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EARTHQUAKE

An earthquake is a shaking of the ground caused by the sudden


breaking and movement of large sections (tectonic plates) of the
earth's rocky outermost crust. The edges of the tectonic plates are
marked by faults (or fractures). Most earthquakes occur along the
fault lines when the plates slide past each other or collide against each
other.

MEASURMENT OF EARTHQUAKE
There are two ways in which scientists quantify the size of
earthquakes: magnitude and intensity.
RICHTER SCALE
Magnitude is a measure of the amount of energy released during an
earthquake. The Richter magnitude scale (also Richter scale) assigns a
magnitude number to quantify the energy released by an earthquake.
The Richter scale is a base-10 logarithmic scale, which defines
magnitude as the logarithm of the ratio of the amplitude of the seismic
waves to an arbitrary, minor amplitude.
THE MERCALLI SCALE
Another way to measure the strength of an earthquake is to use the
Mercalli scale. Invented by Giuseppe Mercalli in 1902, this scale uses
the observations of the people who experienced the earthquake to
estimate its intensity.
The Mercalli scale isn't considered as scientific as the Richter scale,
though. Some witnesses of the earthquake might exaggerate just
how bad things were during the earthquake and you may not find
two witnesses who agree on what happened; everybody will say
something different. The amount of damage caused by the
earthquake may not accurately record how strong it was either

Fig: 1 Basic Figure of Earth core with waves and Seismograph

Fig: 2 The tectonic plates of the world were mapped in the second half of
the 20th century.

PLATE TECHTONICS
Plate tectonics is a scientific theory that describes the large-scale
motion of Earth's lithosphere. This theoretical model builds on the
concept of continental drift which was developed during the first few
decades of the 20th century. The geoscientific community accepted
the theory after the concepts of seafloor spreading were later
developed in the late 1950s and early 1960s.
The lithosphere, which is the rigid outermost shell of a planet (on
Earth, the crust and upper mantle), is broken up into tectonic plates.
On Earth, there are seven or eight major plates (depending on how
they are defined) and many minor plates. Where plates meet, their
relative motion determines the type of boundary; convergent,
divergent, or transform. Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountainbuilding, and oceanic trench formation occur along these plate
boundaries. The lateral relative movement of the plates typically
varies from zero to 100 mm annually.
Tectonic plates are able to move because the Earth's lithosphere has
greater strength than the underlying asthenosphere. Lateral density
variations in the mantle result in convection. Plate movement is
thought to be driven by a combination of the motion of the seafloor
away from the spreading ridge (due to variations in topography and
density of the crust, which result in differences in gravitational forces)
and drag, with downward suction, at the subduction zones. Another
explanation lies in the different forces generated by the rotation of
the globe and the tidal forces of the Sun and Moon. The relative
importance of each of these factors and their relationship to each
other is unclear, and still the subject of much debate.

TYPES OF EARTHQUAKE WAVES


Seismic Waves
Body Waves
P Waves
Waves

Surface Waves

S waves

Love Waves

Rayleigh

Earthquake shaking and damage is the result of three basic types of


elastic waves. Two of the three propagate within a body of rock. The
faster of these body waves is called the primary or P wave. Its motion
is the same as that of a sound wave in that, as it spreads out, it
alternately pushes (compresses) and pulls (dilates) the rock. These P
waves are able to travel through both solid rock, such as Granite
Mountains, and liquid material, such as volcanic magma and the water
of the oceans.

Fig: 3 P Waves

The slower wave through the body of rock is called the secondary or S
wave. As an S wave propagates, it shears the rock sideways at right
angles to the direction of travel. If a liquid is sheared sideways or
twisted, it will not spring back, hence S waves cannot propagate in the
liquid parts of the earth, such as oceans and lakes.

Fig: 4 S Waves

The actual speed of P and S seismic waves depends on the density and
elastic properties of the rocks and soil through which they pass. In
most earthquakes, the P waves are felt first. The effect is similar to a
sonic boom that bumps and rattles windows. Some seconds later, the
S waves arrive with their up-and-down and side-to-side motion,
shaking the ground surface vertically and horizontally. This is the wave
motion that is so damaging to structures.
The third general type of earthquake wave is called a surface wave,
reason being is that its motion is restricted to near the ground surface.
Such waves correspond to ripples of water that travel across a lake.
Surface waves in earthquakes can be divided into two types. The first
is called a Love wave. Its motion is essentially that of S waves that have
no vertical displacement; it moves the ground from side to side in a
horizontal plane but at right angles to the direction of propagation.
The horizontal shaking of Love waves is particularly damaging to the
foundations of structures.

Fig: 5 Love Waves

The second type of surface wave is known as a Rayleigh wave. Like


rolling ocean waves, Rayleigh waves wave move both vertically and
horizontally in a vertical plane pointed in the direction in which the
waves are travelling.

Fig: 6 Rayleigh Waves

Surface waves travel more slowly than body waves (P and S); and of
the two surface waves, Love waves generally travel faster than
Rayleigh waves. Love waves (do not propagate through water) can
effect surface water only insofar as the sides of lakes and ocean bays
pushing water sideways like the sides of a vibrating tank, whereas
Rayleigh waves, because of their vertical component of their motion
can affect the bodies of water such as lakes.
P and S waves have a characteristic which effects shaking: when they
move through layers of rock in the crust, they are reflected or
refracted at the interfaces between rock types. Whenever either wave
is refracted or reflected, some of the energy of one type is converted
to waves of the other type. A common example; a P wave travels
upwards and strikes the bottom of a layer of alluvium, part of its
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energy will pass upward through the alluvium as a P wave and part will
pass upward as the converted S-wave motion. Noting also that part of
the energy will also be reflected back downward as P and S waves.

BODY/PARTS OF EARTHQUAKE
FOCUS
The focus is also called the hypocenter of an earthquake. The vibrating
waves travel away from the focus of the earthquake in all directions.
The waves can be so powerful they will reach all parts of the Earth and
cause it to vibrate like a turning fork.
EPICENTRE
Directly above the focus on the Earth's surface is the earthquake
epicenter. Earthquake waves start at the focus and travel outward in
all directions. Earthquake waves do not originate at the epicenter.
MAGNITUDE
Earthquake size is a quantitative measure of the size of the
earthquake at its source. The Magnitude indicates the amount of
energy released at the source (or epicentre). The Richter Magnitude
Scale measures the amount of seismic energy released by an
earthquake.
INTENSITY
The severity of earthquake shaking is assessed using a descriptive
scale. The intensity of an earthquake at a particular locality indicates
the violence of earth motion produced there by the earthquake. It is
determined from reported effects of the tremor on human beings,
furniture, buildings, geological structure, etc. The Modified Mercalli
Intensity Scale is used to measure the intensity.

EFFECT OF EARTHQUAKE
MASONRY STRUCTURES
Masonry buildings are brittle structures and one of the most
vulnerable of the entire building stock under strong earthquake
shaking. Ground vibrations during earthquakes cause inertia forces at
locations of mass in the building. These forces travel through the roof
and walls to the foundation.
The walls are most vulnerable to damage caused by horizontal
forces due to earthquake. A wall topples down easily if pushed
horizontally at the top in a direction perpendicular to its plane (termed
weak direction), but offers much greater resistance if pushed along its
length (termed strong direction).
The ground shakes simultaneously in the vertical and two
horizontal directions during earthquakes. However, the horizontal
vibrations are the most damaging to normal masonry buildings.
Horizontal inertia force developed at the roof transfers to the walls
acting either in the weak or in the strong direction. If all the walls are
not tied together like a box, the walls loaded in their weak direction
tend to topple.
RCC STRUCTURES
A typical RC building is made of horizontal members (beams and slabs)
and vertical members (columns and walls), and supported by
foundations that rest on ground. The system comprising of RC
columns and connecting beams is called a RC Frame. The RC frame
participates in resisting the earthquake forces. Earthquake shaking
generates inertia forces in the building, which are proportional to the
building mass. Since most of the building mass is present at floor
levels, earthquake-induced inertia forces primarily develop at the
floor levels. These forces travel downwards - through slab and beams
to columns and walls, and then to the foundations from where they
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are dispersed to the ground. As inertia forces accumulate downwards


from the top of the building, the columns and walls at lower storeys
experience higher earthquake-induced forces

Fig: 8 Floor Bends with the Beam but

Fig: 9 Earthquake shaking reverses

Moves all columns at the level together

Tension & Compression in members.

NEPAL EARTHQUAKE
MAP/PHOTOS

Before

Fig: 10 Field
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After

Fig: 11 Map

Before

Before

Fig: 12 Bhaktapur Durbar Square

Fig: 13 Bastantapur Getty Omar Havana


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After

After

Before

Before

Fig: 14 Narayan Hiti Palace

Fig: 15 Dharahara Tower

After

After

The 2015 Nepal earthquake, also called the Gorkha earthquake


and Nepal Greater Earthquake occurred at 11:56 NST on 25 April,
killing at least 6,700 people and injuring more than twice as many as
of 1 May 2015 with a moment magnitude 7.9. Its epicenter lay in
Barpak village of Gorkha district and its hypocenter was at a depth of
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approximately 15 km. Some casualties have also been reported in the


adjoining areas of India, China, and Bangladesh.
A major aftershock of magnitude 6.7occurred on 26 April 2015
in the same region at 12:55 NST, with an epicenter located about
17 km south of Kodari, Nepal. The aftershock caused fresh avalanches
on Mount Everest and was felt in many places in northern India
including Kolkata, Siliguri, Jalpaiguri and Assam. The aftershock caused
a landslide on the Koshi Highway which blocked the section of the road
between Bhedetar and Mulghat.

INDIA SUPPORTED NEPAL (AS OF 28 APRIL 2015)


India aided $500 million to Nepal
hundreds of tons of food and dry rations
5,000 vials of insulin
3 tons of relief material
1 tons of blankets
Several tons of stretchers, tents
2 tons of medical supplies
Potable water (non-bottled and over 100,000 bottles)-Indian
Railways
Helicopters Mi-17, Cheetah, HAL Dhruv ALH
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)
8 member medical team
4 bed health camp (Lagankhel)
Light vehicles

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REFERENCES
http://www.vtaide.com/png/George/earthquake.htm
http://tremor.nmt.edu/faq/how.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richter_magnitude_scale
http://www.geo.mtu.edu/UPSeis/intensity.html
http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/earthq1/measure.html
http://www.azosensors.com/Article.aspx?ArticleID=7
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plate_tectonics
http://allshookup.org/quakes/wavetype.htm
http://www.kids-fun-science.com/earthquake-focus.html
http://www.gns.cri.nz/Home/Learning/ScienceTopics/Earthquakes/Monitoring-Earthquakes/Other-earthquakequestions/What-is-the-difference-between-Magnitude-andIntensity
http://www.iitk.ac.in/nicee/EQTips/EQTip12.pdf
http://articles.architectjaved.com/earthquake_resistant_structures
/how-earthquakes-affect-reinforced-concrete-buildings/
http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-32479909
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Nepal_earthquake

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