Symptom Diagnostics:

A Look into
Fuel Trim
D

riveabilty?
Electrical
Diagnostics? If youre in the
transmission business, youre
eventually going to be involved with
it, so you might as well embrace it. It
didnt seem too long ago that engine,
transmission, ABS, and even body controllers were mostly independent entities. On modern vehicles, now more
than ever, these systems depend on
each other for proper operation.
For example, vehicles with the
CAN bus communicate through highspeed data lines and share sensor information that can render the vehicle useless if the system isnt operating correctly. See for yourself: Short or open
a CAN bus line and see if the vehicle
will even start.
Or take a look at a Chrysler 300C
and try to find the vehicle speed sensor.
Youll be looking for a while, since
this vehicle uses the CAN bus to share
the Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
data, including the wheel speed sensor
signal, with all modules wanting to
know wheel or vehicle speed.
Vehicle technology is increasing
by leaps and bounds, but thats no reason to shy away from it. Most transmission shops are well equipped to handle
electrical and computer diagnostics. If
you have a scan tool, a DVOM (better
yet, a digital storage oscilloscope), and
some general diagnostic tools, you can
easily diagnose issues found within
many systems of the vehicle.
Electronic engine controls, for
example, are so closely related to transmission operation, they should always
be considered as possible causes for
transmission symptoms. Coils, injectors, EGR valves, mass air flow (MAF)


sensors, restricted exhaust systems, and

skewed sensors are just a handful of
components that could cause the vehicle to exhibit problems such as shuddering, poor performance, harsh/soft
shifts, and improper shift timing. Even
though the root causes of these problems arent transmission failures, they
might end up at your doorstep, because
of a transmission related symptom.
Maybe nows the time to welcome
this challenge and expand your service
to include driveabilty diagnostics. Many
of the operating principles and concepts
found in engine control systems arent
that much different than transmission
control systems. Fuel management is a
perfect example: Fuel control adaptive
strategy is very similar to transmission
adaptive strategy. To illustrate this, lets
compare the feedback system used for
shift control (since were pretty familiar with this) to the feedback system
used for fuel control.
(Figure 1).

Figure 1

On a typical GM transaxle, the

PCM will adapt shift pressures to control the shift quality based on programmed values. The PCM checks
engine load, engine speed, input shaft

by Sean Boyle

speed, output shaft speed, transmission

temperature, etc., to calculate a base
shift pressure to use when upshifting
the transaxle.
While the shift is occurring, the
PCM will monitor the input and output
speed sensors to determine the actual
shift speed. If the shift took longer than
expected, the PCM adapts by adding
pressure to the base calibration for
future reference. After miles and miles
of driving, the transmission adaptive
pressures (TAPs) will stabilize to make
the shifts as consistent as possible for
performance and durability.
For diagnostic purposes, the TAPs
can provide excellent insight to how
the PCM is controlling the transmission. Positive TAPs indicate the PCM
is increasing pressure during the shift to
correct for slow shifts. Negative TAPs
indicate the PCM is reducing pressure
to correct for shifts that are too quick.
These adaptive values can provide
hints on whether to look for pressure
related problems, sticking valves, or
worn/stuck components. This is a basic
feedback system where the PCM uses
sensors to decide on a base pressure,
and then looks to the speed sensors to
determine if its calibration was close
enough. If not, it adapts to accommodate the speed differences and stores
that information. (Figure 2).
Feedback strategies are used
throughout the vehicle, especially in
the electronic engine control system.
Examples include the idle air control systems, electronic fuel pressure
regulation, electronic throttle control,
evaporative emissions, and even the
age-old closed-loop fuel injection control the major topic for this article.
GEARS August 2007

Figure 2

(Figure 3).
Just like transmission adaptive
controls, the fuel system is a finely tuned process that interprets many
input sensors to obtain a good base fuel
injection pulse width, and then verifies
this decision by interpreting the postcombustion lambda sensor (from now
on referred to as an HO2S).
There are three main modes of
operation: startup, open loop, and closed
loop. Interestingly enough, for startup,
the PCM mainly looks at engine coolant temperature and engine RPM to
determine injector pulse width. The initial injector pulse width is rather long,
but the goal is to inject a lot of fuel into
the cylinder to get it started. The scope
image displayed is a 05 Ford F150
with the scope connected to the injector
control wire. The startup pulse width is
over 90ms at about 50F.
(Figure 4).
As soon as the engine starts, the
PCM begins to read input sensors such
as crankshaft position, manifold absolute pressure, mass air flow, engine
coolant
temp,
intake air temp,
and throttle position to determine
the base pulse
width to operate
the injector.
While
the
engine is cold, the
engine
coolant
temperature (ECT)
has great influence over injector
pulse width; as the
engine warms up,
the MAF/MAP and
TP sensors play a
greater role. Since
these sensors can
make such a large
difference in the
base pulse width
calculation, its
GEARS August 2007

8seanboyle-fuel.indd 9

very important to check them for rational and plausible values. During this
phase, the engine control is working
in open-loop, where it relies on these
sensors to determine how much fuel to
inject into the engine.
(Figure 5).
Once the HO2S warms up, the
PCM will start to make fuel correc-

Figure 3

tions, even while in open loop, but it

wont make long-term corrections yet.
While viewing data on a scan tool, you
can see the HO2S actively switching
and the short-term fuel trim making

Figure 4

Figure 5

7/11/07 12:14:11 PM

A Look into Fuel Trim

corrections, while the PCM is still commanding open loop.
Closed-loop fuel control builds on
the open-loop strategy by making longterm fuel trim adjustments to the base
calibration. Not only does the HO2S
need to be active, but engine temperature and engine run-time need to be
adequate for the PCM to initiate closedloop operation.
The traditional HO2S is a Zirconia
type sensor that varies between 0 volt
(lean) and 1 volt (rich), depending on
the oxygen content in the exhaust. The
HO2S is probably the most misunderstood sensor in the vehicle.
Contrary to popular belief, the
Figure 6
HO2S actually works like a miniature
hydrogen fuel cell. During rich situations, when there is little
oxygen in the exhaust, oxygen will travel through the sensor
to combine with hydrogen in the exhaust. This oxygen transfer is what creates voltage in the sensor.
During lean situations, there is plenty of oxygen found
within the exhaust to complete the chemical reaction with
hydrogen. Since no oxygen is pulled through the sensor, no voltage is created. For more on this topic, read
Steve Bodofskys article, Oxygen Sensors and Fuel Cells:
Different Name, Same Technology, in the March 2004 issue
of GEARS.
(Figure 6).
Even though the HO2S is widely misunderstood, the
general concepts discussed in textbooks still apply. Simply
put, when the combustion is lean, theres excess oxygen in
the exhaust, and the HO2S sensor produces little voltage.
When combustion is rich, there is a lack of oxygen in the
exhaust, so the sensor will generate voltage while pumping
oxygen through the sensor. For the purpose of this article,
Figure 7
expect to see a traditional oxygen sensor switch between 100mv and 800mv.
(Figure 7).
The pre-catalyst HO2S plays a
strong role in determining fuel control
during closed-loop (although this is
mostly the case, some vehicles will
adjust fuel trims of off the post-cat
HO2S to enhance converter efficiency).
The PCM monitors the average HO2S
voltage and keeps it switching back and
forth from the lean extreme to the rich
extreme.
While monitoring an HO2S on an
oscilloscope, notice that it shifts continuously, about 2-3 times per second.
Thats the feedback system in action.
The PCM commands a short injector
Figure 8
pulse width, and then waits for the
HO2S to shift lean (low voltage); next voltage).
trim. Fuel trim is an adjustment to the base
it commands a longer pulse width and
The PCM monitors these rich and lean calibration that the PCM uses to determine
waits for the HO2S to shift rich (higher trends and adapts to them by adjusting fuel the starting point for injector pulse width.
10

8seanboyle-fuel.indd 10

GEARS August 2007

7/11/07 12:14:33 PM

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7/11/07 9:46:15 AM

A Look into Fuel Trim

Figure 9

For example, if the input sensors

indicate that the PCM should operate
the injectors at a 2.0ms pulse width,
but the resulting HO2S stays at 0.8v
(rich), the PCM will shorten the injector pulse width until it sees it shift
lean. The amount it adjusts the injector
pulse width will be displayed as short
term fuel trim (STFT) and its typically
identified in percent.
So, using the previous example,
if the exhaust indicated rich until the
injector pulse width was shortened to
1.9ms, the STFT would display negative 5% on the scan tool (1.9ms is 5%
less than 2.0ms). The PCM doesnt
remember the STFT and its continuously updating. In fact, the STFT is
what makes the HO2S swing rich to
lean and so on. Refer to the snapshot
graph and notice how once the fuel trim
falls negative, the HO2S falls lean, and

Figure 10

when the fuel trim jumps up the HO2S

goes rich. As long as the PCM is in
closed loop, it continuously performs
this command and observe routine.
(Figure 8, see page 10).
If the HO2S voltage remains at
one extreme for too long, the PCM will
adapt by adjusting long-term fuel trim
(LTFT). LTFT can make major adjustments to the base calibration, and store
those adjustments in memory, so the
PCM can refer to them during closed
and open loop operation.
The PCM wants to see STFT
switching around zero. If the STFT is
staying above or below the zero mark

for a given length of time, the PCM will

adjust the LTFT and store the adjustment in memory, which will then cause
the STFT to shift back toward zero.
For example, if STFT switched
around -4%, the PCM will eventually
adjust the LTFT to -4% and store that
information in memory. So the base
calibration will immediately reference
-4% LTFT and reduce the base injector
pulse width, and the STFT will fluctuate around 0% again.
(Figure 9).
The system is actually pretty
sophisticated. The fuel control feedback system has cells, which reference

Positive Fuel Trim Values (+13%) O2 Sensor VERIFIES LEAN running engine
Possible Problem
Reasoning
Isolate and Diagnose
Restricted Fuel System

PCM expects the fuel system to be at a specific

pressure when commanding an injector pulse
width. If its too low, it wont deliver adequate fuel
to the cylinder.

Vacuum Leak

Unmetered air is entering the engine. The PCM

makes base PW calculations based on sensor
input values. Since a vacuum leak allows unmetered air to enter the engine, it can only detect it
through the lean O2 sensor condition.

Clogged/restricted Injectors

Anything that prevents a full charge of fuel to pass

the injector will cause either a lean condition or a
complete misfire.

MAF (dirty)

The mass airflow (MAF) sensor informs the

PCM of the density and volume of air entering
the engine. If it misrepresents this information,
the PCM will have to compensate based on O2
sensor values. A dirty MAF sensor typically overestimates the amount of air at idle, and underestimates the amount of air at cruise. This will result
in negative fuel trims at idle and positive fuel
trims at cruise.

12

8seanboyle-fuel.indd 12

Fuel Pressure Test. Fuel trims might be normal at idle, but

increase under load.
Use propane around intake gaskets, manifold, and hoses while
observing the short-term fuel trim. When you come across a
possible leak, the short-term fuel trim will go negative. Also, a
smoke machine will pump smoke into the intake and pinpoint
vacuum leaks. These machines work great for finding leaks in
other systems as well.
Activate the injector (with a special tool) while observing pressure drop and compare the results to neighboring injectors.
Observe the injector on an oscilloscope to determine if the
pintle is physically opening and closing.

Snap-throttle tests while observing the waveform on an oscilloscope. Clean the sensor using electrical contact cleaner and
compare pre and post waveforms to determine improvement.
Volumetric efficiency calculators can be downloaded from the
internet to help determine if your MAF reading is plausible.

GEARS August 2007

7/11/07 12:14:49 PM

Positive Fuel Trim Values (+13%) O2 sensor TRICKED LEAN

Possible Problem
Reasoning

Isolate and Diagnose

Any leak before or around the O2 sensor could cause outside air to be
drawn into the exhaust stream. The flow of exhaust gasses comes in the
form of pulses. The pulse itself will create a positive pressure, but after
the pulse, the exhaust system might contain a low pressure, which can
draw air through an exhaust leak. This air can trick the O2 sensor into
thinking the combustion was lean.

Smoke test the exhaust system.

Look and listen for evidence of a leak. If youre lucky, you might
find carbon around the culprit.

Engine Misfire

An ignition or fuel misfire will allow the engine to pump air directly into
the exhaust system. The O2 sensor will misinterpret the excess O2 as
lean combustion.

Misfires fall into fuel, ignition, or engine mechanical categories.

After determining the cylinder at fault, use a process of elimination narrow the field of potential failed components. Swapping
injectors, plugs, wires, and even coils to different cylinders will
help determine if the problem follows a component or stays with a
cylinder. If the vehicle has multiple banks, check to see if the fuel
trim for one bank is higher than the other.

Secondary Air
Failure

Yes, its back! Secondary air systems are showing back up on vehicles.
A secondary air system pumps air into the exhaust stream before the
vehicle goes into closed loop to aid in converter efficiency. If this system
fails or leaks, unintended air will be drawn into the exhaust stream, tricking the O2 sensor into thinking combustion is lean.

Disconnect and plug secondary air components to isolate the

system.
Smoke test for leaks.

Exhaust Leak

different engine speeds and loads. Each

cell will have its own value identified
in a lookup table that contains the LTFT
adjustment to the base calibration.
Although it would be nice to see
this table, most scan tools only display
the current LTFT and STFT at the given
load/RPM the vehicle is operating at.
Some tools might indicate what cell

GEARS August 2007

8seanboyle-fuel.indd 13

theyre in at a particular time, but many

wont.
Make sure you review fuel trim
values when a problem is occurring.
For example, checking fuel trim values
at idle on a vehicle with a weak fuel
pump will probably indicate acceptable
fuel trim values. But place that vehicle
under load, where it cant deliver the

necessary fuel, and youll see fuel trim

values start climbing positive.
As with transmission adapts, fuel
trim can offer a piece of the puzzle
while diagnosing driveabiltiy problems,
but it wont pinpoint a specific failed
part. Its important to fully understand
the fuel control loop concept, where
the PCM commands an injector pulse

13

7/11/07 12:15:07 PM

life.indd 13

6/5/07 5:08:26 PM

A Look into Fuel Trim

Negative Fuel Trim Values (13%) O2 Sensor VERIFIES RICH running engine
Possible Problem Reasoning

Isolate and Diagnose

High Fuel
Pressure

PCM expects the fuel system to be at a specific pressure when

commanding an injector PW; if pressure is too high, it will deliver too
much fuel to the cylinder.

Fuel Pressure Test.

Restrictions on a fuel return.
Clogged/restricted fuel pressure regulator.

EVAP Purge
Solenoid is
Always Purging

The EVAP system collects fuel vapors from the tank and stores them
in a canister. Most systems purge the canister under cruise, but if the
solenoid is faulty, it might purge when its not suppose to, causing a
rich running engine.

Disconnect the purge line from the intake manifold

and check fuel trim. OBD-II vehicles have monitors
that check the purge and vent solenoids for correct
operation.

EGR Stuck On

During cruise, the EGR system mixes inert exhaust gases with the
air and fuel charge to lower combustion temperatures. If the EGR is
coming on when it shouldnt, it lowers manifold vacuum, which will
make the PCM think its operating under more load and compensate
by adding fuel.

Fuel trim excessive at idle and closer to normal at

cruise. Disconnect EGR to see if theres a change.
EGR shouldnt come on at idle.
Remove and block EGR.

MAF (dirty)

The mass airflow (MAF) sensor informs the PCM of the density and
volume of air entering the engine. If it misrepresents this information,
the PCM will have to compensate based on O2 sensor values. A
dirty MAF sensor typically overestimates the amount of air at idle,
and underestimates the amount of air at cruise. This will result in
negative fuel trims at idle and positive fuel trims at cruise.

Snap-throttle tests while observing the waveform on

an oscilloscope. Clean the sensor using electrical
contact cleaner and compare pre and post waveforms to
determine improvement.
Volumetric efficiency calculators can be downloaded off
the internet to help determine if your MAF reading is
plausible.

Contaminated
Fuel

Fuel vapors from contaminated oil will be drawn through the PCV
system. Normally, the crankcase ventilation doesnt supplement the
fuel system.

Vehicle history might reveal poor vehicle maintenance.

Disconnect and plug the PCV valve and obverse fuel
trims.

Negative Fuel Trim Values (13%) O2 Sensor TRICKED RICH

Possible Problem
Reasoning

Isolate and Diagnose

Contaminated Sensor

O2 sensors are miniature fuel cells that pump oxygen ions to complete chemical reactions (see Steve
Bodofskys article, GEARS March 2004). In many
cases, when the sensor becomes contaminated, the
sensor continuously pumps oxygen ions and generates a voltage on the signal wire. This will trick the
PCM into thinking the engine is running rich.

Note repair history. Engine work as a result of oil consumption,

head gasket leakage, etc., can cause O2 sensors to fail. Force
the engine to run lean by creating a large vacuum leak and
observe the O2 waveform for correct operation. KOEO should
show low voltage on HO2S once the sensor warms up.

O2 Heater Circuit
Failure

If voltage from the O2 heater circuit bleeds into the

signal wire, it will register a high voltage at the PCM.
The PCM will falsely recognize this as a rich condition.

Force the engine to run lean by creating a large vacuum leak and
observe the O2 waveform for correct operation.
KOEO should provide low voltage on HO2S once the sensor
warms up. Visual inspection might reveal moisture or oil contamination.

width based on the sensor information,

then waits for the results of that command by watching the HO2S.
The fuel trim is going to indicate
the accuracy of the PCMs guess. Since
the HO2S is the only component that
reports the results of combustion, there
are many different scenarios that result
in positive or negative fuel trims.
And there are some situations
where it would be normal to find fuel
trims to be on the high side (either positive or negative). For example, when
the PCM activates the EVAP purge
solenoid, which allows engine vacuum
to pull canister fuel vapors, expect to
see the fuel trims go more negative than
with no EVAP purge.
(Figure 10, see page 12).
14

8seanboyle-fuel.indd 14

Even though a lean-reporting

HO2S will cause positive fuel trims,
and a rich reporting HO2S will cause
negative fuel trims, there are some situations where the HO2S can be tricked
into thinking the engine is running rich
or lean, when its actually not. Refer
to the following tables to see possible
problems and diagnostic checks for
actual lean and tricked lean situations,
and actual rich and tricked rich situations.
Just as with transmission adaptive
pressures, fuel adapts cannot diagnose
any one failed component, but it offers
you a look at what the PCM is doing
to correct for a problem. The purpose
of adaptive controls, whether theyre
for fuel or transmission control, is to

correct for minor changes that appear

through normal driving. Once these
adaptive values go beyond the normal
ranges, the PCM cant sufficiently correct for the failures and driveability
symptoms surface.

GEARS August 2007

7/11/07 12:15:32 PM

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107/11/07
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9:53:59 AM

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7/11/07 9:54:53 AM