Membrane Transport

Which scientist's research first showed that parents were able to pass heritable factors to their
offspring?
B) Gregor Mendel

Complete the following sentence: The genes that are passed from generation to generation are
stored in...
D) DNA.

One of the differences between RNA and DNA is the nucleotides each contains. What
nucleotide does RNA have that DNA does not?
D) uracil

Complete the following sentence: The monomers that make up a protein are called...
B) amino acids.

What is accomplished during transcription?

B) DNA transfers information to RNA.

What process is defined as the net movement of water molecules from a low concentration of
solute to a high concentration of solute?
A) osmosis

What type of cell depends on a cell wall to prevent excess water from entering and lysing the
cell under hypotonic conditions?
A) plant cells

What is the force that depends on a cell wall to prevent excess water from entering and lysing
a cell under hypotonic conditions?
B) turgor pressure

A beaker is divided by a membrane that is permeable to water and impermeable to sodium

ions. The sodium-water solution on side A is more concentrated than the sodium-water
solution on side B. Which of the following statements will be true when equilibrium is
reached across the membrane?
A) The absolute number of water molecules will be different on the two sides of the
membrane, whereas the final solute concentration will be equal.

Complete the following sentence: The sodium-potassium pump transports...

A) three sodium ions from the interior to the exterior of the cell and two potassium ions from
the exterior to the interior.

Which of the events below would likely allow the interior of a cell to become more
negatively charged?
D) Either a proton pump begins pumping protons out of the cell or a sodium-potassium pump
starts pumping.

Which of the following describes how osmosis occurs across a cell membrane?
A) Water moves from an area of low solute concentration to an area of high solute
concentration.

What would happen to a red blood cell in isotonic solution?

D) The red blood cell would not change when placed in the solution.

Approximately what percentage of energy do humans use to maintain their water balance?
A) 2-4%

What is the basic function of the various types of kinases active in the cell cycle control
system?
A) to phosphorylate proteins

Which process may result in overexpression of an oncogene?

A) The cell acquires extra copies of the gene.
B) The gene is translocated to another part of the genome.
C) A mutation develops within the gene.
D) A mutation occurs within the gene's control element.
E) All answers are correct.

What happens when protein kinase A (PKA) phosphorylates phosphorylase kinase in the
epinephrine signal transduction pathway?
D) Phosphorylase kinase becomes activated, and glucose production is enhanced.

Exocytosis and Endocytosis

What do cells use to move large materials across their membranes?
Vesicles

A membrane-bound structure that distinguishes endocytosis and exocytosis from diffusion or

protein transport?
Vesicle

This process refers to the movement of materials into a cell using a vesicle
Endocytosis

The use of a vesicle to send materials out of the cell

Exocytosis

What are the two processes that are involved in the movement of materials across the plasma
membrane?
Endocytosis and Exocytosis

Endocytosis can be further divided into three types: _________, ___________, and ______________ endocytosis.
phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis.

______ allows the cell to secrete a wide variety of materials from inside the cell to the
external environment. Exocytosis

Secretion involves three key steps: identify them.

1. Materials are targeted to vesicles
2. The vesicles move to the proper location
3. Signals trigger the release of materials from the vesicles

How are materials targeted to vesicles?

Neurotransmitters

Which cell organelle adds chemical tags to proteins to help direct them to the proper
location?
Golgi Apparatus

How do vesicles move to the proper location?

Guided by microtubules and moved by motor proteins

What triggers the release of materials from vesicles?

Various signals can trigger exocytosis

What is one of the fastest processes in the body to release materials from vesicles?
The releasing of neurotransmitters from a neuron through calcium signalling

Substances diffuse through transport proteins along their concentration gradient?

Facilitated diffusion

Chemical energy is used to move substances through transport proteins against their
concentration gradients
Active transport

Which process of transportation across the cell membrane overcomes the limitation of large
macromolecules too large to import by encapsulating these particles in membrane-bound
vesicles, allowing them to be brought into the cell?
Endocytosis

What is a key process for managing the surface area of the membrane and the volume of the
cell?
Endocytosis

During ________ "cell eating" a large item is taken in by the cell. Phagocytosis
_________ "cell drinking" occurs when a cell takes in materials dissolved in the surrounding
liquid. Pinocytosis

Do Pinocytosis and Phagocytosis target specific molecules?

No, neither of them

_______________ endocytosis brings SPECIFIC target molecules into the cell.

Receptor-mediated endocytosis

Receptors embedded in the membrane bind to a target molecule known as ______.

Ligand

Once the ______ binds to the receptor, the membrane invaginates and vesicle forms.
Ligand

A protein known as _______ facilitates the formation of the vesicles once the ligands are
bound by forming a thickly coated, indented region in the membrane before invagination.
Clathrin

When proton pumps in the vesicle membrane bringing more hydrogen ions into the vesicle,
the pH is _______.
Lowered

A specific type of Endocytosis defined as taking in relatively large particles such as bundles
of chemicals or entire cells.
Phagocytosis

These steps describe what form of endocytosis?

1. Cell responds by Chemotaxis
2. Adherence occurs: cell surface attaches to pathogens
3. Engulfment
4. Enzymes and chemicals neutralize pathogens
5. Waste materials are eliminated from cell
Phagocytosis

In neurons, what signal will trigger membrane fusion of docked vesicles?

Calcium

Which of the following would result in the ingestion of a wide variety of soluble nutrients
from the environment?
Pinocytosis

What is chemotaxis?
movement in response to a chemical stimulus

Complete the following sentence: Rapidly growing cells would be performing...

more exocytosis than endocytosis.

What is the difference between pinocytosis and phagocytosis?

the size of the molecule being ingested

What would happen if a lysosome fused with a mitochondrion?

The mitochondrion would be digested.

Complete the following sentence: Cells without proper LDL receptors will...
need to produce their own cholesterol.

ATP and cellular work

Describe the role of ATP in energy-coupling reactions.
The ATP molecule is composed of a nitrogenous base called adenine, a ribose sugar and a
chain of three phosphate groups. Having three phosphate groups makes ATP relatively
unstable when compared to ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi or HOPO32-), which are the
products of its hydrolysis. This difference in stability between products and reactants causes
ATP hydrolysis to release a large amount of energy, which can be coupled to energetically
unfavorable reactions in the cell.
Recognize chemical reactions that require ATP hydrolysis. ATP can drive other reactions
because its hydrolysis is exergonic and releases energy. Therefore, the hydrolysis of ATP is
spontaneous, having a negative free energy change (-G). Spontaneous reactions can drive
non-spontaneous reactions if they are coupled together.

Explain how ATP hydrolysis performs cellular work.

There are three main types of cellular work: chemical, mechanical, and transport. For
example, ATP can be used to provide the mechanical work that powers DNA helicase to
separate double-stranded DNA into single-stranded DNA during DNA replication. One of the
most vital roles of ATP is the coupling of ATP hydrolysis to active transport of ions across
cell membranes.
adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
The primary energy currency of the cell; composed of the nitrogenous base adenine, the 5carbon sugar ribose and three phosphate groups.
ATP hydrolysis
The exergonic chemical reaction in which the combination of ATP with water results in the
release of an inorganic phosphate ion and ADP.
endergonic reaction
A chemical reaction with a net requirement for input of energy.
energy coupling
Transfer of energy from one chemical reaction to another process.
exergonic reaction
A chemical reaction with a net release of energy.
phosphoanhydride bond

Covalent bond that links two phosphate groups to one another. Two are found in ATP.
Hydrolysis of one of these bonds releases 7.3 kcal/mol of energy.

Identify the structural features found in ATP.

a nitrogenous base, a ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups

Why does ATP hydrolysis release a lot of free energy?

ATP is unstable compared to its products.

The sodium-potassium pump is an active transport pump that uses energy to pump potassium
into cells and sodium out of cells. Why is ATP energy required?
to pump the Na+ and K+ ions against their diffusion gradient

Biological Energy Transfer

*Equation for cellular respiration
C6H12O6 +6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H2O

cellular respiration
-glucose and other fuels are broken down gradually in a series of steps
-each step catalyzed by enzyme
-each step releases energy to form ATP
follow the electron

food --> (e-) NAHD --> (e-) Electron Transport Chain --> (e-) oxygen

NAHD --> NAD+

ETC --> ATP
*3 steps of cellular respiration
1. Glycolysis <-- } generated NAHD
2. Krebs Cycle <-- }
3. Electron Transport Chain (ETC) and oxidative phosphorylation
substrate phosphorylation

taking phosphate and pulling it off

enzyme substrate ADP --> enzyme product + ATP

phosphorylation

transfer of PO4 group

*Glycolysis in the cytoplasm 1 glucose -> 2 pyruvate

2 ATP
2 NADH
Pyruvate

1 Pyruvate --> 1 Acetyl CoA

1 CO2
1 NADH
so, for 1 glucose = 2 pyruvate
therefore 2CO2 and 2 NADH per glucose

Krebs Cycle (mitochondrial matrix)

1 pyruvate --> 2CO2 + 3NADH + 1FADH2 + 1ATP

so, for 2 pyruvate --> 4CO2 + 6 NADH + 2FADH2 + 2ATP

for each pyruvate:

For each glucose:

ATP 2
CO2 6
NADH 8
FADH2 2

3 steps of cellular respiration

1. glycolysis <---- generate NADH
2. Acetyl CoA (formation and krebs cycle)
3. oxidative phosphorylation
a. electron transport chain (ETC)
b. chemiosmosis

overview steps 1 & 2 of cellular respiration Step 1: glycolysis (cytoplasm)

1 glucose --> 2 pyruvate
2ATP
2 NADH

Step 2A: Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA

1 pyruvate --> 1 Acetyl CoA
1 CO2
1 NADH
(so for 1 glucose = 2 pyruvate; therefore,
2 CO2 & 2NADH per glucose

Step 2B: Krebs Cycle (mitochondrial matrix)

1 pyruvate --> 2CO2 + 3NADH + 1FADH2 + 1ATP

so, for 2 pyruvate --> 4CO2 + 6NADH + 2FADH2 + 2ATP

Krebs Cycle Overview

for e/ pyruvate for e/ glucose

ATP 1 2
CO2 3 6
NADH 4* 8*
FADH2 1* 2*

*these carry electrons to next step 3rd Step oxidative phosphorylation

Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
The electrons carried in NADH
-enter the ETC
-energy released at each step is used to power proton (H+) pumps
-protons are pumped into the inter membrane space
Electron Transport Chain
powers proton pumps

electrons move through ETC, energy released at each step

H+ pumps actively transport H+ to form H+ gradient (Unequal H+ concentration) across

membrane
ATP synthase enzyme protein that synthesizes ATP
Chemiosmosis coupling the electron transport chain to ATP synthesis

end result ATP to cytoplasm

ATP yield molecule of glucose at each stage of cellular respiration

*Assume: 1 NADH --> 3 ATP
1 FADH2 --> 2ATP *know the score

glycolysis glucose --> 2 pyruvate

-2ATP (investment phase)
+4ATP (substrate level phos)
+2NADH --> 6ATP (At ETC)

NET = 8 ATP total 8+6+24=38

2 pyruvate --> 2 acetyl CoA

+2NADH --> 6ATP (At ETC)
Krebs Cycle

2(3NADH) --> 6NADH --> 18ATP (AT ETC)

2(1FADH2) --> 2FADH2 --> 4ATP (AT ETC)

2 ATP (substrate level phos)
=24 ATP

glucose --> CO2 + H2O (-686 kcal/mol)

unusable heat energy

ADP + Pi --> At (7.3 kcal/mol)

usable energy

hence, efficiency of respiration

=(38)(7.3) = ~40%
------686

in comparison, an efficient car is 20%

oxidative phosphorylation

-is aerobic = uses O2

pyruvate is = key juncture

if O2 is not available:
-fermentation = anaerobic
Why fermentation? To free up NAD+, which can be used in glycolysis to generate ATP by
substrate level phosphorylation

enough ATP for

-1 celled microorganisms

-Short bursts of muscular activity

Fermentation Anaerobic

yeast produce ethyl alcohol by alcoholic fermentation

CO2 released = dough rises

ethanol burned off during baking
Muscle fibers White muscle fibers
Dark muscle fibers
White muscle fibers do lactate fermentation
-low tap yield = only for short bursts of activity
-builds up lactic acid in muscles = fatigue
-human eye and hand muscles, chicken breasts
Dark muscle fibers

do aerobic respiration

-for prolonged activity - high ATP yield

-aerobic exercise produces CO2 (exhaled out) and H2O (sweated out)
-human and chicken leg muscles
Sprinters and lactate fermentation

-Proteins and fats are broken down

-Products then fed into cellular respiration pathway

-carb pathway favored
Regulation

-cellular respiration regulated by feedback inhibition

-key enzyme subject to regulation is phosphofructokinase (PFU) in investment phase of

glycolysis

PFU regulation
What is the ultimate electron acceptor in aerobic cellular respiration?

Oxygen

Complete the following sentence: Cellular respiration is carried out by

heterotrophs, and producers

phototrophs,

Which kind of reaction converts NAD+ to NADH? reduction

Which class of food molecules contains the most energy per gram? fats
Which atom below is the most electronegative?
hydrogen
carbon

nitrogen
oxygen
sulfur oxygen
Which of the processes occur in the mitochondria?

Glycolysis
Citric Acid Cycle
Oxidative phosphorylation

Citric Acid Cycle

Oxidative Phosphorylation
What happens to excess energy int he electron transport chain that is not used to establish an
electrochemical gradient of protons? It is dissipated as heat
Which of the following processes occurs in the cytosol?

Glycolysis

Which of the following molecules can be used by organisms to obtain energy?

glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids

Glycerol,

Which of the following is an individual unit of fats? glycerol

During glycolysis, how many molecules of NADH are formed per molecule of glucose? 2
Which type of reactions control the energy release from glucose during the citric acid cycle?
Redox reactions
Which molecule enters the citric acid cycle? Acetyl-CoA
Which molecule transports electrons from the citric acid cycle to the electron transport chain?
NADH and FADH2
Which of the following enzymes is used during the citric acid cycle?
isocitrate dehydrogenase, fumarase, citrate synthase

aconitase,

Which of the following atoms has the highest electronegativity

oxygen

Which process in oxidative phosphorylation releases energy?

in redox reactions

The transfer of electrons

Which of the following cannot be used as a final electron acceptor in anaerobic respiration?
water
In the process of alcoholic fermentation, what causes the liquid to bubble? carbon dioxide
Which statement regarding obligate anaerobes is true?
of oxygen

They can't survive in the presence

Which statement regarding facultative anaerobes is true?

or absence of oxygen

They can survive in the presence

Which compound is oxidized during fermentation? NADH

Which class of pigments is responsible for the dark red colors in leaves?

anthocyanins

The evolution of aerobic life occurred after an increase in which of the following? oxygen
What is the purpose of plastoquinone and plastocyanin in photosynthesis? They are electron
carriers in the electron transport chain
Which of the following occurs during the Calvin cycle?
oxidized

Carbon is reduced and NADPH is

Which refers to the photosynthetic reactions that produce ATP and NADPH?
dependent reactions

light-