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Faade functions
The building faade provides the separation between the
inside and the outside environments but is also required
to provide acceptable light levels and a visual connection
with the outside in the form of views out of the building.
The faade may also be required to provide the building
user with openable windows for ventilation.
The separating functions include:
Weather tightness including elimination of water
ingress and control of air permeability and
resistance to wind actions;
Insulation (both thermal and acoustic);
Control of solar gain and ultraviolet radiation and
the management of views into the building.
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air permeability
m3/(hr.m2) at 50 Pa
Best practice
Normal
*Naturally ventilated
3.0
7.0
*Mixed mode
2.5
5.0
2.0
5.0
Factories/warehouses
2.0
6.0
Superstores
1.0
5.0
Schools
3.0
9.0
Hospitals
5.0
9.0
Offices:
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Image
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Use of composite
(sandwich)panels to support tiles.
(Image courtesy of Kingspan
Panels and Profiles)
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Thermal performance
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Construction process
Light steel infill walls are generally installed as individual
C sections that are cut to length and are placed between
the floors or edge beams. The C sections are attached to
a U shaped bottom track which is attached to the floor
slab. At the top of the wall, the C sections slide in a U
shaped top track that is fixed to the underside of the
edge beam or floor slab permits relative movement
without compressing the wall. The general guidance is to
provide a minimum of 20mm relative movement in a
concrete framed building and 10mm in a steel framed
building.
Pairs of C sections are often placed either side of window
or door openings to resist the loads transferred across
the window. The U tracks are connected to the concrete
floor slab using powder actuated pins.
The construction process is very rapid and does not
require external scaffolding until the faade is attached
externally. Alternatively, the walls may be prefabricated
and installed as large panels, often with the cladding preattached - see photograph below. In this case, the
cladding panel is placed outside the edge of the primary
structure, and supports the cladding fascia. The cladding
around the edges of the panel is then attached on-site.
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Curtain walling
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Rail-mounted hoist
(Image Tractel (UK) Ltd )
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Panel framing
Split mullions
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Weather tightness
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Bubble gaskets
Blade gaskets
Support conditions
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Support to brickwork
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The eccentricity of the brickwork from its support is important because it determines the bending effect on the
attachment points. The eccentricity is also dependent on the thickness of the insulation in the cavity space between
the brickwork and the internal light steel walling. This maximum value is 120 to 150mm depending on the wall height.
The brickwork is laterally supported by wall ties that attached to the infill walls at a density of about 4.4 ties per m2; of
the facade area.
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Modern brickwork can be manufactured in the form of brick slips that are attached to a supporting steel sheet or
composite panel. The advantage of this system is that it is lightweight and can be installed rapidly as mortar is not
necessarily required. Brick slips can also be stacked vertically, and ribbon or unusual shaped windows can be created
for architectural effect. Examples are shown in the photograph below.
In this system, the brick slips are not considered to be weather-tight, and so the wind and weather resistance is
provided by the backing material. Composite (or sandwich) panels provide both excellent structural and thermal
characteristics for use as the backing system.
Use of brick slips attached to steel backing system, such as a composite panel
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In many building renovation projects, the existing brick or stone faade is preserved and is supported temporarily by a
steel structure, whilst the rest of the building is demolished. A new steel permanent structure is constructed behind the
existing faade which is then integrated into the new building. In this way, the appearance of the building is not
changed but its functional use is much improved. A good example of the support to an existing brick faade by an
external temporary steel structure is shown below. The framework at ground level allows for pedestrian access.
Steel and glass are synergistic materials and are often used in facades and roofs of multi-storey buildings. The glass
panels are generally supported by separate vertical steel elements to the main structural frame of the building that may
be internal or external to the building. Stainless steel and hollow steel sections are often used in combination with
glass.
Building performance
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Solar shading with bonded photovoltaic cells attached to a curtain walling system
The glazed walling system is designed to provide the necessary functions of weather-tightness, natural lighting and
shading, and thermal insulation. The silicone joints between the glazing panels are therefore very important to these
functions.
The main issue in the design of glazing systems is the avoidance of high solar gain, particularly on south facing
facades, and also the heat loss due to the relatively high U-value of double or even triple glazing systems that adds to
heat loss. A modern argon filled double glazing system (combined with low emssivity glass) has a U-value of 1.6 to 1.8
W/m2K, and this can reduce to 0.8 to 0.9 W/m2K for high quality triple glazing systems.
Large glazing panels are usually supported by vertical mullions or in some cases, glass fins. The glass is designed to
accommodate the movement of its support system due to the wind and other forces acting on it. Typical deflection
limits under the design wind loads are defined by the Institution of Structural Engineers[3]
The glass elements may also be combined with louvres and bonded photovoltaic panels, as shown.
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Double-skin facades originated in northern Europe and are formed of two glass walls separated by a cavity on southfacing elevations and are used to reduce the energy consumption of a building. Shading devices are usually mounted
in the cavity and, depending on its width, walkways for access and cleaning. This type of faade and has many
variations in arrangement. The variations relate to:
width of cavity;
type of glazing (single/insulating) for the inner or outer skins;
division of the cavity horizontally and vertically;
natural or mechanical ventilation of the cavity;
integration of the cavity ventilation with the building services;
use of opening windows into the cavity.
The two skins form a thermal buffer zone and passive solar gains in the cavity reduce heat losses in winter. If the
cavity ventilation is integrated with the building services, air heated by the sun can be introduced into the building,
providing good natural ventilation and reducing the heating load. In summer, the heated air in the cavity is ventilated to
the outside, conducting heat away from the building and reducing the cooling load. The design of the double skin
faade must be integrated with the design of the building services to be most effective.
Double faade steel glazing system used in a multi-storey steel framed office building, 1 Angel Square, Manchester
(Image courtesy of Severfield (NI) Ltd.)
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Solar shading using projecting roof with external tubular columns, Heelis building, Swindon
(Image courtesy of Simon Doling/Feilden Clegg Bradley Architects. Copyright Simon Doling/Feilden Clegg Bradley
Architects)
There is a wide variety of solar shading systems that may be used and incorporated as part of the building faade.
There are:
Oval shaped horizontal steel elements that span horizontally between external columns and their size and
spacing is designed to reduce the intensity of solar gain.
Projecting roof or canopy , often supported by an external steel structure as shown.
Glazed or metallic louvres.
Metallic perforated screens that allow natural light to penetrate but also provide a high degree of shading.
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The Manchester Justice Centre shown below is a good example of the vertical and horizontal support by an internal
tubular steel structure to a fully glazed faade over 8 storeys. Cable tied systems can be external or internal and use
the cables to resist tension forces due to wind action on the faade and the tubular sections to resist compression. For
minimum visual impact, the tubes should be of small diameter.
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Mixed use of glazed faade system and weathering steel at the Manchester Justice centre
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Atrium roofs and feature entrances are often supported by exposed structural steelwork detailed to provide visual
excitement. Structural hollow sections are often used to form the elements because of their clean appearance. Also,
stainless steel wires are used to minimise the intrusion of structure.
Feature entrances
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Glazed entrances are often made as transparent as possible to allow visual connection between the inside and outside
of a building. Point-fixed glazing or glass fins may be used to increase transparency.
Glazed atrium
Glazed atrium roofs let light deep into a building allowing the use of large building footprints while reducing the external
perimeter. Atria are also used to promote natural ventilation by the inclusion of opening vents in the roof. Warm air
rising in the atrium and escaping through the vents draws outside air through open windows in the faade. Atria are
used in offices with deep floor plans and are also a feature of shopping centres where retail units face onto a central
atrium. Various glazing support systems are available including steel, aluminium or timber framing.
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A rain screen cladding system is usually drained and ventilated and consists of open-jointed, rail-mounted panels with
an air-gap behind. The rails are supported by brackets from a backing wall which spans from floor to floor. The
backing wall is either insulated itself or supports insulation mounted on its outside face. In the latter case, a membrane
may be used to protect the insulation from moisture in the air gap.
Rain screen panels are made from durable materials and are chosen by the architect to achieve the desired visual
effect. Stainless steel, weathering steel, anodised aluminium, glass and terracotta are all materials which can be
used. Rails and brackets are made from materials such as stainless steel and aluminium. The backing wall resists
wind actions and supports the rain screen and can consist of an infill wall made from cold-formed steel sections faced
with cement particle board, precast or composite panels or blockwork.
Open jointed rain screen systems shed most of the rainwater from the surface of the rain screen panels. The open
joints are wide enough to allow free ventilation of the air gap and any rainwater penetrating the joints between the
panels is able to drain freely to the exterior. Residual moisture which does not drain away is able to evaporate freely.
Metallic rain screen panels
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Window openings must be carefully flashed to direct water around them. The backing wall is sealed to control air
permeability. Solar gain, light levels and views out are balanced by choosing appropriate window sizes and shading.
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Residential building
Sports centre
Rain water runoff from the surface of buildings clad in weathering steel is coloured red-brown by iron oxide and will
stain the ground at the perimeter of the building. This effect reduces over time as the panels weather. Appropriate
details around the building can be included to manage the staining. One approach that has been used is to include a
gravel strip which has been renewed after a period of time.
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Insulated wall panels are interlocking, composite metal-faced sandwich panels or concrete panels with insulation
between internal and external concrete elements. Steel-faced insulated panels are frequently used on single storey
and low-rise industrial buildings.
Panels are usually designed to span one-way (either vertically or horizontally) and are made to suit commonly-used
frame spacings without intermediate supports. Various insulation materials are available such as expanded
polyurethane (PUR), polyisocyanurate (PIR) and mineral fibre with a range of insulating, fire-resisting and other
physical properties. Insulating materials should be selected with care, taking into consideration all the performance
and functional requirements.. Various surface profiles and colours are available. Insulated wall panel systems have
interlocking joints which include overlaps and compression gaskets to prevent water ingress.
For horizontally-laid panels, vertical joints at supports are butt joints with compression gaskets and sealed or
gasketted cover strips.
Insulated wall panels are a proprietary product and the manufacturer provides the results of test data which may be in
the form of tables of span to wind pressure (or load) for various panel thicknesses, allowing the specifier to choose a
suitable panel type and thickness.
Insulated render
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Insulated render, commonly known as External Wall Insulation (EWI) in North America has been in use in the UK for
over 30 years. It has been used increasingly since 2000 to meet the demand for lightweight, energy efficient,
architecturally interesting facades. Student accommodation and other residential and mixed-use buildings are often
clad in this material.
Rigid insulation board is applied to a supporting frame and coated with a polymer-modified render which may be
cement-based or acrylic-based and fibre reinforced. Light steel framing systems made from cold formed sections have
increasingly been used to provide the supporting structure. Additional insulation can be placed within the depth of the
framing. Early partial closure of the building is achieved by fixing cement particle board to the outer surface of the light
steel framing system, prior to fixing the insulation.
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Render systems form a face-sealed barrier and shed water from their external surface. They may be designed with or
without a cavity depending on the degree of exposure of the building. Appropriate provision for drainage of a cavity
must be made. Suitably detailed flashings and seals at penetrations for windows and doors are required. Further
guidance is given in SCI P343.
Interfaces
Main article: Facade supports and structural movements
Interfaces between steel frames and cladding systems may take various forms as follows:
Brickwork support systems by Stainless steel angles and brackets.
Attachment to curtain walling systems for both vertical and lateral support by the structure or the edge of the
floor slab
Attachment of steel hollow sections and cables in glazed cladding systems
Projections for louvres or canopies, etc.
Support to external steelwork
Support to the atrium or featured steelwork.
These interface details are designed to take account of:
Forces in the vertical and horizontal directions often combined with bending effects when used in louvers, etc.
Allowance for relative movement with the support structure
Allowance for installation tolerances in the alignment of the faade.
External steelwork
An external steel structure can be designed to be part of the primary structure or to support canopies or bracing. Often
the external steelwork can be designed as unprotected against fire by considering the intensity and direction of
potential fire plume emanating from the faade. Also, the external steelwork is designed to be part of the architectural
concept, as shown below in Exchange Square, which straddles the railway lines to Liverpool station. In this project, the
beams projected outside the faade line, and so penetrated the faade.
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Such elements passing through an envelope or faade bridge the insulation and provide a potential path for moisture
to pass into the building interior. One consequence of bridging the insulation is that local heat losses occur where the
insulation is penetrated. A further consequence is that in cold weather, condensation occurs inside the building on the
cold surfaces of the elements which communicate with the outside. This may result in visible staining and saturation of
the insulation with consequent reduction in its performance.
Thermal performance and condensation issues can be avoided if suitable thermal breaks are introduced in the
penetrating elements to keep their temperature inside the building above the dew point. Further guidance is given in
SCI P380.
Where the forces in the elements are too large for a thermal break to be introduced, (for example because insulating
materials are too flexible and weak) the penetrating element is insulated over a sufficient length inside the building for
condensation not to occur.
On the Exchange Square project shown below the beams in the floor zone were insulated over a length of about 1.5m
on the inside of the building for this reason.
Louvres and canopies
Louvres and canopies are generally attached to the primary steel structure. To avoid cold bridging through the steel
members passing through the insulation, the special thermal break details mentioned above are typically used, as
shown below.
Canopies are often highly glazed as shown below and can be supported by a separate structure or suspended from
the internal structure. Curved steel members (particularly hollow sections) are often used in canopies for visual effect.
Steel interface details
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References
1. ^ 1.01.1 Standard for systemised building envelopes, Part 8 Testing, March 2006, Centre for Window and
Cladding Technology
2. ^ Technical standard L2, Measuring air permeability of building envelopes (Non Dwellings), October 2010, Air
Tightness Testing and Measurement Association
3. ^ Structural use of glass in buildings (1999). Institution of Structural Engineers
Resources
SCI P101 Interfaces: Curtain wall connections to steel frames
SCI P102 Interfaces: Connections between steel and other materials
SCI P103 Interfaces: Electrical lift installations in steel framed buildings
SCI P166 Interfaces: Design of steel framed buildings for service integration
SCI P193 Steel supported glazing systems
SCI P298 Stainless steel masonry support systems- best practice information sheet for specifiers
SCI P343: Insulated Render Systems Used With Light Steel Framing
SCI P380, Avoidance of thermal bridging in steel construction
SCI P396 New Beijing Poly Plaza Cable-Net Wall
SCI IE P2 Services coordination with structural beams; Guidance on defect free interface
See also
Infill walling
Design codes and standards
Acoustics
Fire and steel construction
Steel construction products
Thermal performance
Steel-supported glazed facades and roofs
Facade supports and structural movements
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