CHE 333

TRANSPORT LABORATORY
Experiment No. 1
GASEOUS DIFFUSION

We have an experiment in the lab that can be used to measure gaseous diffusion
coefficients. As you run the experiment you will find that it is simple to obtain and to
analyze the data.

Introduction
We will be determining the gaseous diffusivities of ethyl ether and acetone (or a similar
volatile material) in air. The volatile liquid compound will be contained in a capillary
tube (ask Jim Rounds for the capillary tubes and for the technique of getting the liquid
into the tube). The capillary tube will be contained in a test tube immersed in a constant
temperature, water bath. A stream of air, at the same water bath temperature, will pass
over the end of the capillary tube in an attempt to reduce the concentration of volatile
material, at that point to zero. The experimental procedure is to measure the rate of drop
of the liquid level in the capillary with time.

Experimental Setup
gas B
(air)

PA2

z=0

PA1

z = z1 at t = 0
z = zt at t
pure liquid A

For liquids of high volatility, A. Stefan (1879) devised a convenient means of measuring
the diffusivity of their vapor through a stagnant gas. If the volatile substance A (e.g. ethyl
ether or ethanol) is placed in the lower part of a vertical capillary, then liquid A will
evaporate and, by the mechanism of diffusion, travel to the end of the capillary.
Maintaining the mouth of the capillary at a given composition automatically establishes
the concentration gradient in the capillary, and the falling rate of the meniscus in the
capillary provides the rate of transport. The capillary is placed in an envelope through
22

which air is passed. At the meniscus the gaseous phase composition is specified by the
vapor pressure of liquid A, the diffusing constituent. At the mouth of the capillary, the
gaseous phase is essentially air. The gradient in the capillary is thus obtained by
circulating sufficient air to reduce the substance A concentration at the mouth to a
negligible quantity. The air rate should be low, constant, and not turbulent. The falling
rate of the meniscus can be observed remotely with a cathetometer. The cathetometer is
like a horizontal telescope with cross hairs. It can be moved up and down on a
graduated, vertical rod to measure elevation. The rod must be vertical and the
cathetometer must be horizontal (use the leveling screws in the base to center the bubble
in the circle). It is essential that the temperature of the envelope remain constant and that
the envelope not be disturbed during observations; i.e. vibrations will give erroneous
data.
In the situation just described, the diffusion process is unsteady-state. Under pseudosteady-state conditions, the diffusivity of vapor A in gas B (air) is given by

A,L PB ,lm RT

zt2 z12

DAB =
tPM A ( PA1 PA2 ) 2

where
PB,lm = [(P - PA1) - (P - PA2)]/ln [(P - PA1)/(P - PA2)]
PA1 = vapor pressure of liquid A at temperature T.
PA2 = partial pressure of vapor A at the mouth of the capillary.
R = gas law constant.
t = time during which the meniscus fall from z1 to zt.
z1 = distance from the mouth of the capillary to the meniscus at t = 0.
zt = distance from the mouth of the capillary to the meniscus at t.
P = ambient atmospheric pressure
A,L = density of liquid A at T.

Procedure
1. Read the barometer. Measure the inside diameters of the capillary and the envelope.
2. After filling the capillary with di-ethyl ether or acetone to within 1 cm of the top,
gently lower the capillary into the envelope and submerge the envelope into the
thermostat in a vertical position.
3. Initially maintain the thermostat at a convenient (room) temperature. Set an air flow
rate through the envelope at about 10 cm reading. After allowing sufficient time for
the envelope and its contents to come to the thermostat temperature, mark the
position Yo of the mouth of the capillary and the position Y1 of the meniscus with
the cathetometer as an arbitrary zero time (z = z1 = Yo - Y1, at t = 0).
4. The air temperature within the envelope must be recorded. This should be the
temperature where the diffusivity is measured.
5. Then follow the fall of the meniscus as a function of time. Remember the precautions
about use of the cathetometer. Take three or more readings (z = zt = Yo - Yt at t = t).

23

Plot you data as you go to evaluate its validity. From the equation for DAB , you
see that a graph of (zt2 - z12) versus t will be a straight line through the origin. So
your second reading will show whether your experimental data conform to a
straight line or not. If not, you must take additional readings in the hopes that at
least three of the later data points fall on a straight line. When the run is complete,
raise the bath temperature to the next level.
6. Repeat the run (steps 2, 3, 4, 5 above) at a higher temperature of about 80-82oF. As
the temperature rises the runs can be made more quickly. Make sure that bubbles of
vapor do not form in the liquid phase while a run is being made. This indicates that
you are exceeding the boiling point of the ether or acetone.
7. Make another run (steps 2, 3, 4, 5, above) at the same temperature of 80-82oF but use a
different air flow rate. If the slope of the line representing the lab data is not the
same as for (6) above, stop and investigate; especially the flow rate of the air
stream.
Note: Experimental technique is very important in this somewhat crude but educational
experiment. The following are critical for obtaining good data:
a. Spend some time in the determining the relative position of the test tube in the water
bath and the relative position of the cathetometer, so that you can sight clearly to
make good measurements. You should practice making some height readings while
getting ready for your first run. Note that there is a vernier scale on the
cathetometer so that you can read height to the nearest 0.1 mm.
b. The test tube should be as fully immersed in the water bath as possible (in the
interest of having the contents as close to the water bath temperature as possible).
c. A thermometer should be placed in the test tube as close to the evaporating liquid as
possible.
d. The water bath stirrer should run as fast as possible (for a constant bath temperature)
but slow enough so that vibrations do not interfere with the cathetometer height
readings.
Note: The volumetric air flow rate through the flow meter can be estimated from the
equation
V = 123.6 H*P/T
where V = volumetric flow rate in ft3/hr at T and P
H = flow meter reading in cm
T = ambient air temperature (oR)
P = ambient air pressure (psia)

Analysis
1. Determine the diffusivity from the slope of the least square line of ( zt2 - z12 ) vs. t.
Note: You should use the liquid density at the temperature of the system. The
specific volume Vs at any temperature can be estimated from the Rackett equation if
one experimental volume VsR is available at a reference temperature TR.
Vs = VsR (ZRA)
24

where = (1 - Tr)2/7 - (1 - TrR)2/7, Tr = reduced temperature = T/Tcritical

ZRA = 0.29056 - 0.08775, = acentric factor
2. Determine Reynolds number for the flow inside the envelope.
3. Estimate the mole fraction of the volatile species at the mouth of the capillary.

25

Report
1. Present your experimental results in the form of a graph of diffusivity vs. temperature.
2. Compare the experimental values of DAB with those appearing in the literature.
Note: The diffusivity obtained from literature should be corrected for the
temperature and pressure of your system by the following equation.
1.75

T P
DAB(T1, P1) = DAB(T2, P2) 1 2
T2 P1
where: T and P are absolute temperature and pressure respectively.
3. Estimate the value of the diffusion coefficient, for your system, using the empirical
equation of Fuller, Schettler, and Giddins (Ref. 1, p. 99 or Ref. 3, p. 435).
Note: Your report should present three values of diffusity at your system
conditions: experimental value, literature value, and empirical value.
4. Estimate the accuracy of your results.
Answer the following questions: (Support your answers with numerical values if
possible)
- What should be the optimum air flow rate?
- During the course of the experiment, when do you think the concentration of the
volatile species will be highest at the capillary mouth.
- What should be the optimum height for the capillary?
References
1. Seader J. D., and Henley E. J., Separation Process Principles, Wiley, (1998)
2. Sherwood, T. F., R. L. Pigford and C. R. Wilke, Mass Transfer, McGraw-Hill, (1975)
3. Welty, J. R., Wicks, C. E., Wilson, N. E., and Rorrer, G. Fundamentals of Momentum,
Heat and Mass Transfer, John Wiley and Son, (2001), p. 479.

26

CHE 333

TRANSPORT LABORATORY
Experiment No. 2
HEAT TRANSFER ALONG A CYLINDRICAL FIN

In this heat transport lab you will study and perform calculations for extended surface
heat transfer. As part of the experiment you will be using automated data collection
instruments and thermocouples.
We will be interested in the performance of an aluminum pin fin available in our
laboratory. You should determine the temperature distribution for both free and forced
convection flows and compare the experimental measurements with the predicted values.

Introduction
Consider the area A on the surface shown in Figure 1 where heat is being transfer from
the surface at a fixed temperature Ts to the surrounding fluid at a temperature T with a
heat transfer coefficient h. The heat transfer rate may be increased by increasing the
convection coefficient h, reducing the fluid temperature T, or adding materials to the
area A.
Plate

As

As

L
Surface

Figure 1. Use of extended surface or fin to enhance heat transfer.

Look on the plane side-view of the surface and the surface with fin. The heat transfer rate
without the fin from area A to the surrounding fluid is

qc = hA(Ts T)
With the fin attached to the area A, the heat transfer to the surrounding fluid must first be
transferred by conduction from area A to the fin

qf = kA

T
x

=
x =0

As

h(T ( x ) T )dAs

where dAs = Pdx and P = perimeter of the fin.

27

For the extended surface to enhance the heat transfer rate, the ratio of heat transfer with
and without the fin must be greater than one

T
q
x x =0
f f =
=
qc
h(Ts T )
k

As

h (T ( x ) T )dAs
h(Ts T )

(1)

f is called the fin effectiveness. For the fin to be cost effective, the fin effectiveness
should be greater than 2. The temperature profile along the fin must be determined before
the fin effectiveness can be calculated. Consider the cylindrical extended surface with
diameter D shown in Figure 2. To simplify the analysis, we will assume one-dimensional
heat transfer in the x direction, steady state, no heat generation, no radiation, constant
heat transfer coefficient, and constant physical properties.
T

T(x)
Tb
A

L
x

dx
Figure 2. A cylindrical fin with convective end.

An energy balance will be applied to a differential control volume, xA, shown in Figure
2. Since temperature is dependent on x, a differential distance along x must be chosen.
The surface area of the control volume is
As = xP = xD
From the energy balance applied to the control volume xA
qx (qx+x + qc) = 0
Divide the equation by x and take the limit as x 0

limit
x 0

q x q x + x qc

=0
x
x

limit q x q x + x
limit qc

=0

x 0
x 0 x
x

28

dq x
dq
c =0
dx
dx

dqc = hdAs(T(x) T)
The energy equation becomes

dq x
dA
h s (T(x) T) = 0
dx
dx

From the Fourier's law

qx = kA

dT
dx

where A is the cross-sectional area normal to the x-direction. The energy equation
becomes

d
dx
since As = Px,

dAs
dT
kA dx h dx (T(x) T) = 0

dAs
=P
dx

For constant k and A, the energy equation becomes a second order ordinary differential
equation (ODE) with constant coefficients.

hP
d 2T

(T(x) T) = 0
2
kA
dx

(2)

The above equation is a non-homogeneous ODE which can be made homogeneous by

introducing a new variable = T(x) T

hP
d 2

=0
2
kA
dx
Let m2 =

(3)

hP
, the solution to the homogenous ODE can be written as
kA

= B1sinh(mx) + B2cosh(mx)

(4)

The constants B1 and B2 can be evaluated using the following boundary conditions
at x = 0, T = Tb = b

(5a)

29

at x = L, k

dT
d
= h(T - T)
= h
dx
dx

(5b)

to obtain the temperature distribution along the pin fin

=
b

h
sinh m( L x )
mk
h
cosh mL +
sinh mL
mk

cosh m( L x ) +

(6)

and the fin heat transfer rate

h
cosh mL
mk
qf = M
h
cosh mL +
sinh mL
mk
sinh mL +

where

= T - T
m=

4h
kD

P = perimeter = D

(7)

b = Tb - T
M = b(hPkA)0.5
A=

D 2
4

The heat transfer coefficient for a long, horizontal cylinder can be estimated from
appropriate empirical correlations for free and forced convection flow1.
Fin performance is assessed by two factors: Fin Effectiveness, f, and the Fin Efficiency,

f. Fin effectiveness is defined as the ratio of the fin heat transfer rate to the heat transfer
rate that would exist without the fin as given by equation (1) earlier.

f =

qf
hAc b

(1)

Fin efficiency is defined as the ratio of the actual amount of heat transferred to the
amount of heat that would be transferred if the entire fin was at the base temperature.

f =

qf

(8)

hA f b

30

For this experiment you will determine the temperature distribution, the amount of
energy transferred to the air, the fin effectiveness, and the fin efficiency for both forced
and free convection.
Procedure:

For Free Convection :

1. Turn on the Varriac. Check to make sure that the heater connected to the fin is
connected with the varriac.
2. Wait until the system reach steady state and record the temperatures along the fin.
3. Read and record the ambient air temperature and pressure. Record the humidity
using the wet bulb thermometer.
For Forced Convection :
4. Turn the air blower on. Adjust the varriac so that the based temperature of the fin has
approximately the same value as in free convection.
5. Measure the air velocity by placing the wind velocity meter near the fin. It is
suggested that at least 5 readings over different x position along the fin be taken to
obtain an average value.
6. Wait until the system reach steady state and record the temperatures along the fin.
Repeat steps 1-6 for at least two more settings. Turn everything off and clean up.

Note: a. Check the identification of the thermocouples. Some were mislabeled in the
past.
b. What is the criterion for a steady state temperature?
Report :

Your report should:

1] Derive equations 6 & 7.
2] Determine the temperature distribution for both free and forced convection.
3] Compare the predicted values with the experimental values. Note: the predicted and
experimental values have the same base temperature.
4] Determine the fin effectiveness and fin efficiency for both free and forced
convection.
References:

1) Incropera and De Witt, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, Wiley 2002.

31

2) Chapman, A. J., Heat Transfer, McMillan Publishing Co., 1985.

3) Any CRC Handbook of Physics and Chemistry.

32

CHE 333

TRANSPORT LABORATORY

Experiment No. 3
GAS SEPARATION MEMBRANE EXPERIMENT

http://www.medal.com/en/membranes/nitrogen/index.asp
Figure 1. Hollow-fiber module used for air separation.

Gas separation with polymer membrane is becoming an important component of separation

technology1. Examples of common used membrane separations are enrichment of nitrogen from
air, hydrogen separation in ammonia plants an refineries, removal of carbon dioxide from natural
gas, and removal of volatile organic compounds from mixtures with light gases. Gas separation
membranes are often packaged in hollow fiber modules depicted in Figure 1. As air flows under
pressure into the module through the bores of the hollow fiber, some of the air gases permeate
through the wall of the fibers into the shell of the hollow fiber. The gas in the shell side of the
fibers leaves the module as the permeate stream. Since oxygen, water, and carbon dioxide are
more permeable than nitrogen and argon, the gas in the fiber bore is enriched as it moves from
the feed to the residue end of the module.

P>p
PO2>PN2

y, p

1-y

NO2

NN2
t

x, P
1-x
Figure 2. Schematic of a membrane with thickness t used to separate O2 from N2.
The flux NO2 of oxygen across the membrane shown in Figure 2 is given as
NO2 =

PO2
(xP yp)
t

(1)

where PO2 is the permeability of the membrane to oxygen, x is the mole fraction of oxygen on
the upstream, or high pressure P, side of the membrane, and y is the mole fraction of oxygen on

33

the downstream, or low pressure p, side of the membrane. The ratio of permeability to membrane
thickness is called the permeance QO2 of the membrane to oxygen. The permeance can be
viewed as a mass transfer coefficient that connects the flux with the driving force for transport,
which is the partial pressure difference between the upstream and downstream sides of the
membrane.
We now need to consider the fact that as the feed gas travels through the hollow fibers, its
composition changes as selective permeation depletes the more permeable components from the
feed gas mixture. Figure 3 illustrates the ideal countercurrent flow pattern for the binary mixture
of oxygen and nitrogen moving through the fiber module.
Permeate

p
d(yn)

yP, nP=nF

dA
P

xn
Feed
xF, nF

yi

xn+d(xn)

Retentate
x R, n R
Figure 3. Ideal countercurrent flow pattern through the separator.

The total mole and O2 species balances around the separator are2
nF = nR + nP

(2)

xFnF = xRnR + yPnP

(3)

where nF, nR, and nP are the molar flow rates of the feed, retentate, and permeate streams,
respectively, and xF, xR, and xP are the feed, retentate, and permeate O2 mole fraction,
respectively. The molar flux of oxygen through a differential area dA in the membrane is
given by equation (1) or by
NO2 =
Therefore

d ( xn ) PO2
(xP yp) = QO2(xP yp)
=
dA
t

d(xn) = QO2(xP yp)dA = d(yn)

(4)

The above equation is just the O2 species balance around the differential volume element
in the membrane. The reduction in the O2 molar flow rate d(xn) of the retentate stream
provides the same O2 molar flow rate d(yn) through the membrane. P and p are the
average retentate and permeate side pressures, respectively. Similar species balance for
nitrogen around the differential volume element in the membrane yields
d[(1x)n] = QN2 [(1x)P (1y)p)]dA

34

(5)

Dividing equation (4) by equation (5), we obtain

Q'
d ( xn )
xP yp
= O2
d [(1 x )n ] Q ' N 2 (1 x ) P (1 y ) p

(6)

d ( xn )
is just the molar flow rate of oxygen over that of nitrogen in the
d [(1 x )n ]
permeate stream, therefore it is equal to the ratio of the mole fraction of oxygen over that
Q 'O 2
y
of nitrogen
as shown schematically in Figure 4. Let * =
, equation (6)
1 y
Q' N 2
becomes
The ratio

y
xP yp
= *
1 y
(1 x ) P (1 y ) p

(7)

d(yn)
p

Permeate
yP, nP=nF

yi

xn
Feed
xF, nF

xn+d(xn)
P

Retentate
x R, n R

Figure 4. Molar flow rate ratio is equal to mole fraction ratio.

The separation factor * is assumed to be constant. The permeate composition at the

capped end of the hollow fibers is obtained from equation (7) by replacing y with yi and x
with xR.
yi
x R P yi p
= *
1 yi
(1 x R ) P (1 y i ) p

(7)

When the change in feed mole fraction of oxygen is less than 50%, the driving force for
diffusion across the membrane, = xP yp, is assumed to be a linear function of the
change in the molar flow on the feed side of the membrane
d(xn) =

( xn ) R ( xn ) F
d
R F

(8)

From the species balance around the separator xFnF = xRnR + yPnP
(xn)R (xn)F = (yn)P

(9)

35

Combine equations. (8) and (9) with equation (4) d(xn) = QO2(xP yp)dA, we obtain
yPnP

d
= QO2dA
R F

Separate the variables and integrate

yPnP

Am
d
= QO2 (R F) dA
0

yPnP ln R

= QO2 (R F)Am (What happens to the minus sign?)

yPnP = QO2lm Am

(10)

where the log mean average lm is defined as

lm =

R F
( xP yp ) R ( xP yp ) F
= (xP yp)lm =
R
( xP yp ) R
ln
ln
F
( xP yp ) F

(11)

Equation (10) expresses the molar flow rate yPnP of oxygen as a function of the
permeance QO2 or mass transfer coefficient, area of membrane Am for mass transfer, and
an average driving force lm across the membrane. Similarly, the molar flow rate of
nitrogen in the permeate stream can be found
(1yP)nP = QN2 [(1x)P (1y)p)]lmAm

(12)

The oxygen species balance, xFnF = xR( nF nP) + yPnP, can be written in dimensionless
form using the definition of the cut = nP/nF,
xF = xR( 1 ) + yP

(13)

Similarly, equations (7), (10), and (12) in dimensionless forms are

yi
x R r yi
= *
1 yi
(1 x R ) r (1 yi )
yPnP

nR 1
n
1
= R
QO2lm Am
nF Q' N 2
nF Q' N 2

36

(14)

yP

nP
nR
n
= 1 P
Q ' N 2 Am p n F
nF

Q 'O 2

(xr y)lm
Q' N 2

yPKR = (1 )*(xr y)lm

(15)

(1yP) KR = (1 )[(1x)r (1y))]lm

(16)

where r = P/p and KR =

nR
Q ' N 2 Am p

The algebraic model equations (13-16) represent a system with four equations in eight
variables: xF, xR, yP, r, yi, , *, and KR. The system can be solved with measured values
of xF, xR, yP, and r, leaving yi, , *, and KR as unknowns in the solution. For better
convergence of these nonlinear algebraic equations, the log-mean average can be
replaced by the Chen approximation

( + F )
R F

= RF R

R
2

ln
F

1/ 3

The algebraic equations can be solved by Newtons method presented next.

Newtons Method for Systems of Nonlinear Algebraic Equations

Consider two equations f1(x1, x2) and f2(x1, x2) for which the roots are desired. Let p10 ,
p20 be the guessed values for the roots. f1(x1, x2) and f2(x1, x2) can be expanded about point
( p10 , p20 ) to obtain
f1
(x1 p10 ) +
x1
f
f2(x1, x2) = f2( p10 , p20 ) + 2 (x1 p10 ) +
x1
f1(x1, x2) = f1( p10 , p20 ) +

f1
(x2 p20 ) = 0
x2
f 2
(x2 p20 ) = 0
x2

Let y10 = (x1 p10 ) and y10 = (x2 p20 ), the above set can be written in the matrix form
f1
x
1
f 2
x1

f1
x2

f 2
x2

y10
f1 ( p10 , p20 )
=

0
0
y2
f1 ( p1 , p2 )

37

or

J(p(0))y(0) = F(p(0))

In general, the superscript (0) can be replaced by (k1)

J(p(k-1))y(k-1) = F(p(k-1))
J(p(k-1)) is the Jacobian matrix of the system. The new guessed values x at iteration k are
given by
x = p(k) = p(k-1) + y(k-1)
Example

Use Newtons method with the initial guess x = [0.1 0.1 0.1] to obtain the solutions to
the following equations2
1
=0
2
f2(x1, x2, x3) = x12 81(x2 + 0.1)2 + sin x3 + 1.06 = 0
10 3
f2(x1, x2, x3) = e x1x2 + 20x3 +
=0
3
f1(x1, x2, x3) = 3x1 cos(x2 x3)

Solution

The following two formulas can be applied to obtain the roots

J(p(k-1))y(k-1) = F(p(k-1))
J(p(k-1)) is the Jacobian matrix of the system.

f1
x
1
f
(k-1)
J(p ) = 2
x1
f
3
x1

f1
x2
f 2
x2
f 3
x2

f1
x3
f 2
x3
f 3

x3

F(p(k-1)) is the column vector of the given functions

Numerical Analysis by Burden and Faires

38

 f1 ( x1 , x2 , x3 )
) = f 2 ( x1 , x2 , x3 )

f 3 ( x1 , x2 , x3 )

(k-1)

F(p

The new guessed values x at iteration k are given by

x = p(k) = p(k-1) + y(k-1)

Table 1 lists the Matlab program to evaluate the roots from the given initial guesses.
Table 1 Matlab program for the example ------------% Newton Method
%
f1='3*x(1)-cos(x(2)*x(3))-.5';
f2='x(1)*x(1)-81*(x(2)+.1)^2+sin(x(3))+1.06';
f3= 'exp(-x(1)*x(2))+20*x(3)+10*pi/3-1' ;
% Initial guess
%
x=[0.1 0.1 -0.1];
for i=1:5
f=[eval(f1) eval(f2) eval(f3)];
Jt=[3
2*x(1)
-x(2)*exp(-x(1)*x(2))
x(3)*sin(x(2)*x(3)) -162*(x(2)+.1) -x(1)*exp(-x(1)*x(2))
x(2)*sin(x(2)*x(3)) cos(x(3))
20]';
%
dx=Jt\f';
x=x-dx';
fprintf('x = ');disp(x)
end

Experimental Procedure
Compressed air at about 110 psig is supplied to the membrane module through an air
regulator. The supplied air pressure can be controlled by turning the knob on top of the
regulator. The oxygen concentration is measured by a portable oxygen analyzer model
GPR-30. You can calibrate the oxygen analyzer by turn it on while in the ambient air and
set the oxygen concentration to 21.0 %.
Adjust the inlet pressure of the membrane module to 30 psig. Read the flow rate on the
permeate side of the membrane and set the same flow rate for the retentate. Record the
oxygen concentrations on both sides of the membrane when the system reaches steady
state. The permeate pressure p is assumed to be the ambient pressure and the retentate
pressure P is the average of the feed and retentate pressures as measured by the pressure
gages.
39

Measure the oxygen concentrations and the retentate pressures again at the retentate flow
rates of twice and four times the permeate flow rate. Repeat the procedure at 40, 50, 60,
70, and 80 psig.

Analysis
The Matlab program to solve equations (13-16) can be download from T.K. Nguyen
website (http://www.csupomona.edu/~tknguyen/che333/home.htm). Make sure you
understand the program. The system can be solved with measured values of xF, xR, yP, and
r, leaving yi, , *, and KR as unknowns in the solution. (Appendix A gives instructions
to solve equations 13-16 using Excel Solver)
xF = xR( 1 ) + yP

(13)

yi
x R r yi
= *
1 yi
(1 x R ) r (1 yi )

(14)

yPKR = (1 )*(xr y)lm

(15)

(1yP) KR = (1 )[(1x)r (1y))]lm

(16)

1. Plot the experimental and calculated separation factor * as a function of r (= P/p) and
discuss the results.
2. Plot the experimental and calculated cut (= nP/nF) as a function of r and discuss the
results.
3. Present one iteration of the Newtons method at 30 psig and = 0.5 using the guessed
values yi = 0.2, = 0.5, * = 6, and KR = 2. Clearly indicate how you evaluate the
Jacobian matrix.
4. Explain the difference in the diffusion rates of gases through the membrane.
References

1. Coker, D. T., Prabhakar, R., Freeman, Tools for Teaching Gas Separation Using
Polymers, Chemical Engineering Education, 36, Winter 2002, 60
2. Davis, R. A., Sandall, O. C., A Simple Analysis for Gas Separation Membrane
Experiments, Chemical Engineering Education, 36, Winter 2002, 74

40

3. Welty, J. R., Wicks, C. E., Wilson, N. E., and Rorrer, G. L., Fundamentals of
Momentum, Heat and Mass Transfer, John Wiley and Son, (2001)

41

% Gas membrane separation calculation

%
Ph=[15 25 35 45 55];
xf=.229;
ypv=[.342 .394 .415 .431 .427;.367 .411 .456 .472 .476;.374 .436 .478 .510
.518];
xrv=[.115 .101 .081 .075 .060;.178 .153 .135 .125 .111;.200 .189 .180 .174 .161];
Kr=2;a=6;yi=0.2;theta=0.5;
dy=.01;
f1='yi*((1-xr)*r-(1-yi))-a*(1-yi)*(xr*r-yi)';
f2='xr*(1-theta)+yp*theta-xf';
dt1='((xf*r-yp)*(xr*r-yi)*(xf*r-yp+xr*r-yi)/2)^(1/3)';
f3='yp*Kr*theta-(1-theta)*a*eval(dt1)';
dt2='(((1-xf)*r-(1-yp))*((1-xr)*r-(1-yi))*((1-xf)*r-(1-yp)+(1-xr)*r-(1-yi))/2)^(1/3)';
f4='(1-yp)*Kr*theta-(1-theta)*eval(dt2)';
%
df1dk=0;df1dt=0;
df2dk=0;df2da=0;df2dy=0;
df4da=0;
for ni=1:3;
for nj=1:5;
xr=xrv(ni,nj);yp=ypv(ni,nj);r=(Ph(nj)+14.7)/14.7;
%
x=[Kr a yi theta];
disp('Guessed values')
fprintf('KR = %8.3f, alfa = %8.3f, yi = %8.3f, theta = %8.3f\n',Kr,a,yi,theta)
for i=1:20
%
f=[eval(f1) eval(f2) eval(f3) eval(f4)];
df1da=(1-yi)*(xr*r-yi);
df1dy=(1-xr)*r-(1-yi)+yi+(xr*r-yi)+a*(1-yi);
df2dt=-xr+yp;
dlm1=eval(dt1);dlm2=eval(dt2);
df3dk=yp*theta;
df3da=-(1-theta)*dlm1;
df3dt=yp*Kr+a*dlm1;

42

df4dk=(1-yp)*theta;
df4dt=(1-yp)*Kr+dlm2;
yi=yi+dy;
df3dy=(eval(f3)-f(3))/dy;
df4dy=(eval(f4)-f(4))/dy;
yi=yi-dy;
Jt=[df1dk df1da df1dy df1dt;
df2dk df2da df2dy df2dt;
df3dk df3da df3dy df3dt;
df4dk df4da df4dy df4dt;];
dx=Jt\f';
x=x-dx';
Kr=x(1);a=x(2);yi=x(3);theta=x(4);
a_exp=yp*(1-xr)/xr/(1-yp);
if max(abs(dx))<.001, break, end
end
fprintf('For P/p = %8.3f,Calculated values from %g iterations\n',r,i)
fprintf('KR = %8.3f, alfa = %8.3f, alfa exp = %8.3f, yi = %8.3f, theta =
%8.3f\n',Kr,a,a_exp,yi,theta)
disp(' ')
end
end

43

INTERCOMPANY MEMORANDUM
CAL CHEM CORPORATION
To:

CHE Juniors

Date: Spring Quarter

File: CHE 333

From:

CHE faculty
Laboratory Managers

Subject:

Double-pipe Heat Exchanger

We have recently purchased a double-pipe heat exchanger and wish to check on its
performance. We plan to use the exchanger to study the variation of the overall heat
transfer coefficient with flow rate. The exchanger has been piped to permit counter and
parallel flow operation. The tube outer diameter is 15 mm with a wall thickness of 0.7
mm. The shell outer diameter is 22 mm with a wall thickness of 0.9 mm. The length for
heat transfer is 1.5 m.
Determine the overall heat transfer coefficient for the exchanger using both experimental
data and generalized correlations. Would you expect the overall heat transfer coefficient
to be different for counter and parallel flow operation?
The overall heat transfer coefficient can be based on the inside or the outside surface area
of the tubes according to the following equation
1 = 1 = 1 + 1 + ro - ri + 1 + 1
Ui Ai Uo A0 hi Ai hdi Ai kAlm hdo Ao ho Ao

You can use the correlations given in Incropera for flow inside a pipe (Ref. 1, pg. 508).
Be sure to use the equivalent diameter for the flow in the annular space.

44

Double-pipe Heat Exchanger

The heat transfer between a hot and a cold streams in a concentric tube heat exchanger is
Q = UATlm = UoAoTlm = UiAiTlm

(1)

where

U = overall heat transfer coefficient

A = surface area normal to direction of heat transfer
Tlm = average driving force for heat transfer = average temperature
difference between two streams.
Thi

Thi
Tho
Tco

Tho
Tco
Tci

Tci

(a) Parallel flow

(b) Countercurrent flow

Fig.1 Flow arrangements in heat exchanger

For parallel flow, Tlm is defined by the following equation

Tlm =

(Thi Tci ) (Tho Tco )

T Tci
ln hi
Tho Tco

(2a)

For countercurrent flow, Tlm is defined by the following equation

Tlm =

(Thi Tco ) (Tho Tci )

T Tco
ln hi
Tho Tci

(2b)

If there is no heat loss to the surrounding, all the energy leaving from the hot stream will
be transferred to the cold stream, then Q can also be evaluated from
Q = MhCph(Thi - Tho) = McCpc(Tco - Tci)
where

Mh = mass flow rate of the hot stream

Mc = mass flow rate of the cold stream

45

(3)

Experimental value of U can be calculated from Eq.(1). The overall heat transfer
coefficient can also be estimated from the following relation

1 = 1 = 1 + 1 + ro - ri + 1 + 1
Ui Ai Uo A0 hi Ai hdi Ai kAlm hdo Ao ho Ao
where

(4)

hi = heat transfer coefficient for the inner tube

hdi = fouling coefficient for the inner tube
hdo = fouling coefficient for the outside surface of the inner tube
ho = heat transfer coefficient for the annular space
ri = inside radius of the inner tube
ro = outside radius of the inner tube
Ai = inside surface area of the inner tube
Ao = outside surface area of the inner tube
Alm = (Ao - Ai)/ln(Ao/Ai)

ho
hdo

Annular space

hdi
hi

ri ro

Fig.2 Concentric tube heat exchanger

For laminar flow in a tube, the average heat transfer coefficient might be estimated from
the following correlation
NuD ,l = 3.66 +

0.0668( D / L) Re D Pr
2/3
1 + 0.4[( D / L) Re D Pr ]

(5)

For turbulent flow, the heat transfer coefficient might be estimated from the following
correlation
Nu D ,t = 0.023ReD4/5Prn

(6)

46

where n = 0.4 for heating (surface temperature > fluid temperature) and 0.3 for cooling
(surface temperature < fluid temperature).
For transitional flow 2,300 < ReD < 10,000
( NuD )10 = ( NuD ,l )10 + (

exp[( 2,200 Re D ) / 365]

(Nu )

D ,l

(Nu )

)-5

(7)

D ,t

where NuD ,l and NuD ,t are the laminar and turbulent Nusselt numbers given in equations
(5) and (6).
For noncircular cross section, the above correlations may be applied by using an effective
or hydraulic diameter
Dh = 4Ac/P

(8)

where Ac and P are the flow cross-sectional area and the wetted perimeter, respectively.
This diameter should be used in calculating ReD and NuD. For flow in an annular space,
the effective diameter is
Dh =

( Do2 Di2 )
= Do Di
( Di + Do )

(9)

Experimental Procedure

Turn on the heater for the water. Set the temperature of the water to about 75oC; do not
exceed 80oC. While the water is heating calibrate the cold-water flow meter. The flow
meter is read from the top of the float.
Set the valves for counter flow using the diagram on the exchanger or T.K. Nguyen
website (http://www.csupomona.edu/~tknguyen/che435/heat.htm). Set the hot water flow
rate at half the maximum allowable value and vary the cold water flow rate. At each
setting, record the inlet, outlet, and middle temperatures of the hot and cold streams when
the system reaches steady state. At least five cold water readings should be measured.
Repeat the procedure at half the maximum allowable value for the cold water flow rate
while varying the hot water flow rate. Repeat the entire procedure for parallel flow.
Minimum Data Analysis

1. At a fixed hot water flow rate, plot a graph of experimental U versus ReD using Eq. (1)
for both parallel and counter flow.
2. At a fixed cold water flow rate, plot a graph of experimental U versus ReD using Eq.
(1) for both parallel and counter flow.

47

3. Look up the values of hdi and hdo from reference and repeat (1) and (2) for calculated
U using Eq. (4).
5. Plot the effectiveness of the heat exchanger for both parallel and counter flow as a
function of ReD as in (1) and (2).
6. Discuss the limitations of Eqs. (5) and (6).

48

References

1. Incropera, F. P. and DeWitt D. P, Fundementals of Heat and Mass Transfer, Wiley,

2002.
2. Hanesian, D. and Perna A. J., A Laboratory Manual for Fundamentals of Engineering
Design, NJIT.
3. Walas S. M., Chemical Process Equipment, Selection and Design, Butterworths,
1988.

49

CHE 333

TRANSPORT LABORATORY
EXPERIMENT NO. 5
Boiling Heat Transfer
Introduction

This experiment may appear very crude. And it does not provide very accurate
information.
But it does illustrate the three modes of heat transfer. It also provides
some insight into the complex area of nucleate boiling.
This is an experiment where the data are more qualitative than quantitative. However you
can investigate the following areas of the heat flux versus T (difference between the
surface temperature and the boiling temperature of the liquid) relationship3:
a. the free convection zone
b. the nucleate boiling zone
c. the critical heat flux point, i.e. the maximum in a typical boiling curve
d. the transition zone between nucleate and film boiling
e. the Leidenfrost point, i.e. the minimum in a typical boiling curve
f. the film boiling zone
Carefully determining the transition between free convection and nucleate boiling zone,
the critical heat flux, and Leidenfrost points is very difficult and will require
perseverance in your experimental technique.
The experimental setup consists of:
a hotplate connected to a variable transformer
a convex metal surface, sitting on the hotplate and having a thermocouple, to
contain and boil drops of liquid
a syringe to supply drops of liquid
a stopwatch.
Experimental Procedure
Note: It is important to carefully and thoroughly clean the convex surface of the
stainless steel heating surface.

1) Insert three thermocouples into the holes in the side of the stainless steel plate and
place the plate on top of the resistance heater. Place the heater on the tripod stand. A
Labview program may be used to read and display the temperature of the plate. Appendix
B gives instructions to run this program.
2) Measure the volume of the droplet generated from the microsyringe or burette. It is
important to maintain the same size and shape of the water drops so be careful to avoid
heating the microsyringe or burette

50

3) Plug the heater into the powerstat variable transformer and plug the transformer into a
120 V A.C. source.
4) Initially adjust the powerstat so that the temperature of the plate is about 2oC higher
than the boiling point of water. Wait for the temperature to stabilize.
5) Deliver a drop of distilled water to the hot plate. If necessary, adjust the tripod stand to
level the apparatus so that the drops of water do not bounce off the heating plate. As the
temperature differential becomes greater this is more critical.
6) Measure the time required for a drop to completely vaporized. If the time is more than
one minute with the hot plate at 102oC raise the initial temperature to 103oC and, if
necessary, to 104oC. Make at least five experimental runs at each temperature.
7) Repeat steps 4 to 6 at another temperature. See figure 10.4 of reference (3) for some
idea of the temperature settings. You should plan to make many runs at T's about 510oC until the plate temperature reaches about 300-400oC. T can be larger, 10-20oC, if
the temperature is not near the three important points aforementioned.
8) Repeat the experiment with another liquid. You will need to know the boiling and
critical points of the liquid. Take the data with the plate temperature between the boiling
point and the critical point.
Investigate placing the drop on different areas of the disc and the height and manner of
delivering the drop. Investigate the effect of the initial drop temperature on the breakage
of the drop. Aim to keep the water temperature and the size of the liquid drop constant.
Try to obtain data that show the maximum heat flux and the minimum heat flux versus
T. You can chart the course of your experimental work by preparing a crude graph in
the laboratory. If everything else is constant, heat flux is proportional to the reciprocal
time (of boiling).
Theory

The authors of reference 1 have modeled the film boiling of drops of liquid on a hot
surface and reduced the differential momentum and diffusions equations to the following
two equations:
k 3C p DMp *
+
(T p Tb ) + 4 (T p4 Tb4 )

(1 + )
2rRTb

dr
=
(1)
4 l [ + 0.5C p (T p Tb )]
dt
8 v ( l v ) g 3 =

k
9 r
4
3DMp *
Tp Tb +
Tp4 Tb4
(2)
rRTb
(1 + )
+ 0.5C p Tp Tb

Where
Tp = temperature of the plate (K)
Tb = boiling point temperature of the drop (K)
Cp = specific heat of the vapor (cal/g-C)*
k = thermal conductivity of the vapor (cal/cm-s-C)*

51

L = latent heat of vaporization of the drop (cal/g)**

D = molecular diffusivity of the vapor species in air (cm2/s)**
M = molecular weight of the vapor
p* = vapor pressure of the drop (dynes/cm2)**
l = density of the liquid (g/cm3)**
v = density of the vapor (g/cm3)*
= viscosity of the vapor (g/cm-s)*
= thermal emissivity of the liquid
r = radius of the drop (cm)
= distance the drop is levitated above the plate (cm)
t = time (s)
R = ideal gas constant (dyne-cm/gmole-K)
= Stefan-Boltzman constant (cal/cm2-s-K4)
g = gravitational constant (cm/s2)
Note: "*" denotes evaluation at (Tp + Tb)/2 and "**" denotes evaluation at Tb.

Equation (1) accounts for molecular diffusion and radiation heat transfer. If molecular
radiation and thermal radiation are neglected, the drop vaporization time is given by
12 4
=

5 3

7 / 12

9 l3 ( *) 3
8k 3 T 3 g
v

1/ 4

Vo5/12

(3)

where Vo is the initial droplet volume. Other parameters are the same as in equation (1).
In order to estimate a droplets boiling time, Eqs. (1) and (2) must be solved. A Matlab
program is provided to solve for the boiling time. Most of the physical properties
required for the calculation can be obtained from the PROP program. Eqs. (1) and (2) can
only predict the evaporation time of the liquid drop in the film boiling zone. (See Figure
3, Reference 1)
Report

1) For the experimental data, plot the boiling curve (expressed as reciprocal time) vs. (Tp
- Tb).
2) In the boiling regime, plot the evaporation time vs. (Tp - Tb) using experimental
values and values obtain from equations (1) and (3). Discuss the agreement between
the experimental values and the values obtained from the two equations.
3) For the experimental data, plot the heat flux (W/m2) vs. (Tp - Tb). The heat flux can
be estimated to be the heat required evaporating the liquid drop divided by the initial
projected area of the drop. How does this compare with figure 10.4 of Incropera?
4) Discuss the sources of error in this experiment.
52

5) Look up the values and the equations for the physical properties from other sources
(not from the PROP program) and compare them with those used in the Matlab
program. You need to compare them side by side in a table that lists the values and
the equations used.
References

1. Gottfried, Byron and Bell, Kenneth J., Film Boiling of Spheroidal Droplets, I&EC
Fundamentals, Vol. 5, No. 4, November, 1966, pg. 561-568.
2. Reid, Robert C., et al, The Properties of Gases & Liquids, Fourth Ed., McGraw Hill,
1987.
3. Incropera and De Witt, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, Wiley 2002, pg. 598.

53

% This program determines the evaporation time of a liquid droplet with a

% given initial radius.
% The physical properties must be evaluated at the conditions given in the lab
manual.
%
disp('Water droplet')
R = .13888;
% Drop radius (cm)
L = 539.08;
% Latent Heat (cal/g)
DAB = .371;
% Diffusivity of vapor species in air (cm2/s)
M = 18;
% Vapor molecular weight
P = 992450;
% Vapor Pressure(dyne/cm2)
DL = .95785;
% Liquid Density(g/cm3)
EM = .96;
% Liquid emissivity
IGC = 8.314E+07;
% Ideal gas constant (dyne-cm/mol-K)
SBC = 1.3543E-12;
% Stefan-Boltzman constant (cal/cm2-s-K4)
GA = 980.54;
% Gravitational constant (cm/s2)
DV = M*P/(IGC*Tf);
% Vapor Density(g/cm3)
TB = 372.57;Tstart=TB+120;
Tp=Tstart:10:700;np=length(Tp);
dT=Tp-TB;
for i=1:np
TP=Tp(i);
Tf=.5*(TP+TB);
CP=32.24+1.924e-3*Tf+1.055e-5*Tf^2-3.596e-9*Tf^3;
CP=CP/(4.18*M); % Vapor Cp(cal/g-C)
K=7.341e-3-1.013e-5*Tf+1.801e-7*Tf^2-9.1e-11*Tf^3;
K=K/(418);
% Vapor k(cal/cm-s-C)
V=1.315e-4+(Tf-436)*(1.617-1.315)*1e-6; % Vapor viscosity(g/cm-s)
%fprintf('Vapor viscosity (g/cm-s) = %g\n',V)
%fprintf('Vapor k (cal/cm-s-C) = %g\n',K)
%fprintf('Vapor density (g/cm3) = %g\n',DV)
%fprintf('Vapor Cp (Cal/g-C) = %g\n',CP)
TE = TP - TB; A = K * TE;
B = 3 * CP * DAB * M * P * TE / 2 / IGC / TB;
C = 4 * SBC * EM * (TP ^ 4 - TB ^ 4) / (1 + EM);
D = 4 * DL * (L + CP * TE / 2);
E = 8 * DV * (DL - DV) * GA;
F = 9 * V / (L + CP * TE / 2);
G = 3 * DAB * M * P * L / IGC / TB;
E4 = 4 * E; BF = B * F;
RF = R * F; RFC = RF * C; FG = F * G;
DEL = .01;
for I = 1:10
D3 = DEL ^ 3;
FD = RF * (A + C * DEL) - DEL * (E * D3 + FG);
DFD = RFC - E4 * D3 - FG;
ERRO = FD / DFD; DEL = DEL - ERRO;
if abs(ERRO / DEL) < .0001, break, end

54

end
if I>9, fprintf ('exceed 10 iterations \n'), end
Z = [.1488743 .4333954 .6794096 .8650634 .9739065];
W = [.2955242 .2692667 .2190864 .1494514 6.667135E-02];
CI = DEL / 2; S = 0;
for I = 1:5
X = Z(I) * CI + CI;
XC = X ^ 3; CA = E * XC + FG; CB = A + C * X;
NUM = X * CA * (C * X * CA - CB * (E4 * XC + FG));
FF = NUM / (CA + BF) / CB ^ 3;
FS = FF; X = -Z(I) * CI + CI;
XC = X ^ 3; CA = E * XC + FG; CB = A + C * X;
NUM = X * CA * (C * X * CA - CB * (E4 * XC + FG));
FF = NUM / (CA + BF) / CB ^ 3;
S = S + W(I) * (FF + FS);
end
T = -S * CI * D / F;
fprintf('del(cm) = %g, evaporation time (sec) = %8.2f, DT(C) =
%8.2f\n',DEL,T,dT(i))
end
disp(' ');disp('Isopropanol droplet')
% Isopropanol droplet
R = .122;
% Drop radius (cm)
L = 158.454;
% Latent Heat (cal/g)
DAB = .139;
% Diffusivity of vapor species in air (cm2/s)
M = 60.094;
% Vapor molecular weight
P = 992450;
% Vapor Pressure(dyne/cm2)
DL = .778;
% Liquid Density(g/cm3)
EM = .96;
% Liquid emissivity
IGC = 8.314E+07;
% Ideal gas constant (dyne-cm/mol-K)
SBC = 1.3543E-12;
% Stefan-Boltzman constant (cal/cm2-s-K4)
GA = 980.54;
% Gravitational constant (cm/s2)
DV = M*P/(IGC*Tf);
% Vapor Density(g/cm3)
TB = 355.4;Tstart=TB+120;
Tp=Tstart:10:700;np=length(Tp);
dT=Tp-TB;
for i=1:np
TP=Tp(i);
Tf=.5*(TP+TB);
CP=32.43+.1185*Tf+6.404e-5*Tf^2-9.261e-8*Tf^3;
CP=CP/(4.18*M); % Vapor Cp(cal/g-C)
K=-7.931e-3+3.987e-5*Tf+11.93e-8*Tf^2-5.021e-11*Tf^3;
K=K/(418);
% Vapor k(cal/cm-s-C)
V=1.22e-4+(Tf-403)*(1.51-1.22)*1e-6; % Vapor viscosity(g/cm-s)
%fprintf('Vapor viscosity (g/cm-s) = %g\n',V)
%fprintf('Vapor k (cal/cm-s-C) = %g\n',K)
%fprintf('Vapor density (g/cm3) = %g\n',DV)
%fprintf('Vapor Cp (Cal/g-C) = %g\n',CP)

55

TE = TP - TB; A = K * TE;
B = 3 * CP * DAB * M * P * TE / 2 / IGC / TB;
C = 4 * SBC * EM * (TP ^ 4 - TB ^ 4) / (1 + EM);
D = 4 * DL * (L + CP * TE / 2);
E = 8 * DV * (DL - DV) * GA;
F = 9 * V / (L + CP * TE / 2);
G = 3 * DAB * M * P * L / IGC / TB;
E4 = 4 * E; BF = B * F;
RF = R * F; RFC = RF * C; FG = F * G;
DEL = .01;
for I = 1:10
D3 = DEL ^ 3;
FD = RF * (A + C * DEL) - DEL * (E * D3 + FG);
DFD = RFC - E4 * D3 - FG;
ERRO = FD / DFD; DEL = DEL - ERRO;
if abs(ERRO / DEL) < .0001, break, end
end
if I>9, fprintf ('exceed 10 iterations \n'), end
Z = [.1488743 .4333954 .6794096 .8650634 .9739065];
W = [.2955242 .2692667 .2190864 .1494514 6.667135E-02];
CI = DEL / 2; S = 0;
for I = 1:5
X = Z(I) * CI + CI;
XC = X ^ 3; CA = E * XC + FG; CB = A + C * X;
NUM = X * CA * (C * X * CA - CB * (E4 * XC + FG));
FF = NUM / (CA + BF) / CB ^ 3;
FS = FF; X = -Z(I) * CI + CI;
XC = X ^ 3; CA = E * XC + FG; CB = A + C * X;
NUM = X * CA * (C * X * CA - CB * (E4 * XC + FG));
FF = NUM / (CA + BF) / CB ^ 3;
S = S + W(I) * (FF + FS);
end
T = -S * CI * D / F;
fprintf('del(cm) = %g, evaporation time (sec) = %8.2f, DT(C) =
%8.2f\n',DEL,T,dT(i))
end

56