should have the
same human right, unmoral and unethical)
When do embryos become humans and have rights?
Explain how some phenotypes are affected by alleles at many loci as well as
environment and how this can rise to phenotypes that show continuous
variation.
Continuous variation
Height
Hair colour
Eye colour.
Discontinuous variation
Blood type
Gender
Genetic locus
Genotype gene codes for the enzyme tyrosinase which helps to make dark fur.
Environment enzyme only active when temperature drops below 31 degrees
Phenotype distinctive colouration of Siamese cat because only body extremities, such
as ears, drop below 31 degrees while rest of body is kept above 31 degrees
Height
Monoamine oxidase A