CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Production and consumption of fruit juice is increasing year by year in Ghana (FAO,
2001). In view of this, exportation and importation rates in Ghana are changing every
year to suit consumption rates. Powdered orange concentrate which will be produced
according to food quality standards in the fixed plant, will contribute to conscious food
consumption by correct marketing techniques. Fruit juice, fruit nectar, fruit drinks,
powdered fruit concentrate and concentrated fruit juice are most preferred products
which are produced in fruit process plants. Orange is very rich in minerals and vitamins.
It is also healthy when is consumed in orange juice prepared from a powdered
concentrate. Orange juice can be consumed with all meals. Especially consuming the
orange juice in the mornings is helpful to diet as an anti-oxidant. Orange juice industry
has continued to develop. But insufficient marketing techniques and unconscious food
consumption are preventing the development to speed up in Ghana.
This project is focusing mainly on the powdered concentrate form, particularly because;
i.

It has a relatively longer shelf-life.

ii.

It is consumer-convenient

iii.

It is relatively easy to transport in bulk.

The reasons mentioned above are the main factors for the establishment of this plant.
However, it should be noted that the proposed plant is to be sited close to source of raw
material.

1.1 OBJECTIVES
1.1.1 Main Objective
To design a plant for the production of powdered citrus concentrate from orange fruit
1.1.2 Specific Objectives
The precise objectives in this project are:
a) To draw a process flow diagram for the production of powdered orange
concentrate
b) To carry out a material and energy balance of plant and individual units therein
c) To determine raw material properties to be used in business, the factory's social,
economic, industrial and legal status
d) To specify the environmental issues to be mitigated against in operating the
plant
e) To design the majority of the various units within the plant and
f) To evaluate the economic viability of the designed plant.

CHAPTER TWO
2.0LITERATURE REVIEW
Citrus species are small to medium-size shrubs or trees that are cultivated throughout
the tropics and subtropics (Hepfer, 2010). They are native to parts of India, China,
Northern Australia, New Caledonia and North and South of Africa and partly West
Africa. Attesting to how citrus has been embraced by native cultures, most species
have been given names in many native languages. Citrus is primarily valued for the
fruit, which is either eaten alone (e.g. sweet orange, tangerine, grapefruit, etc.) as fresh
fruit, processed into juice, or added to dishes and beverages (lemon, lime, etc.). All
species have their respective traditional medicinal values (Kimball, 1999). Citrus has
many other uses including animal fodder, craft and fuel wood. Although commercial
production for export markets has not been significant in Ghana, there is potential for
farmers to supply local markets with fresh fruit and unique varieties. Orange is the
most common of citrus fruits. The other types of citrus are lemon, tangerine, lime,
kumquat, pummelo and grapefruit, just to mention a few. Citrus are grown between 36
degrees north and south parallel, middle and North America, Mediterranean countries in
the northern hemisphere, South Africa in the southern hemisphere and West African
countries.
2.1 BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION OF CITRUS
Citrus is a common term and genus (Citrus) of flowering plants in the rue family,
Rutaceae, originating in tropical and subtropical southeast regions of the world. The
most well known examples are the oranges, lemons, grapefruit and limes.
The generic name originated in Latin, where it specifically referred to the plant now
known as Citron (C. medica). It was derived from the ancient Greek word for cedar,
k (kedros). Some believe this was because Hellenistic Jews used the fruits of C.
3

medicaduring Sukkot (Feast of the Tabernacles) in place of a cedar cone (Kimball,

1999), while others state it was due to similarities in the smell of citrus leaves and fruit
with that of cedar (Pinchas and Goldschmidt, 1996). Collectively, Citrus fruits and
plants are also known by the Romance loanword agrumes (literally "sour fruits").
The taxonomy and systematics of the genus are complex and the precise number of
natural species is unclear, as many of the named species are clonally propagated
hybrids, and there is genetic evidence that even some wild, true-breeding species are of
hybrid origin (Nicolosiet al., 2000). Cultivated Citrus may be derived from as few as
four ancestral species. Natural and cultivated origin hybrids include commercially
important fruit such as the oranges, grapefruit, lemons, some limes, and some
tangerines.
Research suggests that the closely related genus Fortunella (kumquats), and perhaps
also Poncirus and the Australian Microcitrus and Eremocitrus, should be included in
Citrus; most botanists now classify Microcitrus and Eremocitrus as part of the genus
Citrus (Nicolosiet al., 2000).
2.2 TYPES OF CITRUS FRUITS
Citrus fruit is a hesperidium, fleshy, indehiscent berry that ranges widely in size,
colour, shape and juice quality. Citrus fruit range in size from 4 cm for lime to
over 25 cm in diameter for Pummelo. Fruits are globose to oval in shape. The
fleshy endocarp is divided into 1014 sections containing the stalked pulp and
separated by thin septa. Each section contains pulp (juice vesicles) that contains a
sour or sweetish watery juice. A whitish rag or mesocarp (also known as the
albedo) covers the endocarp. In turn, the thin outer section of the leathery peels
(exocarp) containing many oil glands are known as the favedo (Purseglove, 1974).

According to Purseglove (1974), there are innumerable types of citrus fruits ranging
from small to large ones. It is not possible to list all of them, but the most common ones
are listed below based on their colour, shape, size, mineral content and modes of
consumption.
1. Lemon (Citrus limon): It is one of the most common citrus fruits, which is oval or
round in shape, yellow or green in colour depending on fruit maturity and having a juicy
acidic flesh. Lemons are very much rich in vitamins and are used in making many soft
drinks like genuine lemonade.
2. Orange (Citrus sinensis): It is round in shape, reddish-yellow in colour with a thick
skin when ripe but green at initial fruiting stage. It is high in citric acid and vitamins.
Oranges can be consumed fresh or in soft drinks.
3. Lime (Citrus aurantifolia): It is an oval-shaped, small bright green fruit rich in acid
and vitamins. It is also used in many drinks.
4. Leech Lime: It is an oval-shaped, yellow or green coloured depending on fruit
maturity. Generally, the fruit is slightly bigger than lime. Leech lime juice can be drunk
by mixing it with water and sugar.
5. Grapefruit (Citrus paradisi): It is a round-shaped, large yellow citrus fruit with acid
juicy pulp. It can be eaten raw or used in preparing genuine marmalades.
6. Citron (Citrus medica): It is a yellowish-green coloured, large lemon-like fruit with a
thick peel. The preserved and candied citron peel is used in fruitcakes, cookery and
confectionery.
7. Kumquat (Citrus japonica): It is a small, oval-shaped, orange-yellow fruit with thin
sweet edible peel and acidic flesh. It can be eaten fresh or even with the edible peel.

8. Mandarin Orange (Citrus reticulate): It is a small, reddish-orange coloured, looseskinned citrus fruit. It can be eaten fresh or used as a sweetener in grapefruit juices.
9. Pummelo (Citrus maxima): It is large, pear-shaped, yellow coloured fruit with coarse
dry pulp. It is similar to grapefruit and is called the father of grapefruits due to its large
size.
10. Tangerine (Citrus tangerine): It is a type of mandarin orange having an orange-red
colour and citrus taste.
2.3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CITRUS TREE
2.3.1 Size
Citrus trees sizes range from 6 m to 12 m in height, although some species can
reach as high as 15 m. Rootstocks can greatly affect the height of grafted trees.
These trees have thin, smooth and grey-brown to greenish barks. Most species are
single-trunked with very hard wood. Canopy widths range from slender to broad,
depending on species. Many cultivated species are pruned so that the canopy is as wide
as the height of the tree (Hepfer, 2010).

Table 2.1 Table showing Species, common name, size and spines of citrus
SPECIES

COMMON NAME

SIZE AND SPINES

C. aurantifolia

Lime

Shrub or small trees grow to

about 4m and are spiny.

C. aurantium

Trees grow to about 10 m,

Sour orange

with short spines

C.grandis

Trees grow to about 12 m, and

Pummelo

are spiny
C. hystrixKafr

Trees grow to about 5m with

Lime

short spines
C. limon

Trees grow to about 6 m with

Lemon

stout spines.
C. macroptera

Trees grow

Wild orange

to

about 5m,

usually spiny.
C. medica

Shrub trees grow to about 3

Citron

m.
C. mitis

Trees grow to about 12 m,

Calamondin

usually spiny.
C. paradise

Grapefruit

Trees grow to about 15 m.

C. reticulate

Mandarin

Trees grow to 9 m, usually

spiny.

C. sinensis

Sweet orange

Trees grow to 12 m, often

spiny stems

Source : (Manner et al., 2006)

2.3.2 Flowering
Flowers are 2 to 4 cm in diameter, auxiliary, fragrant, single and often perfect
(having both functional stamens and pistils) or staminate. The carlyx is 45 lobed
and are usually five petals with oil glands. Stamens number between 20 and 40.
Petal colours range from white to pinkish in Kafr lime, pink to purplish in citron
and reddish in lemon varieties. The subglobose ovary is superior, with 818 locules
(cavities), with 48 ovules per locule in two rows.
2.3.3 Leaves and branches
Leaves are entire,

4 to 8 cm in length,

unifoliate,

fairly thick,

with winged

petioles. Leaves are ovate, oval or elliptical, with acute to obtuse tips containing
oils in glands, which are released when crushed. Young twigs are angled in crosssection, green and axillary single-spined, while older twigs and branches are circular in
cross-section and spineless.
2.3.4 Seeds
Seeds are pale white to greenish, fattened and angular. The seeds are usually
polyembryonic, meaning they have multiple embryos that can germinate. The embryos
are either zygotic or nucellar. The zygotic embryos are derived from pollination of
the ovary, and therefore are not always similar in horticultural qualities to the parent
tree. The nucellar embryos are derived wholly from the mother plant and display very
similar characteristics to the parent plant.
2.3.5 Rooting habit
Over 70% of citrus tree roots are in the top meter (1.0 m) of soil. Citrus trees produce a
taproot that can extend 2 m below the surface. Fibrous roots commonly extend well
beyond the canopy.

2.4

ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES AND TOLERANCES

2.4.1

Climate

Suitable climates for citrus are the tropical and subtropical humid regions of the world.
The fruit is said to achieve its highest flesh quality in subtropical humid climates or the
drier regions with irrigation (Rieger, 2002). Limes seem to be the citrus best adapted to
all environments (Taman and Whistler, 1996).
2.4.2

Elevation

In the subtropics, citrus grows between sea level and 750 m above sea level. In the
tropics, citrus does well below 1600 m.
2.4.3

Mean annual rainfall

Citrus trees require between 900 and 3000 mm per annum rainfall for maximum fruit
yielding. Without irrigation, 900 mm per annum is typically needed for any significant
fruit production.
2.4.4 Temperature
Mean maximum temperature of the hottest month is between 31 and 32 C but
temperatures can reach 43 C especially in Ghana and other citrus-growing regions.
Mean minimum temperature of the coldest month is between 8 and 14 C. Low
temperatures typically limit the range in which citrus can be grown. Citrus
becomes quiescent at temperatures below 13C. Theoretically, the fruits can be killed
by 30 minutes of temperatures from -3 to -2 C. Stems and leaves can be killed by a few
minutes at -7 to -3 C (Rieger, 2002). This is dependent on previous climatic conditions
and age of fruit, leaves and branches.

2.4.5 Soils
Citrus tolerates a wide range of soils from almost pure sands, organic mucks to
heavy clay soils (Rieger, 2002). The trees do not stand waterlogged soils but grow well
in freely draining soils. They are sensitive to excessive boron, sodium carbonate and
sodium chloride (Purseglove, 1968).
2.4.5.1 Soil texture
Citrus grows in a wide range of light, medium and heavy soils (sands, loams, clay
loams, and sandy clays). Citrus can however tolerate soils that are too dry to be
productive for other crops (soybean, cotton, wheat, sugarcane, etc.).
2.4.5.2 Soil drainage
Citrus performs better on freely draining soils compared with poorly drained soils,
and does not tolerate water logging.
2.4.5.3 Soil acidity
Citrus grows in acid to neutral soils with pH between 5 and 8; however, their
growth is greatest at pH 67. Trees on swingle root-stock will grow in pH range 5 to 7.5
and do not perform well on soils with high pH as a result of high calcium content.
2.4.6 Drought
Citrus growth in subtropical climates where the rainfall averages less than 250 mm/yr or
less is only possible with irrigation. Citrus can generally tolerate 3 to 4 months of
minimal rainfall. Drought tolerance depends on temperatures, soils, wind and the
desired level of fruit production. In Ghana, citrus productivity is low during drought and
therefore requires irrigation during the hot months to sustain intense fruit production.

10

2.4.7 Shading
Citrus can tolerate minimal shading. Shading or low light levels will affect the fruit
bearing of citrus trees (Jifon and Syvertsen, 2002). Grapefruit is more susceptible to
shading than oranges. Fruit productivity may be reduced by up to 50 % by shading for
more than 6 months.
2.4.8 Fire
Trees can handle minimal amounts of smoke and heat from fires. Fires that raise the
internal tree temperatures above 54C will damage the trees.
2.4.9 Frost
The species do not tolerate frost well. Previous environmental conditions dictate the
trees level of cold tolerance. When trees experience consistently cooler temperatures
with little rainfall before a freeze, they can demonstrate greater tolerance of the
subfreezing conditions than trees that have been actively growing.
In Ghana and other subtropical climates where citrus is grown commercially, smudge
pots are used to maintain air circulation during frost at the nursing stage. When
available, micro-sprinkler irrigation is the preferred method of cold protection.
Irrigation water is applied prior to the arrival of freezing temperatures to warm the soil
and then again during the freezing events to provide heat to the trees that is released
during the formation of ice crystals.
2.4.10 Water logging
Citrus does not tolerate water logging. When temperatures are over 24C, fibrous root
death from lack oxygen (anoxia) can begin within 7 and 14 days. As citrus roots die,
trees develop water stress symptoms such as leaf wildering, yellowing and dropping.
How quickly water stress develops depends on water movement, soil pH and the
amount of hydrogen sulphide present in hot weather will speed up the development of
11

visible symptoms. Moving water delays the development of anoxic symptoms, so it is

important to start drainage operations as soon as possible. If drainage reduces water
levels from 10 to 15 cm per day, root loss can be avoided. Hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
minerals produced by anaerobic bacteria have an odour of rotten eggs (in acid soils but
not in all cases), which is an indication that fibrous roots are dying. This process can be
slower at higher soil pH.
2.4.11Salt
Salinity does not favour effective citrus growth well. For this reason, most citrus
grows poorly in coastal and at all environments. High levels of salt in water will
increase the osmotic pressure and reduce the ease of water uptake by trees
(Boman and Stover, 2002).
Citrus species are differentially sensitive to salt depending on type of salt (Mass, 1992).
2.4.12Wind
Citrus trees are susceptible to leaf, branch and fruit damage in strong winds.
2.5 THE CITRUS FRUIT CHOSEN FOR THIS PROJECT: ORANGE
2.5.1 Description
The orange tree, reaching 7.5 m to 15 m, has a rounded crown of slender branches,
twigs which are twisted and angled when young and may bear slender, semi-flexible,
blunt spines in the leaf axils. There may be faint or conspicuous wings on the petioles of
the aromatic, evergreen, alternate, elliptic to ovate, sometimes faintly toothed "leaves"
technically solitary leaflets of compound leaves. These are between 6.5 and 15 cm long
and 2.5 to 9.5 cm wide. Borne singly or in clusters of 2 to 6, the sweetly fragrant white
flowers, about 5 cm wide, have a saucer-shaped, 5-pointed calyx and 5 oblong, white
petals, and 20 to 25 stamens with conspicuous yellow anthers. The fruit is globose,
12

subglobose, oblate or somewhat oval, 6.5-9.5 cm wide. Dotted with minute glands
containing an essential oil, the outer rind (epicarp) is orange or yellow when ripe; the
inner rind (mesocarp) is white, spongy and non-aromatic. The pulp (endocarp), yellow,
orange or more or less red, consists of tightly packed membranous juice sacs enclosed
in 10 to 14 wedge-shaped compartments which are readily separated as individual
segments. In each segment there may be 2 to 4 irregular seeds, white externally and
internally, though some types of oranges are seedless. The sweet orange differs
physically from the sour orange in having a solid centre.
2.5.2

Reasons for Choosing Orange over other Citrus Fruits

1. They thrive very well in the subtropics like Ghana and most neighbouring countries.
2. They last longer than many other citrus fruits when they are stored.
3. They are easy to transport because each orange comes in its own tough skin which
acts as a container.
4. They can be piled into heaps or carried in bags, lunchboxes and shipping containers
without being easily damaged.
5. They are a commonly available source of vitamin C.
2.6 VARIETIES OF ORANGES
2.6.1

Persian (sweet) orange

The Persian orange, grown widely in southern Europe after its introduction to Italy in
the 11th century, was bitter. Sweet oranges brought to Europe in the 15th century from
India by Portuguese traders, quickly displaced the bitter and are now the most common
variety of orange cultivated. The sweet orange will grow to different sizes and colors
according to local conditions, most commonly with ten carpels, or segments, inside.

13

2.6.2 Navel orange

A single mutation in 1820 in an orchard of sweet oranges planted at a monastery in
Brazil yielded the navel orange, also known as the Washington, Riverside, or Bahia
navel. The mutation causes navel oranges to develop a second orange at the base of the
original fruit, opposite the stem. The second orange develops as a conjoined twin in a
set of smaller segments embedded within the peel of the larger orange. From the
outside, it looks similar to the human navel. Because the mutation left the fruit seedless
and sterile, the only means available to cultivate more of this new variety is to graft
cuttings onto other varieties of citrus tree. The fruit eventually gained worldwide
popularity due to migration of people.
2.6.3

Dream Navel

Dream Navel is known for its easy peeling and separation; but it is also a sweet, juicy,
less acidic orange than most other navels it is a round shape, with nine to twelve
segments and is often seedless. The Dream is small to medium-sized with a pale orange
rind, light orange pulp and a pleasant ripe-mango aroma. The Dream Navel, a name
patented in 1944, was discovered in Orlando, Florida.
2.6.4

Valencia orange

The Valencia or Murcia orange is one of the sweet oranges used for juice extraction. It
is a late-season fruit and therefore a popular variety when the navel oranges are out of
season. Primarily grown for processing and juice production, valencia oranges have
seeds, varying in number from zero to six per fruit. However, its excellent taste and
internal colour make it desirable for the fresh markets, too. The fruit has an average
diameter of 2.7 to 3 inches (70 to 76 mm). After bloom, it usually carries two crops on
the tree, the old and the new. The commercial harvest season starts from March to June.

14

2.6.5 Blood orange

The blood orange has streaks of red in the fruit and the juice is often a dark burgundy
colour. The trees are mostly found in northern and West Africa. The fruit has found a
niche as an interesting ingredient variation on traditional Seville marmalade, with its
striking red streaks and distinct flavour. The scarlet navel is a variety with the same
dual-fruit mutation as the navel orange.
2.6.6 Cara cara
Cara cara is also known as the Red Navel and is likely the product of a Washington and
the Brazilian Bahai navel union. The fruit and juice are a dark red color and extremely
sweet with a low acid content. It originated at the Hacienda de Cara Cara in Valencia,
Venezuela. It is a medium-sized round fruit with 10 to 12 segments and few, if any,
seeds. The yellowish orange rind and rich red pulp make it quite distinguishable and its
appeal increases because of its cherry-flavoured overtones.
2.6.7

Hamlin

Hamlin is a medium small globular, bright orange which has thin rind, fleshy pulp;
making it one of the most productive oranges for processing. It has a sweet flavour
lacking in acid and usually with few seeds. When matured, it is harvested between
October and January. Hamlin originated as a chance seedling in a grove near Glenwood,
Florida, owned by A. G. Hamlin, and has become the most widely grown orange variety
in Florida.
2.6.8 Jaffa
Jaffa and another fruit of the genus Joppa are seedlings from the Israel Beledi tree,
which also produced the Shamouti. The Jaffa was first introduced to Europe, America
and Southern Africa in the 1880s as a potentially cold-tolerant, high quality, midseason
species and soon became popular for its flavour enjoyed as juice or in cooking. The fruit
15

is oblique-shaped, with a slightly rough, light orange rind. The flesh is a pale orange,
with only ten segments and a few seeds.
2.6.9 Moro
Moro is a "blood" orange, so named for its dark burgundy color of its rind. Originally
from Sicily, it is common throughout Europe and quite versatile fresh or cooked. This
medium-sized fruit has a relatively long harvest, lasting from December through to
April. The orange has 10-12 segments and is almost seedless. The flavour is unequaled,
ranging from sweet to tart with berrylike overtones. The Moro is now known as the
"connoisseur's citrus".
2.6.10 Moro Tarocco
Moro Tarocco is Italy's finest orange variety and among the best of the Mediterranean
fruit, having the perfect balance between sweetness and acidity. The ovoid shape
resembles that of the tangelo or Minneola. It is a medium-sized seedless fruit with a
rich, juicy, raspberry flavour, which is excellent for juicing or cooking. The original
mutation occurred in the 17th century in Sicily, creating the striking caramel-toned
endocarp. This color is the result of the pigment called anthocarpium, not usually found
in citrus, but is common in other red fruits and flowers.
2.7 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF SWEET ORANGE
During the first year after planting, tree growth is usually minimal. Providing the
adequate

moisture and nutrients,

trees

greatly increase

in height and diameter

between the second and fourth year after planting. For grafted trees, during the first
3 to 4 years after planting, the tree undergoes primarily vegetative growth, but fruit
may occasionally be produced. Vegetative growth flushes occur during the rainy
seasons.

16

Quiescence in citrus normally occurs during the rainy season, when lower
temperatures are experienced.Vegetative growth and the annual increase in tree
height and diameter slow down once fruits bearing begins. The desired tree size is
typically achieved between ten and fourteen years after planting. Fruiting typically
declines from its peak after 2025 years, but trees are known to survive and bear
fruit for 250 years (Hume, 1938).
2.7.1 Growth rate
Growth rates are highly variable based on climate, cultural practices, tree spacing, scion,
and rootstock (Wheaton et al., 1999). Younger trees (approximately 510 years old)
tend to have greater growth rates in relation to beginning tree size. In Ghana, trees grew
10 cm/yr in height between 3 and 6 years. Comparatively, trees between 6 and 12 years
grew at a rate of 30 cm/yr in height. Trunk cross-sectional areas can increase from 5 to
33 cm2 each year.
2.7.2 Flowering
Flowering can occur within the second year after planting, but regular flowering occurs
4 years after planting. Seasonal flowering occurs after the rainy season when trees have
experienced a period of quiescence. Over 300 hours of temperature below 20C
followed by warm temperatures will induce flowering.
Multiple blooms each year can be experienced on trees growing in tropical conditions.
Only a small percentage of flowers produce fruits; large numbers of flowers drop after
opening and large numbers of fruits drop between 10 to 12 weeks after pollination.
Fruits take between 7 to 14 months to mature (Purseglove, 1974).
2.7.3 Reaction to competition
Sweet orange trees have demonstrated resiliency to competition from some annual
broad leaf weeds. In the first year after planting the tree, trunk and canopy growth
17

of citrus trees were affected by Spanish needle (Bidensbipinnata). The canopy is

more affected by competition than the trunk growth (Buker, 2005). The greatest
reported impact by weeds on citrus yields was from a perennial grass; Bermuda grass
(cynodondactylon) reduced yields 50% after season-long competition (Jordan, 1981).
2.8 COMPOSITION OF ORANGE
Table 2.2 Composition of the edible portion of orange
Component

Amount (g)

Carbohydrates (g/l)

67-122

Niacin (g/kg )

7000-3000

Thiamine (g/kg )

300-600

Water ( % )

82.7-89.3

Protein (g/l)

8-11

Acidity of titration (g/l)

12.1-15.9

Ascorbic acid (mg/l)

50-152

Potassium (mg/l)

1900-3700

Calcium (mg/kg)

120-200

Phosphorus(mg/kg)

180-230

Magnesium (mg/kg)

70-140

Beta carotene (g/kg )

4500-35000

(Source: TSE 34, 2007)

18

Table 2.3 Composition of sweet orange (~100 g)

Component

Amount (g)

Water

86.6

Protein

0.7-1.3

Oil

0.1-0.3

Fiber

0.5

Ash

0.5-0.7

Calcium

0.04-0.043

Phosphorus

0.017-0.022

Iron

0.0002-0.0008

Carotene

200 IU (vitamin A)

Thiamine

0.00010

Riboflavin

0.00004

(Source: TSE 34, 2007)

Table 2.2 and Table 2.3 show a combination of orange in the edible portion. Orange
fruit nutritional value as determined by the TSE.
2.9 PROPAGATION
Sweet orange can be propagated by many methods including seeds, cuttings, airlayering, grafting by many methods and tissue culture. Although some cultivars can be
reproduced by seed, this method is considered inferior. Varieties that are reproduced by
seed require more time to produce fruit, are more susceptible to diseases, are more
19

difficult to keep true to type and tend to produce more thorns than grafted varieties.
Their fruit is also harder to pick as a result of the upright and thorny growth. In
commercial practice, the orange is commonly propagated by grafting an individual bud
of a selected variety onto a rootstock seedling.
2.9.1 Vegetative propagation known as T-budding
Budding uses a bud cut from the parent tree (scion) that is grafted onto a
seedling rootstock. Once the bud is in place, the foliage of the rootstock above it
is cut of or tied down to force the bud growth.
horticultural advantages to budding.

There are

however,

several

A major advantage is the known success in

reproducing the characteristics of the parent tree (Williamson and Jackson, 1994).
Producing trees through budding allows the selection of rootstocks that can
impart disease tolerance and allow production in soils not suited for the scion.
2.9.2 Propagation area
Survival of budded plants is greater in protected environments. Shade houses or
green houses with adequate water are sometimes used.
2.9.3 Early growth
Buds that are successfully growing will be green and have callus forming around
the edges from 14 to 21 days after cutting. Wraps can be removed at this time.
2.10 PESTS AND PATHOGENS
Citrus is affected by numerous species of insects, mites and disease pathogens that
infest the leaves, flowers, bark, fruit and branches of citrus. Insects and mites
2.10.1 Mites
Several species of mites are pests of citrus, most notably the citrus rust mite
Phyllocoptrutaoleivora, which causes minimal damage to foliage but extensive damage
20

to fruit. They move from the leaves to the young fruit when it sets andextract the cell
contents from the skin. The damage is generally minor in regard to production but
causes a russetting of the fruit, making it unmarketable. Other mite pests are the citrus
bud mite, Eriophyessheldoni, the red spider mite, Panonychuscitri, and the broad mite,
Polyphagotarsonemuslatus.
2.10.2 Scales, mealybugs, and whitefies
These groups of related insects are very common and they feed on the foliage,
fruit, and roots of citrus. Generally, they pierce plant cells with their needle-like
mouthparts and suck out the liquid; many then secrete honeydew. Ants, such as the
longlegged ant, Anoplolepis longipes, feed on the honeydew and protect the pest
insects from predators.
2.10.3 Aphids, psyllids, and sharpshooters
This group of insects cause similar damage to that caused by the group above but
is

notable due

to

their ability to transmit diseases agents such as viruses and

bacteria. They usually feed on new leaves and stems and can cause significant
damage; however, the diseases vectored are usually more serious than the feeding
damage.
2.10.4 Fruit flies
The Oriental fruit fly, Bactroceradorsalis and the Mediterranean fruit fly,
Ceratitiscapitata, are the main fruit fly pests of citrus. The major problem they pose is
that they deposit their eggs in the fruit as soon as there is any colour break and the
larvae burrow into the fruit and feed. This makes the fruit unpalatable as well as having
the potential to introduce these pests, which cause serious damage to numerous
agricultural products, into new areas.

21

2.11 DISEASES AND DISORDERS

Physiological disorders (not caused by pathogens) are listed below.
2.11.1 Fruit splitting
This disorder is common on fruits with thin peels such as navel oranges (Washington
navels are particularly prone to this) and tangerines. Although its specific cause is
unknown, no pathogen has been associated with it, and it is likely due in part to uneven
growth caused by weather or by erratic irrigation and fertilization. Addition of
potassium fertilizer (foliar spray) will reduce splitting in some years (Tucker et al.
1994).
2.11.2 Root rot
There are many possible cause of root rot, one common cause is watering too
frequently. Root rot can be a direct result of the lack of oxygen in the
root zone due to over-irrigation or an indirect result when over irrigation
predisposes the roots to infection by a root rotting pathogen.
2.11.3 Nutrient deficiencies
Nutrient deficiencies can be caused by leaching due to excessive irrigation or rain
by naturally low soil nutrient levels, by soil nutrient imbalances, improper pH or
insufficient or incorrect fertilizer application. Nitrogen, zinc, magnesium and iron
deficiencies are common and correctable.
2.11.4 Root rot and Phytophthora gummosis
There are many pathogenic species of the Phytophthora fungus causing root rots
that prevent the citrus

plant

from taking up sufficient water and nutrients. The

leaves will turn yellow, wilt, and may drop; the tree slowly declines and often
will die. Gummosis, which is another disease caused by Phytophthora spp., affects
the base of the trunk and lower limbs from which a clear gum is secreted. The
22

bark dries upward, hardens and cracks; the lesions spread and often girdle the branch
or trunk. Most scion wood is very susceptible to this disease; be sure the graft union is
well above the soil level at planting.
2.11.5 Melanose
Melanose is widespread but is a problem only when inoculum levels are high
and there is extended rainfall during early fruit development. The symptoms begin
as small, brown, sunken spots, which become raised as they develop, on the leaves
and fruit. On the fruit the spots may combine and expand to become relatively large
diseased areas, depending on the stage of fruit development when they are
infected.
2.11.6 Greasy spot
Greasy spot, a common disease in hot, humid areas, is caused by the fungus
Mycosphaerellacitri. It produces brown to black lesions on the undersides of leaves,
which appear as grease-soaked spots, and very small lesions on the skin of the fruit. If
severe, the disease causes defoliation leading to a signifcant reduction in yield.
2.11.7 Scab
Citrus scab, caused by Elsinoefawcetti, is the most widespread of three scab diseases.
Infection causes a small bulge on one side of the leaf and a corresponding depression on
the other side. Raised, brown pustules form on the fruit rind, becoming corky as they
develop. The symptoms resemble scaring from wind; scab and wind scar may occur
together where a leaf is in contact with the fruit.
2.11.8 Black spot
Black spot infects leaves and fruit but is only a problem as a disease of the fruit. Leaves
infected by Guignardia citricarpa may develop small necrotic spots with a gray center
but most often do not show symptoms. On fruit, the black spots may take various forms,
23

making the disease difficult to identify. The spots make the fruit unmarketable as fresh
fruit but they can be used for processing. When the infection is severe, fruit may drop
prematurely.
2.11.9 Greening
Greening, one of the most devastating citrus diseases, is caused by a bacterium
that grows in the bark, leaves, and veins of infected trees. It had previously been
thought to be caused by a virus, but the pathogen has now been identified as
Liberobacter species. The affected fruit do not colour properly or remain green,
consequently the name, greening. Other names for the disease, yellow dragon and
yellow shoot, may be more descriptive, because newly infected trees produce shoots
that are yellow. Leaf symptoms on chronically infected trees infected trees may
resemble nutrient deficiencies. Trees will die back and decline severely.
2.11.10 Tristeza
Tristeza virus is one of the most serious pathogens of citrus and is widespread
throughout citrus-growing areas. Symptoms are highly variable among citrus
species and cultivars and are affected by the strain of the virus and the environmental
conditions. Stunting, stem pitting, vein clearing, leaf cupping, yellowing and reduced
fruit size are common symptoms. Vein clearing (disappearance of green colour in or
along the leaf veins, visible when the leaf is held up to light) and stem pitting (small
holes in the stem underneath the bark) can often be used to diagnose this
disease. Tristeza is often severe; resulting in significantly reduced yields and often
tree death.

24

2.12 PROCESS DESCRIPTION FOR PRODUCTION OF POWDERED

ORANGE CONCENTRATE
Upon maturity the ripped fruit are harvested for the production of the powdered
concentrate to begin. The following processes as presented in the order below converts
the harvested orange fruit to the powdered concentrate product.
2.12.1 Transportation and Unloading
Oranges maturity is related to several factors, including colour, sugar content, acidity,
and juice content. Packing oranges for transport should be gentle and sanitary. The
harvested fruit is handpicked into harvesting sacks that are manually dumped into bins
in the grove. These bins are lifted by small trucks and taken to the edge of the grove
where they are dumped into a semi-trailer. Each semi-trailer can haul about 22 MT of
fruit to the processing plant that can be many kilometres away.
2.12.1.1 Transportation
Temperature management is critical during long distance transport, so loads must be
stacked to enable proper air circulation to carry away heat from the produce itself as
well as incoming heat from the atmosphere and off the road. Transport vehicles should
be well insulated to maintain cool environments for pre-cooled commodities and well
ventilated to allow air movement through the produce. During transport, produce must
be stacked in ways that minimize damage, then be braced and secured. An open air
vehicle can be loaded in such a way that air can pass through the load, and provide some
cooling of the produce as the vehicle moves. Travelling during the night and early
morning can reduce the heat load on a vehicle that is transporting produce.
Transportation can be done by
open vehicles,
refrigerated trailers
25

2.12.1.1.1 Open Vehicles

Bulk loads of produce should be carefully loaded so as not to cause mechanical damage.
Vehicles can be padded or lined with a thick layer of straw. Woven mats or sacks can be
used in the beds of small vehicles. Other loads should not be placed on top of the bulk
commodity. Cooling open loads is desirable whenever possible. A truck ventilating
device can be constructed for an un-refrigerated open vehicle by covering the load
loosely with canvas and fashioning a wind catcher from sheet metal. The scoop should
be mounted at the front of the bed and should reach somewhat higher than the height of
the cab. High transportation speeds and/or long distance transport run the risk of causing
excess drying of the crop.
2.12.1.1.2 Refrigerated Trailers
For optimum transport temperature management, refrigerated trailers need insulation, a
high capacity refrigeration unit and fan, and an air delivery duct. The condition of the
inside of a refrigerated trailer affects its ability to maintain desired temperatures during
transport. Handlers should therefore inspect the trailer before loading.
2.12.1.2 Unloading
A loading dock can ease the work associated with handling horticultural produce at
destination. Containers can be transferred more rapidly and with less bending and
lifting. For large trucks, a loading dock 117 to 122 cm high (46 to 48 inches) functions
well, while for small trucks or pickups a height of 66 to 81 cm (26 to 32 inches) is
recommended.
2.12.1.2.1 Unloading via Pulley
A simple device for easing the work of unloading transport vehicles can be constructed
using a two pulleys and a strong rope. One pulley can be mounted inside the truck at the
front of the bed, the second outside on a portable post or on a stationary object like the
26

side of a building. Containers can be hung directly by their handles or placed into a
sling.
2.12.1.2.2 Unloading Staircase
Also a simple set of stairs can be constructed to ease the work of loading and unloading
produce. The steps can be made of wood or steel matting and steel bars can be used for
supports. Using a ramp is a simple and safe method for unloading produce. The ramp
should be wide enough to prevent accidents and strong enough to carry the full weight
of the handler and the package being carried. Providing hand-trucks or small carts can
also ease the work associated with unloading.
2.12.1.2.3 Unloading via Dry or Water Flume System
The harvested oranges may also be unloaded by trucks into storage either via a dry or
water-flume systems. The dry system includes aerated silos with sloping planes on
which the product is placed in layers to protect integrity of orange. The water system
involves large concrete tanks at ground level; the product is discharged directly into
these tanks and moved by means of water circulation which conveys the product to a
special elevator.
Any time produce is dumped from one container into another, care should be taken to
reduce mechanical damage to the commodity. When dumping produce from field bins
or from transport vehicles into the packinghouse, dry or wet dumping can be practiced.
When using dry dumping practices, the field container should be emptied slowly and
gently onto a tilted ramp with padded edges.
Wet dumping is sometimes used to reduce mechanical damage, either by dumping into
water rather than onto a dry ramp, or by immersion and floatation. If the specific density
of the produce, such as orange is lower than that of water the produce will float

27

2.12.2 Storage
Under normal weather conditions, fruit store better on the tree than in cold storage. Cold
storage should not be attempted if the fruit storage potential has been expended by
prolonged tree storage. Once harvested, fruit quality will not improve. Before placing
into storage, fruit should be pre-cooled to slow respiration and treated with an approved
fungicide to reduce decay. Oranges can be stored for up to 12 weeks under optimum
storage conditions. Ultimate storage-life depends on cultivar, maturity, pre-harvest
conditions, and postharvest handling. Oranges begin to freeze in storage at about -1 C
(Whiteman, 1957). During storage, fruit should be inspected often for signs of decay or
disorders. Such problems will advance rapidly once the fruit are removed from cold
storage.
Only fruit which have not been damaged in harvest are used for storage, although it is
difficult to harvest fruit without some minor damage. Sometimes a chemical treatment
is applied to the fruit before storage, to reduce the incidence of postharvest diseases.
Commercial growers and handlers can store orange for three to eight weeks when
refrigerated at 3oC to 9oC, depending on the initial condition of the fruit. Optimum
humidity for storage of oranges is 90 to 95%.
Plastic crates or boxes are used for storing fruit. Sweet oranges such as Valencia or
Liucheng should be stored with three or four layers per box. Too many layers in one
box may cause bruising of the fruit. Boxes should be stacked inside the storage room in
a way that maintains good ventilation. For the first few weeks of storage, ventilation
windows should be left open. Throughout the storage period, the windows should be left
open at night or in cold weather, in order to cool the fruit. When temperatures are high
in the day time, the ventilation windows should be closed. Sunlight should not be able
to penetrate inside the storage room. Storage rooms should be constructed in places
28

where cold air can flow into the room at night. The storage room should have a high
roof, to allow better circulation of cold air at night. Ventilation windows should be
small but there should be a large number of them, to allow better air circulation. It is
recommended that some ventilation pipes should be buried under ground, to bring in
cool air through the floor of the room. The roof and walls should have good heat
insulation, to keep temperatures as cool as possible. The storage room should be insectproof and rat-proof. A good storage room is the key for extending the shelf life while
maintaining fruit quality. The room should be kept clean, and all rotting fruits should be
removed. Before storage, the room should be sanitized by washing the walls and floor
with 5%formalin.
Another way of storing fruit is to leave them on the tree. In California, Valencia oranges
can be left on the tree for five months, from May to October. In Taiwan, this has been
tried for the very similar Liucheng orange. However, the harvest can only be delayed for
one month and then the fruit drop to the ground.
Since most processors cannot use the whole harvest they receive as they receive it, some
fruit is stored, short term, as they come in, not refrigerated. The harvested fruits can also
be stored in storage bins, made of wood and metal prior to further processing. These
bins is designed with baffles in zigzag arrangement to minimize impact as fruit
descends through to the base of the bin avoiding bruising of bottom fruits
Unwholesome fruits are removed during unloading before the oranges are conveyed to
storage bins. From the storage bins the fruits is rolled out into conveyor belts and
transported to the main extraction line via a bucket elevator and on to a surge bin. This
surge bin would serve as a buffer to control and maintain an adequate fruit flow for the
extraction line.

29

2.12.3 Sorting
Following harvesting, the preparation of fruits for processing involves reducing and/or
eliminating external contamination by visual inspection and sorting of the incoming
fruits (colour, size, maturity).Direct hand contact is a common practice during
inspection and sorting. During the sorting process, the washed fruits are inspected as a
check for quality assurance. In view of this immature, fragmented, corrupt and rotten
fruits are sorted and picked out of the lot before they are transferred to the main
extraction line.
Post harvest sorting and grading of fruits is a difficult and labour intensive component
of the commercial fresh fruit market. Although mechanical equipments are available to
perform operations like sorting and grading of fruits, manual effort is still indispensable.
Typically people are positioned along the packing lines, sorting by visual inspection as
the fruit passes on a conveyor belt and mechanical sorting is limited to size sorting.
Manual sorting is costly and unreliable since human judgment in identifying the
multiple varying parameters is inconsistent, subjective and slow. For tomato, apple,
pear, peach, persimmon, orange, plum and so on orbicular fruits classification is by
weight.
2.12.3.1 Automatic Fruit Sorting and Grading Machine
Automatic fruit grading and sorting has not been implemented widely for all types of
fruits. In the present scenario manual sorting is more popular but slow in process and
grading is done by visual inspection that could be error prone. Grading is done on the
basis of various criteria like weight, shape, colour, size. In this kind of machine these
factors are taken care by image processing and weight measurement through load cell.
In this type the sorting and grading is done principally by photographing the entire
surface of the fruit and subsequently by processing the image. The main advantages of
30

this type of machine is its ability to facilitate automatic grading and sorting of apple in a
non destructive method. The whole machine is cheap compared to other existing
machines where robotic arms are used. It also increases sorting and grading of fruits as
it can process large volume in short time.
2.12.3.2 Citrus Fruits Sorting Machine
This machine is applicable to sorting of citrus fruits with a maximum production output
(orange) of 35 t/h. The general configuration of the machine is three levels and four
grades. The level interval of every level can be adjusted and the interval is gradually
bigger from the material inlet end. The fruit will move forwards under the driving of the
moving belt and the rotary rolling rail will also drive the rotation. The interval of every
level is different. Passing the level is defined as grade 1, and not passing the last level is
defined as the maximum grade. Every level is provided with a separate collecting
hopper, so as to achieve the purpose of sorting fruit.
2.12.3.3 Stainless Steel Rolling Rail Type Fruit Sorting Machine
The materials of rolling rail can be 304 stainless steel tube and PVC. The stainless steel
chain drives the rolling rail to make revolution and the rolling rail on the working
surface will abrade at the rubber track to make rotation, so as to drive the fruit and
vegetable to rotate freely. It can coordinate with manual sorting to sort out the
unqualified fruit and vegetable, which will be transferred by the waste material
conveyor allocated upwards or downwards.
2.12.4 Washing
Washing is an essential part of good hygiene and health. A high pressure washing
system may be used to remove scale insects and debris. This technology allows more
fruit to meet quality standards and quarantine requirements as insect bodies and other
heavy film deposits from mould growth are removed. It also improves fruit appearance
31

and facilitates identification and removal of unsound fruit at the grading stage. At this
point unwholesome fruit and other fruit that do not meet external quality standards are
removed.
Washing oranges in a sink filled with water is not recommended since the standing
water can spread contamination from one orange to another. The use of soap or
detergent is also not recommended or approved for washing oranges because the fruits
can absorb some detergent residue. Therefore the oranges is pulled from the surge bin
into a brush washer, washed, sanitized and graded again before juice extraction takes
place.
Steel drums can also be used to make a simple washing stand. The drums are cut in half,
fitted with drain holes, and all the metal edges are covered with split rubber or plastic
hose. The drums are then set into a sloped wooden table. The table top is constructed
from wooden slats and is used as a drying rack before packing. Because steel drums are
often used to store petroleum and chemical products, they should be thoroughly cleaned
before being used as a washing stand. This tank for washing produce is made from
galvanized sheet metal. A baffle made of perforated sheet metal is positioned near the
drain pipe and helps to circulate water through the produce. Fresh water is added under
pressure through a perforated pipe, which helps move floating produce toward the drain
end of the tank for removal after cleaning.
Chlorination of wash water is very important. Chlorine can reduce the spread of
contamination form one item to another during the washing stage. The pH of the wash
water should be maintained at 6.5 to 7.5 for best results. Typically 1 to 2 ml of chlorine
bleach per litre of clean water will provide 100 to 150 ppm total Cl. More chlorine will
be required if temperatures are high or if there is a lot of organic matter in the wash
water.
32

2.12.5 Extraction
Extraction of juice would be carried out by means of an extractor on a large scale. Thus
the mode of extraction would depend on the type of extractor. Nevertheless, the
extraction process would ensure the separation of fruit juice from seeds and peels.
2.12.5.1 Types of Extractors

There are almost endless lists of juice extractors to choose from. This can make the
process overwhelming, but the reality is that all these juice extractors fit neatly into just
three basic kinds

centrifugal juice extractors,

masticating juice extractors and
triturating juice extractors

2.12.5.1.1 Centrifugal Juice Extractors

Centrifugal juice extractors are the most popular of juicer machines because they are,
generally speaking, the cheapest. These juicers are easy to spot because of their
upright appearance. Their feed chute is a vertical tube through which fruits and
vegetables are dropped down so that they come in contact with the centrifugal style
blade below. The blade spins at very high a speed that rapidly chops down fruits in
small pieces that are then thrown outwards from the blade by centrifugal force against a
mesh filter that surrounds the blade. The force then pushes juice out of the small pieces
of fruits and vegetables.

The main advantages of centrifugal juice extractors are that they make juice very
quickly, they are relatively inexpensive, the feed chutes are usually large and can

33

accommodate large pieces of fruits and vegetables which cuts down preparation time,
and they are usually easy to clean up.

On the negative side, the heat generated by the high-speed operation does kill some
nutrients (but just some, they still deliver a nutritious drink) and they extract less juice
from fruits than the other extractors.

2.12.5.1.2 Masticating Juice Extractors

Masticating juice extractors are generally more expensive. They also tend to be longer
and less high because the feed chute is usually horizontal. Masticating juice extractors
dont use a blade to chop up fruits but instead chews the juice out of them. Its mode
of operation gives it the name masticating juice extractors which comes from the word
masticate which means chew. So, to chew the fruits a masticating juice extractor uses
a gear system. The gear looks something like a screw, long and ribbed and fits tightly
inside a tube. Small pieces of fruits are then passed down the tube and come into contact
with the gear. The gear rotates very slowly and squeezes a very high juice yield out of
the fruits as they pass by it. So that is the basic mechanism of a masticating juice
extractor.

The advantages of masticating juice extractors are higher juice yield and less nutrient
loss because they generate very little heat.

On the negative side they take longer to make a fresh juice, fruits need to be chopped
into smaller pieces to fit in the feed tube increasing preparation time and they cost more.

2.12.5.1.3 Triturating Juice Extractors

Triturating juice extractors take the single gear mechanism of the masticating juice
extractor and take the process one step further by adding another gear. For this reason,
34

triturating juice extractors are also commonly known as twin gear juicers. These twin
gears actually sit side by side with their ribbed edges sitting extremely close together.
This helps to extract a slightly higher juice yield and even less heat than masticating
juice extractors. A few more nutrients are saved using this mechanism.

The advantages of a triturating juice extractor are basically the same as a masticating
juice extractor only a little better more juice yield and higher nutrient preservation.

On the negative side triturating juice extractors are the most expensive machines and are
very slow at making juice.

2.12.6 Separation of Pulp from citrus

During extraction, juice-laden tissue burst up to release juice from the fruits. The juice
flows from the extractor outlet with the drained soft tissue mass pulp dispersed within it.
This introduces the need for separation of the pulp material from the juice product.
2.12.6.1 Types of Separation
The separation process can be accomplished via several means as discussed below;
2.12.6.1.1Centrifugation or Cyclonic Separation

Centrifugation is a process that involves the use of the centrifugal force for the
separation of mixtures (fruit juice), used in the citrus industry and in laboratory settings.
More-dense components of the mixture migrate away from the axis of the centrifuge,
while less-dense components of the mixture migrate towards the axis. Chemists and
biologists may increase the effective gravitational force on a test tube so as to more
rapidly and completely cause the precipitate (pulp) to gather on the bottom of the tube.
The remaining solution which is the juice also called the "supernatant liquid". The juice
is then either quickly decanted from the tube without disturbing the pulp, or withdrawn
35

with a Pasteur pipette. The rate of centrifugation is specified by the acceleration applied
to the sample, typically measured in revolutions per minute (RPM) or g. The pulp's
settling velocity in centrifugation is a function of their size and shape, centrifugal
acceleration, the volume fraction of pulp present, the density difference between the
pulp and the juice, and the viscosity. In the chemical and food industries, special
centrifuges can process a continuous stream of particle-laden liquid (juice).

2.12.6.1.2 Decantation
Decantation is a process for the separation of mixtures. This process is generally used to
separate a liquid (fruit juice) from an insoluble solid (pulp). This is achieved by
carefully pouring the extracted fruit juice from a container in order to leave the pulp in
the bottom of the original container. Usually a small amount of the fruit juice must be
left in the container, and care must be taken to prevent a small amount of pulp from
flowing with the juice out of the container. Another practical application of decantation
in the process industry is in red wine, where the wine is decanted from the potassium
bitartrate crystals.
2.12.6.1.3 Filtration
Filtration is a mechanical or physical operation which is used for the separation of solids
(pulp) from liquid (juice) by interposing a medium through which only the fluid can
pass. In this case however, oversize pulp in the fluid are retained, but the separation is
not complete; pulp will be contaminated with some fluid and filtrate (juice) will contain
fine particles depending on the pore size and filter thickness.
2.12.6.2 Equipment for Separation of Pulp from Fruit
A centrifuge may be useful in successfully decanting a solution. The centrifuge causes
the pulp to be forced to the bottom of the container; if the force is high enough, the pulp
may form a compact solid. Then the juice can be more easily poured away, as the pulp
36

will likely remain in its compressed form. A filter centrifuge and a hydrocyclone are the
types of centrifuges that can be used. Filtering centrifuges are able to apply up to over
3,000 G-forces on the liquid/solids mixtures, which separates the heavier solids from the
lighter solids. Additionally, high G-forces separate fine solids from liquid which implies
that the higher the G-forces applied, the higher the efficiency.
2.12.6.3 Theory and Design of Decanter Centrifuge
Decanter centrifuge design consists of a solid container, called a bowl, which rotates at
high speed. Inside the bowl tube, a screen conveyor rotates in the same direction, but at
a slightly different speed. A differential gear is typically used to adjust speed.

1. The decanter centrifuge slurry is fed through a stationary pipe, which is inside a
hollow shaft connected to a screw conveyor or scroll.
2. The slurry enters a feed compartment located inside of the conveyor and is forced
through discharge nozzles to the bowl section.
3. Once inside the bowl, centrifugal force causes the material to separate.
4. The screw conveyor moves the solids to the tapered end where they are discharged.
5. Clear fluid flows out the other end.
2.12.6.4 Decanter Centrifuge Application
Decanter centrifuges are used to extract solid materials (pulp) from liquids (juice) when
they are mixed together in slurry. Decanter centrifuges are used in many industrial
applications such as:
1. Oil /solids separation (oil well drilling, refining, de-watering)
2. Industrial and biological wastewater treatment
3. Food processing (olive oil, wine, fruit juice)
4. Fish processing (fish meal, fish oil)
5. Chemical slurry
37

The main drive motor supplies power to turn the centrifuge. AC drives are commonly
used to power the main drive motor. There are several different types of decanter
centrifuges, such as: Vertical, horizontal, or scroll (conveyor).
2.12.7 Preservation Methods
The presence of micro-organisms in the powdered concentrate may reduce product
shelf-life to a considerable extent, the least; three to four weeks. The term shelf-life
refers to the time that a food takes to decline to an unacceptable level. In extreme cases
of microbial activity, it may lead to the deterioration of product even before hitting the
market. Food deterioration is however not limited to the presence of micro-organisms
alone; reactions of certain food enzymes may as well cause the same fate. To curb this;
the processing would be done so as to eliminate micro-organisms or any such enzyme or
reduce them to the barest minimum possible. The processing technique chosen would be
based on the final properties such as flavour and taste. In view of this the following
preservative methods in food processing were examined for scrutiny before selection.
2.12.7.1 De-Aeration
The term de-aeration refers to the removal of oxygen from the juice product. In juice
processing operations the fruit and juice are subjected to considerable aeration. The
inclusion of oxygen can promote enzymatic browning, destroy nutrients, modify flavour
and otherwise damage quality. Therefore, the de-aeration stage in the processing would
mainly seek to reduce levels of dissolved oxygen in addition to the following;
Reduces flavour deterioration
Prevents degradation of ascorbic acid as well as
Reduction of frothing

38

De-aeration can be carried out by means of a de-aerator. The de-aerator works in a

process that expels oxygen from the juice by reducing pressure, hence solubility of the
gas (Henrys Law). De-aerators fall under two main types namely;
The tray type and
The spray type
2.12.7.1.1 Tray-type De-aerator
The typical horizontal tray-type de-aerator has a vertical domed de-aeration section
mounted above a horizontal feed storage vessel. The feed enters the vertical de-aeration
section above the perforated trays and flows downward through the perforations. Lowpressure de-aeration steam enters below the perforated trays and flows upward through
the perforations. Some designs use various types of packing material, rather than
perforated trays, to provide good contact and mixing between the steam and feed.
The steam strips the dissolved gas from the feed and exits via a vent at the top of the
domed section. Some designs may include a vent condenser to trap and recover any
water entrained in the vented gas. The vent line usually includes a valve and just enough
steam is allowed to escape with the vented gases to provide a small and visible telltale
plume of steam.
2.12.7.1.2 Spray-type De-aerator
The typical spray-type de-aerator is a horizontal vessel which has a preheating section
and a de-aeration section. The two sections are separated by a baffle. Low-pressure
steam enters the vessel through a sparger in the bottom of the vessel.
The feed is sprayed into preheating section where it is preheated by the rising steam
from the sparger. The purpose of the feed spray nozzle and the preheating section is to

39

heat the feed to its saturation temperature to facilitate stripping out the dissolved gases
in the following de-aeration section.
The preheated feed then flows into the de-aeration section, where it is de-aerated by the
steam rising from the sparger system. The gases stripped out of the water exit via the
vent at the top of the vessel. Again, some designs may include a vent condenser to trap
and recover any water entrained in the vented gas. Also again, the vent line usually
includes a valve and just enough steam is allowed to escape with the vented gases to
provide a small and visible telltale plume of steam
2.12.7.2 Pasteurization
The pasteurization stage during the juice processing involves heating the juice to a
given temperature for a length of time that will destroy all organisms and natural
enzymes that can develop to cause deterioration of the product (Bates, Crandall and
Morris, 2001). At sufficiently high temperatures in the range of 80- 95oC, most microorganisms( E. coli and Salmonella) and natural enzymes( pectolytic enzymes) that cause
deterioration in food become inactive; the residence time for pasteurization would
depend on the process temperature the residence time increases with decreasing
temperature. Pasteurization is grouped under six different types based on the process
technique. These are listed below;
1. Batch holder process
2. Continuous Holding process
3. In bottle process
4. Flash process
5. High temperature, short time
6. Ultra-high temperature

40

2.12.7.2.1 In-bottle Process

The juice feed is heated in a large jacketed container by steam or hot water circulating
an interspace. The temperature to which the juice is raised and held varies (in different
countries depending on the margin of safety to allow) from not less than 60oC to as
much as 65.5oC, for at least thirty minutes. The juice is then cooled, still in the container
to 10oC or less. The batch holder vessel has to be emptied, and there is a break in the
operation for at least one hour before the next batch is ready for filling.
2.12.7.2.2 Continuous Holding Process
This is an extension of the batch system, by which juice is heated and subsequently
cooled by a plate heat exchanger outside the actual holding vessel of which there may
be four or more and each of which may have a capacity of up to five hundred litres. The
heated juice, at say 65oC is run into the first holding vessel, where its temperature is
maintained by a hot-water jacket or other means. When the first holder is full, which
takes perhaps 10-15 minutes, the filling of the second holder begins automatically and
so on. By the time the first holder has been held for 30 minutes, the last is just being
filled. A virtually continuous flow of pasteurized juice can be obtained. Large volumes
can be treated in few hours.
2.12.7.2.3 In-Bottle Process
This involves the heating of juice to relatively colder pasteurization temperature and
filled into special bottles which are then hermetically sealed. The filled bottles are
maintained at those temperatures for about thirty minutes.
2.12.7.2.4 Flash Process
This is the process by which juice is heated as rapidly as possible to75oC or 80o C, or
even above, and then cooled rapidly.

41

2.12.7.2.5 High Temperature, Short Time

This is a continuous process by which juice is rapidly brought to a temperature of 7172o C, and held at that temperature for not less than 15 seconds, and is then rapidly
cooled to 10 or below. These temperature and time give a good margin of safety.
Heating is usually by hot water, and the rapid heat exchange is effected through
stainless steel plates, or in one type f machine, by passing the juice through the annular
space between concentric water-heated tubes.
2.12.7.2.6 Ultra-high Temperature
This is another continuous process by which juice is heated rapidly usually in two stages
(the second stage being under pressure), to between 135oC and 150oC for times of the
order of a few seconds only, and is cooled rapidly.
2.12.8 Homogenisation
The pasteurized juice product would be mixed or agitated for homogeneity to ensure
even distribution of colour, aroma and taste flavours. The word, homogenize means
causing two or more phases, such as a fluid and a powdered solid, or two or fluids, and
causing them to be randomly distributed through one another. Homogenizing effects can
also significantly reduce the amount of additives required. This step is essential in
keeping all products at the same level of component dosage.
2.12.8.1 Types of Homogenisers

Generally, liquids are agitated in a cylindrical vessel which can be opened or closed to
the air. An impeller is mounted on a shaft and is driven by an electric motor that powers
the blades to move in a circular motion causing even distribution of the contents of the
tank. There are different types of homogenizers or agitators used in the process
industries, which includes;

42

2.12.8.1.1 Three-Blade Propeller Agitator

There are several types of agitators commonly used. A common type is the three-blade
marine-type propeller similar to the propeller blade used in driving boats. The propeller
can be a side-entering type in a tank or be clamped on the side of an open vessel in an
off-center position. These propellers turn at high speeds and are used for liquids of low
viscosity.

2.12.8.1.2 Paddle Agitator

Various types of paddle agitators are often used at low speeds between about 20 and
200rpm. Two-bladed and four-bladed are often used. At low speeds, mild agitation is
obtained in an unbaffled vessel. At higher speeds baffles are used, since without baffles,
the liquid is simply swirled around with little actual mixing. The paddle agitator is
ineffective for suspending solids since good radial flow is present but little vertical or
axial flow. An anchor or gate paddle is often used. It sweeps or scrapes the tank walls
and sometimes the tank bottom. It is used with viscous liquids where deposits on walls
occur and to improve heat transfer to the walls. However, it is a poor mixer. These are
often used to process starch pastes, paints, adhesives and cosmetics.

2.12.8.1.3 Turbine Agitators

Turbine turbines that resemble multi-bladed paddle with shorter blades are used at high
speeds for liquids with a very wide range of viscosities. The diameter of a turbine is
normally between 30 and 50 % of the tank diameter. Normally, the turbines have four or
six blades. The turbines with flat blades give radial flow. They are also useful for good
gas dispersion where the gas is introduced just below the impeller at its axis and is
drawn up to the blades and chopped into fine bubbles. In the pitched-blade turbine with
the blades at 45o, some axial flow is imparted so that a combination of axial and radial
43

flow is resent. This type is useful in suspending solids since the currents flow downward
and then sweep up the solids.
2.12.8.1.4 Helical-ribbon Agitators
This type of agitator is used in highly viscous solutions and operates at a low RPM in
the laminar region. The ribbon is formed in a helical path and is attached to a central
shaft. The liquid move in a tortuous flow path down the center and up along the side in
a twisting motion. Similar types are the double helical ribbon and the helical ribbon
with a screw.
2.12.9 Food concentration

After the juice has been extracted and pasteurized, the next chemical process is to
produce a concentrate and powder from the orange juice. All this is done with the idea
to meet customers expectations of appealing and appetizing product; colouring is a
prerequisite to compensate process-related losses to improve overall appearance
(Newsome, 1986).

Juice concentrates and fruit powders are produced by evaporation, drying and
crystallisation. The water part of the juice can be removed by evaporation under vacuum
and heat to remove most of the water before it is frozen and crystallised. As pressure is
reduced in a vacuum, the boiling point for the water in the juice will be reduced, thus
requiring lower temperatures to evaporate the mixture. This process however cannot be
used to reduce all the moisture to the point that it turns powder. This is because
exposure to heat may damage the sugars in the concentrate and may also affect visual
appearance of the product. Orange juice is famous for the high content of vitamin C and
provides a number of health benefits. However, vitamin C is water soluble and that it is
easily destroyed by cooking and freezing. Hence this process would require the removal
44

of essences and oils separately during the evaporation and added back after obtaining
the concentrated juice.

Evaporation can be defined as the process where liquid water is transformed into a
gaseous state. Evaporation can only occur when water is available. It also requires that
the humidity of the atmosphere be less than the evaporating surface (at 100% relative
humidity there is no more evaporation). The evaporation process requires large amounts
of energy. For example, the evaporation of one gram of water requires 600 calories of
heat energy. Evaporation plants are used as a thermal separation technology, for the
concentration or separation of liquid solutions, suspensions and emulsions. A liquid
concentrate that can still be pumped is generally the desired final product. Evaporation
may however also aim at separating the volatile constituents, or distillate, as would be
the case in a solvent separation system. During these processes, it is usual that product
qualities are maintained and preserved. These, together with many other requirements
result in a wide variety of evaporator types, operating modes and arrangements. The
types of evaporators include:

2.12.9.1 Falling Film Evaporators

This type of evaporator is generally made of long tubes which are surrounded by steam
jackets. The uniform distribution of the juice into this equipment is important when
using this type of evaporator. This evaporator is usually applied to high viscous
solutions so it is frequently used in the chemical, food and fermentation industry.

2.12.9.2 Plate Evaporators

This type of evaporator has a relatively large surface area. The plates are usually
corrugated and are supported by frame. During evaporation, steam flows through the
channels formed by the free spaces between the plates. The steam alternately climbs and
45

falls parallel to the concentrated liquid. The concentrate and the vapour are both fed into
the separation stage, where the vapour is sent to a condenser. Plate evaporators are
frequently applied in the dairy and fermentation industries since they have spatial
flexibility. A negative point of this evaporator is that, it is limited in its ability to treat
viscous or solid-containing products.

2.12.9.3 Forced Circulation Evaporators

Natural circulation evaporators are based on the natural circulation of the product
caused by the density differences that arise from heating. In an evaporator using tubing,
after the water begins to boil, bubbles will rise and cause circulation, facilitating the
separation of the liquid and the vapour at the top of the heating tubes. The amount of
evaporation that takes place depends on the temperature difference between the steam
and the solution.

2.12.9.4 Multiple-stage Evaporators

These evaporators can be made of up to seven evaporator stages or effects. Putting

together several evaporators saves heat and thus requires less energy and adding another
evaporator to the original decreases the energy consumption to 50% of the original
amount and so on.

2.12.9.5 Rising Film Evaporators

In this type of evaporator, boiling takes place inside the tubes, due to heating made by
the steam outside the tubes. This equipment is quite efficient, the advantage being prone
to quick scaling of the internal surface of the tubes. This design is usually applied to
clear, non-salting solutions.

46

On a large scale, concentration can be carried out using a multiple-stage column

evaporator under a vacuum. The obtained semi-concentrates and the final concentrates
are rapidly cooled to 0oC and then frozen at a low temperature (about -26oC) prior to
drying. Yield at each stage can be calculated as:

Apparent yield, % =

..(1)

Where;

Mjc = mass prior to concentration

Mconc = mass after concentration.

2.12.10 Drying

After obtaining the concentrate, it is then dried. Drying is a method of food preservation
that works by removing water from the food which prevents the growth of
microorganisms and decay. Drying can be done with drying agents to minimize the
stickiness of the powder. Natural hygroscopic and thermoplastic property of fruit juice
is the basic problem in transport and handling of fruit juice powder (chegini, ghobadian,
2007).

Forms of drying include freeze-drying, spray drying, pulse combustion drying and
tunnel drying. Among these, spray dying may be more economical. Spray drying has
become the most important technique for dehydrating fluid foods such as milk, coffee
and egg powders, and is used extensively in the pharmaceutical and chemical industries.
This is the preferred method of drying of many thermally-sensitive materials such as
foods and pharmaceuticals. Fruit juice powder obtained by spray drying favors the yield
of high sugar content solids, most of them present in amorphous state.
47

There are many different types and variation of dryers, and selecting the proper dryer is
crucial to achieving the desired results.

Different types of Dryers are required depending on factors such as:

Capacity
Product quality
Product size
Product consistency
Hours of operation
Amount of water to be evaporated
Acidity of the product
Operational environment

2.12.10.1 Flash Dryers

A Flash Dryer uses ductwork, which acts as a container for the uniform transfer of
thermal energy from a hot gas stream to a moisture laden product, for the purpose of
moisture reduction in the product. For proper drying the particle size must be uniform
and relatively small. Wet product is introduced in the gas stream where the moisture is
flashed off, and then the dried product is removed from the gas stream.

2.12.10.2 Fluid Bed Dryer

A Fluid Bed Dryer uses a container equipped with vertical jets of hot gases, which acts
as a container for the uniform transfer of thermal energy from a hot gas stream to a
moisture laden product, for the purpose of moisture reduction in the product. For proper
drying the particle must have near spherical shape as well as uniform small size and
moisture content. The wet product must be uniformly introduced into the drying gas
48

stream where the moisture is flashed off. The dried product is removed from the exiting
gas stream.

2.12.10.3 Rotary Dryers

A rotary dryer uses a rotating cylindrical drum, which acts as a container for the
uniform transfer of thermal energy from a hot gas stream to a moisture laden product,
for the purpose of moisture reduction in the product. Wet product is introduced into the
inlet of the drum where it is dried as it is conveyed to the drums outlet. The drum is
equipped with flighting to disperse the product into the drying gas stream as the drum
rotates. The product can either be conveyed pneumatically or it can be conveyed by
gravity if the drum is on a slope. There are several different types of rotary dryers and
they can be used in many different applications. The two common types of rotary drying
systems are single and triple pass; however, there are several other types and hybrids of
these designs.

2.12.10.4 Steam Tube Dryer

A steam tube dryer is a constant temperature drying process. The drying process always
takes place at the steams saturation temperature for the steams pressure. Product can
be conveyed with gravity, screw flighting, or pneumatics..

2.12.10.5 Spray Dryer

A spray dryer is a device used in spray drying. It takes a liquid stream and separates the
solute or suspension as a solid and the solvent into a vapor. The solid is usually
collected in a drum or cyclone. The liquid input stream is sprayed through a nozzle into
a hot vapor stream and vaporized. Solids form as moisture quickly leaves the droplets.
A nozzle is usually used to make the droplets as small as possible, maximizing heat
49

transfer and the rate of water vaporization. Droplet sizes can range from 20 to 180 m
depending on the nozzle.

Spray dryers can dry a product very quickly compared to other methods of drying. They
also turn a solution or slurry into a dried powder in a single step, which can be
advantageous for profit maximization and process simplification.

2.12.10.6 Freeze-dryers

Freeze dryers are devices used in Freeze-drying. Freeze drying is a dehydration process
typically used to preserve a perishable material or make the material more convenient
for transport. Freeze-drying works by freezing the material and then reducing the
surrounding pressure and adding enough heat to allow the frozen water in the material
to sublime directly from the solid phase to the gas phase.

2.12.10.7 Sun Drying

Sun drying is the old-fashioned way to dry food because it uses the heat from the sun
and the natural movement of the air. This process is slow and requires a good deal of
care. The food must be protected from insects and covered at night. Sun drying is not as
sanitary as other methods of drying. In sun drying the use of a natural-draft dryer is
required. The advantage of this kind of dryer is that it hastens drying by trapping heat
from the sun. Natural heat is slower and less dependable than controlled drying in an
oven or food dryer. If you are thinking about buying a juice extractor then you will
notice that there are almost endless lists of juice extractors to choose from. This can
make the process overwhelming, but the reality is that all these juice extractors fit neatly
into just three basic kinds centrifugal juice extractors, masticating juice extractors and
triturating juice extractors.

50

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION AND SELECTION
3.1 Unloading via Dry System
The harvested oranges may also be unloaded by trucks into storage via a dry system.
The dry system includes aerated silos with sloping planes on which the product is
placed in layers to protect integrity of orange. Any time produce is dumped from one
container into another, care should be taken to reduce mechanical damage to the
commodity. When using dry dumping practices, the field container should be emptied
slowly and gently onto a tilted ramp with padded edges.
3.2 Storage
Since most processors cannot use the whole harvest they receive as they receive it, some
fruit is stored, short term, as they come in, not refrigerated. The harvested fruits can also
be stored in storage bins, made of wood and metal prior to further processing. These
bins is designed with baffles in zigzag arrangement to minimize impact as fruit
descends through to the base of the bin avoiding bruising of bottom fruits
Unwholesome fruits are removed during unloading before the oranges are conveyed to
storage bins. From the storage bins the fruits is rolled out into conveyor belts and
transported to the main extraction line via a bucket elevator and on to a surge bin. This
surge bin would serve as a buffer to control and maintain an adequate fruit flow for the
extraction line.
3.3 Sorting
During the sorting process, the washed fruits are inspected as a check for quality
assurance. In view of this immature, fragmented, corrupt and rotten fruits are sorted and
picked out of the lot before they are transferred to the main extraction line.
51

Direct hand contact is a common practice during inspection and sorting. Although
mechanical equipments are available to perform operations like sorting and grading of
fruits, manual effort is still indispensable. Typically, people are positioned along the
packing lines, sorting by visual inspection as the fruit passes on a conveyor belt and
mechanical sorting is limited to size sorting.
3.4 Washing

The sorted orange fruits are sent to a washing bin. Warm water is sprayed with pressure
onto the fruits. The pressure of the water aids in the washing of the orange fruits.

3.5 Centrifugal Juice Extraction

Extraction of juice would be carried out by means of an extractor on a large scale. Thus
the mode of extraction would depend on the type of extractor. Nevertheless, the
extraction process would ensure the separation of fruit juice from seeds and peels.

Centrifugal juice extraction is the most popular mechanism used because it is the
cheapest. Juicers are easy to spot because of their upright appearance. Their feed
chute is a vertical tube through which fruits and vegetables are dropped down so that
they come in contact with the centrifugal style blade below. The blade spins at very high
a speed that rapidly chops down fruits in small pieces that are then thrown outwards
from the blade by centrifugal force against a mesh filter that surrounds the blade. The
force then pushes juice out of the small pieces of fruits and vegetables.

The main advantages of centrifugal juice extractors are that they make juice very
quickly and are usually easy to clean up.

52

3.6 Centrifugation or Cyclonic Separation

Centrifugation is a process that involves the use of the centrifugal force for the
separation of mixtures used in the citrus industry and in laboratory settings. More-dense
components of the mixture thus the pulp, migrate away from the axis of the centrifuge,
while less-dense components of the mixture migrate towards the axis. The juice is then
either quickly decanted from the tube without disturbing the pulp, or withdrawn with a
Pasteur pipette. In the chemical and food industries, special centrifuges can process a
continuous stream of particle-laden liquid (juice).

3.7 Tray-type De-aeration

Air is removed from the juice product because of quality problems such as colour, taste
and aroma. Vitamin C has high sensitive to oxygen. This is also a very important step
because it prevents the loss of the food nutrient Vitamin C.
The typical horizontal tray-type de-aerator has a vertical domed de-aeration section
mounted above a horizontal feed storage vessel. The feed enters the vertical de-aeration
section above the perforated trays and flows downward through the perforations. Lowpressure de-aeration steam enters below the perforated trays and flows upward through
the perforations. Some designs use various types of packing material, rather than
perforated trays, to provide good contact and mixing between the steam and feed.
The steam strips the dissolved gas from the feed and exits via a vent at the top of the
domed section. Some designs may include a vent condenser to trap and recover any
water entrained in the vented gas. The vent line usually includes a valve and just enough
steam is allowed to escape with the vented gases to provide a small and visible telltale
plume of steam.

53

3.8 Continuous Holding Pasteurisation

Pasteurization is developed to inactivate both microorganisms and natural enzymes,
thus increasing shelf-life of the fruit juice. This is an extension of the batch system, by
which juice is heated and subsequently cooled by a plate heat exchanger outside the
actual holding vessel of which there may be four or more and each of which may have a
capacity of up to five hundred litres. The heated juice, at say 65oC is run into the first
holding vessel, where its temperature is maintained by a hot-water jacket or other
means. When the first holder is full, which takes perhaps 10-15 minutes, the filling of
the second holder begins automatically and so on. By the time the first holder has been
held for 30 minutes, the last is just being filled. A virtually continuous flow of
pasteurized juice can be obtained. Large volumes can be treated in few hours.
3.9 Homogenisation

The pasteurized juice product would be mixed for homogeneity to ensure even
distribution of colour, aroma and taste flavours. This step is essential in keeping all
products at the same level of component dosage. There are several types of agitators
commonly used. A common type is the three-blade marine-type propeller similar to the
propeller blade used in driving boats. The propeller can be a side-entering type in a tank
or be clamped on the side of an open vessel in an off-center position. These propellers
turn at high speeds and are used for liquids of low viscosity.

3.10 Multiple-stage Evaporation

These evaporators can be made of up to seven evaporator stages or effects. Putting

together several evaporators saves heat and thus requires less energy and adding another
evaporator to the original decreases the energy consumption to 50% of the original
amount and so on.
54

3.11 Spray Drying

Having obtained a concentrated juice product, the proceeding stage would be to form
powdered juice particles from this concentrate. The most suitable means there of would
be to spray droplets of the concentrate onto a plate for drying by contacting with a
stream of hot air a process referred to as Spray Drying. A spray dryer is a device used
in spray drying. It takes a liquid stream and separates the solute or suspension as a solid
and the solvent into a vapour. The solid is usually collected in a drum or cyclone. The
liquid input stream is sprayed through a nozzle into a hot vapour stream and vaporized.
Solids form as moisture quickly leaves the droplets. A nozzle is usually used to make
the droplets as small as possible, maximizing heat transfer and the rate of water
vaporisation.
Spray dryers can dry a product very quickly compared to other methods of drying. They
also turn a solution or slurry into a dried powder in a single step, which can be
advantageous for profit maximization and process simplification.
3.12 Packaging
Having obtained the desired product, there was the need to store in packet or containers
to enhance the containment. Packaging is done to enhance the shelf life and to aid
transporting of finished goods. It also directs the end user on how to use the product.

55

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE
4.1 Material Balance
4.1.1 Sorting Unit

Unsorted oranges (1)

sorted oranges (3)

Crushed, spoilt, unriped oranges (2)

Table 4.1 Compositions of various streams on the sorting unit.

Component

Stream 1
Mass

Stream 2
Mass, %

Mass

Stream 3
Mass, %

Mass

flowrate,

flowrate,

flowrate,

kg/hr

kg/hr

kg/hr

Good Orange 3541.63

Mass, %

99.9

3541.63

100

3.55

0.1

3.55

100

3545.18

100

3.55

100

3541.63

100

fruits
Crushed,
spoilt

or

unripe orange
Total

56

4.1.2 Washing Unit

Wash water (2)

Unclean orange fruits (1)

washed orange fruits (3)

Dirty water (4)

Table 4.2 Compositions of various streams on the washing unit

Componen

Stream 1

Stream 2

Stream 3

Stream 4

Mass

Mass

Mass

Mass

Mass

Mass

Mass

Mass

,%

flowrate

,%

flowrate

,%

flowrate

,%

flowrate

, kg/hr

, kg/hr

, kg/hr

, kg/hr

Water

100

7083.26

99.95

7083.26

Dirt

0.1

3.54

0.05

3.54

Orange

99.9

3538.09

100

3538.09

100

3541.63

100

350

100

3538.09

100

7086.8

fruits
Total

4.1.3 Peeling Unit

Orange fruits (1)

Peeled orange fruits (3)

Orange peels (2)

57

Table 4.3 Compositions of various streams on the Peeler

Component Stream 1
Mass, %

Orange

Stream 2
Mass

Mass, %

Stream 3
Mass

Mass, %

Mass

flowrate,

flowrate,

flowrate,

kg/hr

kg/hr

kg/hr

50

1769.05

55.56

1769.05

10

353.81

100

353.81

40

1415.24

44.44

1415.24

100

3538.09

100

353.81

100

3184.29

juice
Orange
peels
Orange
pulp
Total

4.1.4 Extraction Unit

Peeled orange fruits (1)

orange juice (3)

Chuff (pulp) with entrained juice (2)

58

Table 4.4 Compositions of various streams on the Extractor

Component Stream 1
Mass, %

Orange

Stream 2
Mass

Mass, %

Stream 3
Mass

Mass, %

Mass

flowrate,

flowrate,

flowrate,

kg/hr

kg/hr

kg/hr

55.56

1769.05

2.56

35.38

96.08

1733.80

44.44

1415.24

97.44

1344.34

3.92

70.75

100

3184.29

100

1379.72

100

1804.56

juice
Orange
pulp
Total

4.1.5 Centrifuge

Juice from extractor (1)

Overflow (juice) (3)

Underflow (pulp) (2)

59

Table 4.5 Compositions of various streams on the Centrifuge

Component Stream 1
Mass, %

Orange

Stream 2
Mass

Mass, %

Stream 3
Mass

Mass, %

Mass

flowrate,

flowrate,

flowrate,

kg/hr

kg/hr

kg/hr

96.08

1733.80

99.80

1733.80

3.92

70.75

100

67.22

0.20

3.54

100

1804.56

100

67.22

100

1737.34

juice
Orange
pulp
Total

4.1.6 De-aerator

O2 removed (2)

Centrifuge overflow (juice) (1)

feed output without O2 (3)

60

Table 4.6 Compositions of various streams on the De-aerator.

Component Stream 1
Mass, %

Orange

Stream 2
Mass

Mass, %

Stream 3
Mass

Mass, %

Mass

flowrate,

flowrate,

flowrate,

kg/hr

kg/hr

kg/hr

99.9

1735.60

100

1726.92

O2

0.1

1.74

16.70

1.74

Water

83.30

8.68

100

1737.34

100

10.42

100

1726.92

juice

vapour
Total

4.1.7 Pasteuriser
Water lost as vapour (2)

Feed input from de-aerator (1)

feed output rate (3)

61

Table 4.7 Compositions of various streams on the Pasteurizer

Component Stream 1
Mass, %

Orange

Stream 2
Mass

Mass, %

Stream 3
Mass

Mass, %

Mass

flowrate,

flowrate,

flowrate,

kg/hr

kg/hr

kg/hr

100

1726.92

100

1554.23

100

172.69

100

1726.92

100

172.69

100

1554.23

juice
Water
vapour
Total

4.1.8 Homogenisation

Feed input from pasteurizer (1)

feed output with even distribution (2)

of components

Table 4.8 Compositions of various streams on the Homogenizer.

Component

Stream 1
Mass, %

Stream 2
Mass

Mass, %

Mass

flowrate,

flowrate,

kg/hr

kg/hr

Orange juice

100

1554.23

100

1552.68

Total

100

1554.23

100

1552.68

62

4.1.9 Evaporator

Water vapour from feed (2)

Feed input from homogenizer (1)

concentrated orange juice paste (3)

Table 4.9 Compositions of various streams on the evaporating unit.

Component Stream 1

Water

Stream 2

Stream 3

Mass,

Mass flowrate, Mass,

Mass flowrate, Mass,

Mass flowrate,

kg/hr

kg/hr

kg/hr

1245.90

20.97

81.39

19.76

306.78

79.03

306.78

100

1164.51

100

1552.68

100

1164.51

100

388.17

/ 80.24

moisture
juice
concentrate
Water
vapour
Total

4.1.10 Drying Unit

Moisture from feed (2)

Feed input from evaporator (1)

powdered orange concentrate (3)

63

Table 4.10 Compositions of various streams on the Dryer.

Component Stream 1

Water

Stream 2

Stream 3

Mass,

Mass flowrate, Mass,

Mass flowrate, Mass,

Mass flowrate,

kg/hr

kg/hr

kg/hr

/ 20.97

81.39

0.59

1.82

79.03

306.78

99.41

306.78

100

79.57

100

388.17

100

79.57

100

308.60

moisture
Powdered
concentrate
Water
vapour
Total

4.2 ENERGY BALANCE

4.2.1 Sorting Unit

Unsorted oranges (1)

sorted oranges (3)

Crushed, spoilt, unriped oranges (2)

64

Table 4.11 Compositions of various streams on the sorting unit.

Component

Stream 1

Stream 2

Stream 3

Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy,

kJ/hr
Good

Orange 13210.30

kJ/hr

kJ/hr

99.90

0.00

0.00

13210.30

100.00

0.10

13.22

100.00

0.00

0.00

100.00

13.22

100.00

13210.30

100.00

fruits
Crushed, spoilt 13.22
or

unripe

orange
Total

13223.52

Temperature : 25oC
Pressure: 101.23 kPa

4.2.2 Washing Unit

Wash water (2)

Unclean orange fruits (1)

washed orange fruits (3)

Dirty water (4)

65

Table 4.12 Compositions of various streams on the washing unit

Component Stream 1

Stream 2

Stream 3

Stream 4

Enthalpy,

Enthalpy, Enthalpy,

Enthalpy, Enthalpy,

Enthalpy, Enthalpy,

Enthalpy,

kJ/hr

kJ/hr

Water

0.00

0.00

740200.67 100.00

329926.89 100.00

740200.31 0.06

Dirt

407.00

0.12

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

407.39

99.94

Orange

329926.74 99.88

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

330333.74 100.00

740200.67 100.00

kJ/hr

kJ/hr

fruits
Total

329926.89 100.00

740607.70 100.00

Temperature : 25 o C
Pressure : 101.23 kPa

4.2.3 Peeling Unit

Orange fruits (1)

Peeled orange fruits (3)

Orange peels (2)

66

Table 4.13 Compositions of various streams on the peeling unit.

Component Stream 1

Orange

Stream 2

Stream 3

Enthalpy,

Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy,

Enthalpy,

kJ/hr

kJ/hr

kJ/hr

329926.89

100

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

33346.59

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

329926.89

100.00

33346.59

fruits
Orange
peels
Peeled

296935.04 100.00

orange
fruits
Total

0.00

296935.04 100

Temperature : 25 oC
Pressure : 101.23 kPa

4.2.4 Extractor

Peeled orange fruits (1)

orange juice (3)

Chuff (pulp) with entrained juice (2)

67

Table 4.14 Compositions of various streams on the Extractor.

Component Stream 1

Stream 2

Stream 3

Enthalpy,

Enthalpy, Enthalpy,

Enthalpy, Enthalpy,

Enthalpy,

kJ/hr

kJ/hr

kJ/hr

296934.11

100.00

3294.57

2.56

163344.69 96.08

0.00

0.00

125399.64 97.44

6664.35

296934.11

100.00

128694.21

170009.04 100.00

Orange
juice
Orange

3.92

pulp
Total

Temperature : 25 oC
Pressure : 101.23 kPa

4.2.5 Centrifuge

Feed input (1)

Overflow (juice) (3)

Underflow (pulp) (2)

68

Table 4.15 Compositions of various streams on the centrifuge.

Component Stream 1

Orange

Stream 2

Stream 3

Enthalpy,

Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy,

Enthalpy,

kJ/hr

kJ/hr

kJ/hr

163412.65

96.08

0.00

0.00

163416.81 99.80

6667.13

3.92

6268.27

100.00

327.49

170079.78

100.00

6268.27

100.00

163744.30 100.00

juice
Orange

0.20

pulp
Total

Temperature : 25 oC
Pressure : 101.23 kPa

4.2.6 De-aerator

O2 removed (2)
Centrifuge overflow (juice) (1)

feed output without O2 (3)

69

Table 4.16 Compositions of various streams on the De-aerator.

Component Stream 1

Stream 2

Stream 3

Enthalpy,

Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy,

Enthalpy,

kJ/hr

kJ/hr

kJ/hr

163580.56

99.90

0.00

0.00

325524.42 100.00

O2

163.74

0.10

80.27

0.04

0.00

0.00

Water

0.00

0.00

20676.63

99.96

0.00

0.00

163744.30

100.00

20756.90

100.00

325524.42 100.00

Orange
juice

vapour
Total

Temperature : 50 o C
Pressure : 0.1233 bar

4.2.7 Pasteuriser
Water lost as vapour (2)

Feed input from de-aerator (1)

feed output rate (3)

70

Table 4.17 Compositions of various streams on the pasteuriser.

Component Stream 1

Stream 2

Stream 3

Enthalpy,

Enthalpy, Enthalpy,

Enthalpy, Enthalpy,

Enthalpy,

kJ/hr

kJ/hr

kJ/hr

325524.42

100.00

0.00

0.00

380864.06 100

0.00

0.00

405078.93 100.00

0.00

325524.42

100.00

405078.93 100.00

380864.06 100.00

Orange
juice
Water

0.00

vapour
Total

Temperature : 65 oC
Pressure : 101.23 kPa

4.2.8 Mixer

Feed input from pasteurizer (1)

feed output with even distribution (2)

Table 4.18 Compositions of various streams on the mixer.

Component

Stream 1
Enthalpy, kJ/hr

Stream 2
Enthalpy, %

Enthalpy,

Enthalpy, %

kJ/hr
Orange juice

5859.48

100

5853.60

100

Total

5859.48

100

5853.60

100

71

4.2.9 Evaporator
Water vapour from feed (2)

Feed input from homogenizer (1)

concentrated orange juice paste (3)

Table 4.19 Compositions of various streams on the evaporator.

Component Stream 1

Stream 2

Enthalpy,

Enthalpy, Enthalpy,

Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy,

kJ/hr

kJ/hr

kJ/hr

140907.95

80.24

12275.01

20.97

195055.43 100

0.00

0.00

34700.16

19.76

46261.03

79.03

175608.11

100.00

195055.43 0

58536.04

100s

Water/

Stream 3

moisture
Water
vapour
Juice
concentrate
Total

Temperature : 40 oC
Pressure : 101.23 kPa

4.2.10 Dryer

Moisture from feed (2)

Feed input from evaporator (1)

powdered orange concentrate (3)

72

Table 4.20 Compositions of various streams on the Dryer.

Component

Stream 1

Enthalpy,

Stream 2

,%

kJ/hr
Powdered

Stream 2

Stream 3

Enthalpy,

Enthalpy,

Enthalpy,

Enthalpy,

Enthalpy,

Enthalpy,

kJ/hr

kJ/hr

kJ/hr

12275.01

20.97

0.00

0.00

28913.96

99.41

46261.03

79.03

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

171.60

0.59

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

187618.1

100.00

0.00

0.00

100

29085.56

100.00

concentrate
Water
(moisture)
Water
vapour

Hot air

187618.1

100.00

0
Total

58536.04

100

187618.1

100.00

187618.1

Temperature : 65 oC
Pressure : 101.23 kPa

73

CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 PUMP SPECIFICATION AND PIPE SCHEDULING
Process flow diagram shows the orientation of equipment in a plant and how they are
linked. It is usually used in the interpretation of the process. Piping and Instrumentation
diagram shows the engineering details of the equipment, instruments, piping, valves and
fittings; and their arrangement.
5.2 PIPELINE SPECIFICATIONS
Fluids are transported mostly by pipes. Pipes are completely enclosed conduit, usually
cylindrical, used to transport fluids from point to another point. There is invariably
discrete number of sizes of pipes. They are usually identified by their nominal diameters
in inches. Optimum diameters, which is the diameter of the pipe that gives the least total
cost for annual pumping charges is the criterion used in pipe specifications. The design
parameters considered are:
1) The nominal size
2) Schedule number
3) Material of construction
4) Wall thickness
Also, fluid density, capacity and viscosity of the fluid are some of the basis for
estimating the optimum diameter of pipes.
5.2.1 Sample Calculation for Pipe Specification
Pipe Location: From Deaerator to pasteurizer
Mass flow rate = 0.480 kgs-1
Density of feed = 1048 kgm-3 and it is assumed to be constant through out the process.
The optimum pipe diameter for turbulent flow using stainless steel pipe is given as:
74

dopt = 260G0.52-0.37 .. .1 (Sinnott, 1999)

Where: G = mass flow rate of feed
= density of slurry
It implies, dopt = 260(0.480)0.52(1048) -0.37
= 13.538 mm, 0.530 in
Using 19.05 mm (0.75 in) since it is the most nearest commercial steel pipe.
From the above calculation, a 19.05 mm (0.75 in) pipe diameter can be used.

Reynolds number, Re

4G
.2 (Sinnott, 1999)
d

Where, G is mass flow rate.

Re

4 0.480
0.0006 0.01905

Re = 53,469.377
Re is greater than 4000 and hence flow is turbulent.
From Walas (1990) Table A5
For optimum pipe diameter of 0.75 in
Nominal size = 0.75 in
Pipe schedule number = 40s
Outer diameter (do) = 1.05 in
Inner diameter (di) = 0.824 in

75

D2

19.05 10

3 2

m2

2.850 10 4 m2

The normal fluid velocity is given by:

3 (Ray and Johnston, 1989)

4.580 10
2.850 10

4
4

1.607ms

Also Maximum design fluid velocity is assumed to be given by the correlation;

2

1.2 u .. ..4 (Ray and Johnston, 1989)

Maximum design fluid umax

umax

1.2

1.607 2.314ms

Friction loss per meter of line

Using Genereaux`s formula,

Pline

4.13 1010 G1.84

0.16

4.84

.........................5 (Sinnot, 2005)

Where;
G = mass flow rate, kgs-1
= viscosity of fluid, Pas
= density of fluid, kgm-3
d = diameter of pipe, mm
Inserting values into the equation, it implies

Pline

4.13 1010

0.480

1.84

0.0006

0.16

1048

76

19.05

4.84

1.990kPa / m

The absolute roughness for commercial steel pipe is 0.045mm (Ray and Johnston,
1989).

.....................................6 (Darby, 2001)

0.045mm
19.05mm

0.00236

For Reynolds number of 53469.377 and relative roughness of 2.362x10-3, the moody
diagram gives a friction factor of 0.0032. Hence using the relation,

Friction loss per = 4 f

u2
...................................7 (Geankoplis, 1993)
2D

Inserting the values, it implies that,

Friction loss per metre = 4 0.0032 1048

Design friction loss per metre = 1.2

1.6072
2 0.01905

0.909kPam 1

Pline ......................8 (Ray and Johnston, 1989)

2

1.2 0.909 1.309kPa

Line Equivalent length
The pressure loss through the bends and check valves can be included in the line
pressure-loss calculations as an `equivalent length of pipe`. Assume all the bends in the
plant to be 90 elbows of standard radius and the isolation valves as plug-type valves.
Elbow equivalent length = 30D ..............................................9 (Ray and Johnston, 1989)
= 30 x 19.05 x 10-3 m
= 0.572 m

77

Plug-valve equivalent length = 18D ......................................10(Ray and Johnston, 1989)

= 18 x 19.05 x 10-3m
= 0.343 m
Entry losses (at maximum design velocity) are calculated from the equation:

Entry loss =

2
umax
2

2.3142
1048
2

2.806kPa

5.3 PUMP SELECTION

Centrifugal pumps will be assumed to be used throughout the process. Centrifugal
pumps are characterised by their specific speed. Different types of pumps have different
efficiency envelopes according to their specific speed. Specific speed is a parameter that
defines the speed at which the impellers of geometrically similar design have to be run
to discharge one gallon per minute against one-foot head. The value of specific speed
represents the ratio of the pump flow rate to the head at the speed corresponding to the
maximum efficiency point. It depends primarily on the design of the pump and impeller.
The specific speed can be used to avoid cavitations or to select the most economical
pump for a given system layout. Pump selection are made based on the head required,
flowrate, state of the feed and the chemical reaction of the feed with the pump. The
pressures developed by centrifugal pumps depend on:
Fluid density
Diameter of the pump impeller
The rotational speed of the impeller
Volumetric flow rate through the pump

78

5.3.1 Pump Specification

Sample Calculation
Location: Between Pasteurizer and homogenizer
Volumetric flow rate = 4.580 x 10-4m3s-1
From the above pipe specification,
Optimum pipe diameter = 0.75 in
Nominal size = 0.75 in
Pipe schedule number = 40s
Outer diameter (do) = 1.05 in
Inner diameter (di) = 0.824 in
Velocity of fluid in the pipe = 1.607 ms-1
Reynolds number of fluid = 53469.377
5.3.2 Power Requirement
Total pump head, H

Therefore, H

Pdc
g

H dc H sc

Z dc

Pdc

Psc
g

Vdc2
2g

Psc
g

Vdc2 Vsc2
2g

Z sc

Vsc2
2g

Where Pline=Pdc-Psc
Take the suction velocity, Vsc as the reference, hence equal to zero and the discharge
velocity, Vdc to be equal to the velocity by which the feed in the pipe.
79

Pdc
g

The total discharge head, H dc

Pdc
g

The total suction head, H dc

Z dc

Z dc

Vdc2
2g

Vdc2
2g

It is assumed to be no height difference between the suction and discharge pipe, hence
Z=0.

Pdc Psc 87670Pa

Vdc Vsc 1.607ms

= 1048kg/m3; g = 9.81m/s2

87670
1.607
0
8.609m
1048 9.81
2 9.81

Hence, H

Useful power, Puseful

gQH

Q = 4.58x10-4; H = 8.609m ; = 1048kg/m3;

g = 9.81m/s2
Hence, Puseful

1048 9.81 0.000458 8.609 40.537W

Specific Speed
The value of specific speed can be calculated from the relation;

Ns

1.73x104 N Q
( gH )

3
4

.. 11 (sinnot, 1999)

Where N is the revolutions per second (58.333rev/sec)

Q is the flow in m3/s (4.58x10-4 m3/s)

80

H is the head in meters (8.609 m).

Ns

1.73 10 4 58.33 4.58 10

775.184

9.81 8.609 4

Specific speeds for centrifugal pumps usually lie the range 400-10000 but values above
the range are considered impractical (Pope, 1997). The calculated specific speed lays
between 400 1000, hence the pump impellers are classified as radial. Since the
calculated value lies within the range it suggests that the calculated value is correct.
NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD
In order to avoid cavitations, enough energy should be supplied to the fluid at the
suction so that the pressure of the fluid at any point exceeds the vapour pressure. This
extra energy added to unit weight of liquid is known as the Net positive suction head
(NSPH). NPSH is the absolute pressure at the pump inlet expressed in feet of liquid,
plus velocity head, minus the vapour pressure of the fluid at pumping temperature, and
corrected to the elevation of the pump centreline in the case of horizontal pumps or to
the entrance to the first-stage impeller for vertical. Thus if NPSH is 0 or less, the liquid
can vaporise. The liquid boils and vapour packets develop. These bubbles are carried
along until a region of higher pressure where they collapse and this is called cavitation.
The outcome of this is from noisy pump operation to outright failure of components.
The NPSH increases as the pump capacity increases. Hence it is important to consider
the range of flow requirement during the pump selection time.

Net positive suction head

Pi

Pvap
g

. 12 (Gasioreck et al, 2001)

Where Pi = absolute static pressure at the pump inlet, N/m2

Pvap = Vapour pressure, N/m2 = 0.1233 x 105 Pa (Rogers and Mayhew)

81

Pi

Patm

gH s ..13 (Gasioreck, Swaffield and Douglas,

2001)
Patm = atmospheric pressure, N/m2
= density of pulp
Hs = Suction head

Inserting values into equation (12), it implies,

Net positive suction head

12816.904 12330
0.047m
1048 9.81

5.3.2 Summary of Chemical Engineering Design of a Centrifugal Pump between

de-aerator and pasteurizer

Design parameters

Value

Specific speed

775.184 rpm

Net positive suction head (NPSH)

0.047 m

Total head required

8.609 m

Useful Power

40.537 W

Flow rate

0.000458 m3/s

82

83

CHAPTER SIX
6.0 THE DESIGN OF A FRUIT WASHER FOR THE WASHING OF ORANGE
FRUITS
6.1 DESIGN PROBLEM STATEMENT
The aim of this design is to provide a washing unit which will be used to wash the
orange fruits before they are moved on to the extraction unit for extraction of the orange
juice to take place. This washing unit is necessary because it cleans the dirt and
pesticide residues on the fruit surface.
6.2 JUSTIFICATION
After sorting, the oranges are then ready for extraction but because they carry dirt and
pesticides, the need to be washed before extraction takes place is very important.
Washing oranges in a sink filled with water is not recommended because the standing
water can spread contamination from one orange to another. The use of soap or
detergent is also not recommended or approved for washing oranges because the fruits
can absorb some detergent residue. Therefore the orange is pulled from the surge bin
into a fruit washer, washed under high pressurized water from water jets before juice
extraction takes place. Chlorination of wash water is also very important because
chlorine can reduce the spread of contamination form one item to another during the
washing stage.
6.3 INTRODUCTION
The washing process is the pre-processing workshop of fruit deep processing, such as
juice extracting line. Washing is an essential part of good hygiene and health. A high
pressure washing system may be used to remove scale insects and dirt. This technology
allows more fruit to meet quality standards and quarantine requirements as insect bodies
and other heavy film deposits from mould growth are removed. Since washing orange
84

fruits in a sink filled with standing water are not recommended and the use of soap or
detergent is also not approved the orange fruits pulled from the surge bins are moved
into the fruit washer, washed before juice extraction takes place. The orange fruits are
washed with distilled water. They are also sprayed and splashed with the distilled water
as it gets into the washing unit. The distilled water is pumped with centrifugal pump
through the nozzle of a discharge pipe under a high pressure into the washing unit as the
orange fruits gets into the washing unit. The pressurized water through the water jet
sprayers spray and splash the oranges fruits thereby washing the orange fruits. The dirty
water is discharged through a drain pipe into a storage tank for processing and the
washed orange fruits are transported by a belt conveyor to the extractor. Lengthening
fruit moving distance, speeding fruits turning and strengthening or increasing water
flushing gives a high efficiency of the washing unit.
Steel drums can also be used to make a simple washing stand. The drums are cut in half,
fitted with drain holes, and all the metal edges are covered with split rubber or plastic
hose. The drums are then set into a sloped wooden table. The table top is constructed
from wooden slats and is used as a drying rack before packing. Because steel drums are
often used to store petroleum and chemical products, they should be thoroughly cleaned
before being used as a washing stand. This tank for washing produce is made from
galvanized sheet metal. A baffle made of perforated sheet metal is positioned near the
drain pipe and helps to circulate water through the produce. Fresh water is added under
pressure through a perforated pipe, which helps move floating produce toward the drain
end of the tank for removal after cleaning.

85

6.4 FRUIT WASHING MACHINE

6.4.1 Equipment Description
The orange fruit washing machine is made up of mainly stainless steel which has a high
resistance of corrosion and abrasion and helps to meet food sanitary. The machine is
composed mainly of brush rollers, water jets, electric motor and water basin. The brush
rollers are made up of stainless steel tube and brush. The brush is also made up of
polyethylene and makes revolution as the mild steel chain moves, thereby driving the
orange fruits to circumvolve and being washed by the brush. The water jets which are
also situated above the brush rollers also sprays water under high pressure on the orange
fruits to also wash the orange fruits as they rotate on the brush rollers. The water basin
below the brush rollers then collects the waste water which is then drained off.
6.4.2 Nozzle
Solid (full) cone spray type of nozzle is used in the water jets. It sprays with uniform
distribution throughout the entire spray pattern. Stainless steel is the material used in its
construction because of its excellent resistant to both abrasion and corrosion. The spray
angle of the water jets is 550 and is placed at a distance of 0.2540 m above the fruit
washer. This gives a theoretical coverage distance of 0.2616 m for every water jet.
(http://www.steinen.com/industrial/usa/english/spray-calculator.php)
Nozzles have three main functions:

1. Nozzles regulate spray liquid emission rates

2. Nozzles break the liquid into droplets
3. Nozzles ensure the spray is distributed as intended

86

Fig 1.diagram of nozzle exit

6.4.3 Process Description
Before an orange juice is extracted from an orange fruit it is very important to pass it
through the washing unit which is a fruit washer to be precise as this project is
concerned. The orange fruit after entering the fruit washer is moved forward by a series
of brush rollers which is powered by an electric motor. The orange fruits circumvolve
around the brush rollers and move forward as the brush rollers rotates thereby allowing
the brush around the brush rollers to start the washing process by the friction between
the brush and the orange fruit.

As the orange fruits move forward, pressurized water is sprayed by water jets which are
lined above the brush rollers. This pressurized water together with the brush rollers
gives a high washing efficiency by removing all dirt and stains on the orange fruits.
The waste water from the orange fruits then passes through the small spaces in between
the brush rollers into the water basin bellow the brush rollers and is drained off through
a drain pipe. The washed oranges are then propelled forward by the brush rollers into
the next unit for extraction to take place. Lengthen fruit moving distance, speed fruits
turning and strengthen water flushing are the parameters that give a high washing
efficiency. Also Increasing flexible counter flow between the fruits gives a more
thorough cleaning of the orange fruits.

87

6.5 MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION

304 stainless steel is used for the construction of the fruit washer. This type of metal
was used because it is a corrosion resistant material in the chemical industry.
6.6 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS
6.6.1 Calculation of Pump discharge nozzle velocity, Vout

DATA:
1 m3 = 1000 L

1 in = 2.54 cm
Volumetric flowrate, Q = 60 L/min =1 103 m3/s

Diameter of pump discharge nozzle = 1in = 0.0254m

where:
Q = volumetric flowrate, m3/s
A = area of nozzle, m2

Vout = Pumps discharge nozzle velocity

A= (d2) / 4, m2
A= ( x 0.02542) / 4 = 5.0670 x 104 m2

Therefore substituting these values into the equation gives,

88

Vout = (1x103) / (5.0670 x 104) =1.9735 m/s 2.0 m/s

6.6.2 Exit velocity of Water Jet

According to Bernoullis equation (Ws=0)

where:

Pi = inlet pressure, kPa

= density of water, kg/m3

Pe = outlet pressure, kPa

g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2

Vi = inlet velocity, m/s

Ve = exit velocity, m/s

Zi -Ze = Elevation, m

Ws= shaft work done, J/kg

Assumptions:

1) Steady state flow (velocity is constant)

2) Ideal Fluid (=o Frictionless, therefore no momentum transfer to the walls)

3) Flow along a streamline

4) Incompressible fluid ( = constant)

5) Uniform properties for inlet/outlet

6) Neglect the height difference between inlet and outlet ( Zi -Ze =0)

7) Isothermal fluid (Q = 0)
89

8) No shaft work (WS=0)

Therefore the Bernoulli equation becomes:

DATA:

The inlet pressure Pi = 202.650 kPa

The outlet pressure is the same as atmospheric pressure Pe = 101 kPa

The inlet velocity is Vi = 2 m/s

The density of water is = 997.04 kg/m3

Rearranging the equation gives,

Ve2 = {2(202650101325) / 997.04} +22

Ve2 = 207.25
Ve = 207.25 = 14.3962 m/s

6.6.3 Total horse power supplied

The total horsepower (TSHP) required at the drive shaft to drive the loaded roller
conveyor system may be calculated by using the following formulas:

TSHP = FHP + MHP (NB: MHP is corrected if below 5 HP)

90

Friction H.P. Calculation:

Material H.P. Calculation:

(http://www.kwsmfg.com/engineering-guide/index.htm)

Table 1: Equation Symbols

TSHP

Total Shaft H.P.

FHP

Friction H.P.(H.P. required to drive the

conveyor empty)

MHP

Material H.P. (H.P. required to move the

material)

Conveyor Length

Conveyor Speed

DF

Conveyor Diameter Factor

HBF

Hanger Bearing Factor

CFH

Conveyor Capacity

Weight per cu. Ft

CP

Capacity, lbs. per hr

MF

Material H.P Factor (From the Materials

Table)

91

DATA:

Roller conveyer length= 2m

Hanger Bearing Factor= 4.4

Revolution per minute (rpm) = 20 rpm (assumption)

Conveyer capacity (Ibs /hr) =7807.826 Ibs /hr

Material Horse Power Factor (MF) = 0.8

Friction Horsepower, the horsepower required to drive the conveyor empty is calculated
as follows:

FHP= (4.4 x 6.56 x 45)/1000000=0.0013hp

Material Horsepower, the horsepower required to move the material is also calculated
as:

MHP= (7807.826x0.8x6.56)/1000000=0.0410hp

Since the calculated Material Horsepower is less than 5 it should be corrected for
potential overload. The corrected horsepower value corresponding to the calculated
Material Horsepower is found on the lower scale of the Material Horsepower Overload
Correction Chart. (http://www.kwsmfg.com/engineering-guide/materialchar.htm)

By interpolation,

If 0.560hp =1.320 hp (http://www.kwsmfg.com/engineering-guide/index.htm)

Then,

92

0.040975hp = (0.040975/0.560) x 1.320 = 0.9666 hp

Total Shaft Horsepower (TSHP) is the sum of Friction horsepower and the corrected
Material Horsepower. Thus TSHP is calculated as follows:

TSHP = 0.0013 + 0.9666 = 0.967899hp

Therefore a standard 1horsepower motor is selected for the drive input.

6.6.4 Velocity of the brush rollers

But:

Where:

V =linear velocity

t =time, s

r = radius of roller, m

= angular velocity

= angular displacement, radian

Data:

Radius of roller = 0.0254 m

20 rev = 125.6637 rad (assumption)

Time =60s

Therefore:
93

 = 125.6637/60 = 2.0944 rads1

v = 0.0254 x 2.0944 = 0.0532 m/s

But since the series of rollers are tilted at an angle of 100 to the horizontal,
v = 0.12/cos10o = 0.0540 m/s

6.6.5 Residence time

Residence time = distance / velocity

Residence time = 2 m / 0.0532 m/s

Residence time = 37.0370 s.

6.6.6 Water basin nozzle exit velocity

According to Bernoullis equation (Ws=0)

Data:

Assumptions

Pi =

= 101325Pa

Zi Ze = Z = 0.3 m
g = 9.81m/s2

Therefore the equation reduces to,

94

Vnozzle = 2gZ
Vnozzle = 2 x 9.81 x0.3 = 5.9 m/s

6.6.7 Summary of chemical engineering calculations

Parameter

Calculated value

Volumetric flowrate

1 10 3 m3/s

Area of pump nozzle

5.067 104 m2

Pump discharge nozzle velocity

1.974 m/s

Exit velocity of Water Jet

14.38 m/s

Friction H.P of roller conveyer

0.0013 hp

Material H.P roller conveyer

0.9666 hp

Total shaft horse power of motor

0.9679 hp

Roller conveyer length

2.0 m

Velocity of the brush rollers

0.0540 m/s

Water basin nozzle exit velocity

5.9 m/s

Residence Time

37.0370 s

6.7 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING CALCUATIONS

6.7.1 Design of the conveyer rollers

Data:

Conveyer brush rollers length = 2m

Brush roller diameter = 0.0508m

Radius of brush roller = 0.0254m

95

Conveyer brush roller width = 0.8m

Distance between brush rollers = 0.01m

Total no. of brush rollers = 33

6.7.2 Torque on brush roller conveyer

...[Shigley et al,
2004]

......[Shigley et al,
2004]

but:
J = (1/2) x 0.02544 = 6.54 x 107 m4

For stainless steel,

therefore:
Torque, T = (6.54 x 107 x860 x106) / 0.0254 =22143.3071 N

6.7.3 Total weight of brush rollers conveyer

Specific gravity of steel =7.7 [Perry, 2006]
Density of steel=7.7 x 1000kg/m3=7700kg/m3
Surface area(s) of brush roller = 2rL = 2 x 3.142 x 0.0254 x 0.8 = 0.1277 m2
volume (brush roller), v = r2L = 3.142 x 0.02542 x 0.8 = 1.6242 x 103 m3
96

m = x v= 7700 x 1.6242 x 103 = 12.5066 kg

weight (w) of brush roller = m x g = 12.5066 x 9.81 = 122.6894 N

Total weight of the series of brush rollers conveyer = 33 x 122.6894 =4048.7502 N

6.7.4 Design of water basin

Data:

Length=2m

Breath=0.9m

Height= 0.4m
Thickness of water basin = 7103m
Volume using inside diameter, Vid = 2 0.9 0.4 = 0.7200m3
Volume using outside diameter, Vod = (2+7103) (0.9 +7103) (0.4 +7103) =
3.3210 m3
Vd = 3.32100 0.7200 = 2.6010m3

therefore:

Dead weight of water basin = 7700 2.6010 9.81= 196471.7370 N

6.7.5 Length of water basin nozzle

Ln = 0.64(Di) 0.5 ....................................................... (Sinnot, 2005)

Where, Ln = length of nozzle

97

Di = nozzle inside diameter=0.03m

Ln = 0.64(0.03)0.5 = 0.1100m

6.7.6 Design of supports

The fruit washer will be supported on legs. The weight to be supported comprises; the
weight of the brush rollers conveyer, the weight of the water basin and the weight of the
orange fruits. The leg supports would be constructed with mild steel because it has a
high compressive strength.

Properties of mild steel (Sinnott, 2005)

Tensile strength= 430 N/mm2
Density= 7900 kg/m3
Modulus of elasticity=210 N/mm2
Weight of orange fruit = 3541.63kg 9.81m2/s = 34743.3903N

Total weight to be supported = Wo + Wdt + Wr

where:

Wo = weight of orange fruits

Wwb = weight of water basin

Wr = weight of the brush rollers

Total weight to be supported = 34743.3903N + 196471.7370 N + 4048.7502N

=235263.8775N
98

=235.2639KN

Dimensions of the Support

Data:

Length of support= 0.9m

Height= 0.40 m

Area of the support A=Lx h=0.9 m x0.4 m=0.36 m2

6.7.7 Normal Stress on the Support

= F/A

Where:

F = load acting on the support

A= area of the support

therefore:
= 235263.8775N / 0.36 m2
= 653.5108 KPa

5.7.8 Wind Loading

A wind speed of 160 km/h (100 mph) can be used for preliminary design studies

(Sinnot, 2005).

From the relation,

Pw = 0.05(uw) 2............................................................................................ (Sinnott, 2005)
99

Where:
uw = wind speed in wind pressure in N/m2

therefore:
Pw = 0.05 x (160 km/h) 2 = 1280 N/m2

6.7.9 Bending Stress

The bending stresses will be compressive or tensile, depending on the location is given
by:

........................................................................... (Sinnot 2005)

Where:

Mv = the total bending moment at the plane being considered

Iv = the second moment of area of the fruit washer about the plane of bending.

but: Mv =

w= loading per unit length due to wind pressure =1280N

x=height of fruit washer = 1.1 m

Mv = (1280 x 1.12) / 2 = 774.4 Nm2

The second moment of area is estimated as follows:

Assuming a diameter of 600 mm (0.6 m) and a thickness of 20 mm (t=0.02 m)

100

Iv = / 64 (0.024)......................................................................................... (Sinnot, 2005)

Iv = 7.8540 x 10-9 m4

From the relation above

Iy = / 64 (0.64) = 6.3617 x 10-3 m4

Therefore the bending stress:

....................................................................................... (Sinnot, 2005)

b = 774.4 / 7.8540 x 10-9 (0.6/2 +0.02)

b =31551.8207 MPa

101

6.7.7 Summary of mechanical engineering calculations

Parameter

Calculated value

Brush roller diameter

0.0508m

Conveyer brush roller width

0.8000m

Total no. of brush rollers

33

Torque on brush roller conveyer

22.1433 KN

Total weight of series of brush rollers

4.0488 N

Dead weight of water basin

196.4717 KN

Length of water basin nozzle

0.1100m

Weight of orange fruit

34.7400 KN

Area of the support

0.36 m2

Normal Stress on the Support

653.5108 KPa

Bending Stress on support

31551.8207 MPa

Surface area(s) of brush roller

0.1277 m2

volume (brush roller),

1.6242 x 103 m3

Volume water basin

2.6010m3

102

CHAPTER SEVEN
7.0 INTRODUCTION

Filtration can be defined as the separation of solids from liquids by passing a

suspension or slurry through a permeable medium which retains the particles (Darkwah,
2010). Centrifugation is a form of filtration, involving the use of centrifugal force for
the separation of mixtures, both in industry and in laboratory settings. The rate at which
particles settle in a gas or liquid stream can be generally increased if centrifugal rather
than gravitational forces are employed. The rate of centrifugation is specified by the
acceleration applied to the sample, typically measured in revolutions per minute (rpm).
The particles' settling velocity in centrifugation is a function of their size and shape,
centrifugal acceleration, the volume fraction of solids present, the density difference
between the particle and the liquid and the viscosity.

Centrifugal fields can be generated in two distinctly different ways which are:
(a) By introducing into a cylindrical or conical vessel, a fluid with a high tangential
velocity as in cyclones. In this case, the pattern of flow in the body of the separating
device is approximated to a free vortex in which the tangential velocity is inversely
proportional to the radius. Generally, the larger and denser particles collects and are
removed near the walls of the separator, and the smaller and less dense particles are
collected through an outlet near the axis of the vessel.
(b) By the use of the centrifuge. In this case, the fluid is rapidly accelerated in some
form of a rotating bowl after it has been fed into the centrifuge. The frictional drag
within the fluid ensures that there is very little rotational slip or relative motion between
layers of the fluid within the bowl, causing the whole fluid to rotate at a constant
angular velocity, which results in an establishment of a forced vortex. Under these
103

conditions, the tangential velocity will vary directly with the radius at which the fluid is
rotating (Richardson et al., 2002).
7.1 OBJECTIVES
7.1.1 Main Objective

To design a centrifuge as a unit in the production of powdered citrus concentrate.

7.1.2 Specific Objectives

The specific objectives are;

a) to specify the type of centrifuge for this unit operation as well as its material of
construction
b) to carry out detailed chemical engineering calculations on the centrifuge
c) to carry out detailed mechanical engineering calculations on the centrifuge
d) to give a detailed mechanical engineering drawing of the selected centrifuge

7.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

In this project, the juice obtained from the extraction stage contains pulp which is not
the desired product. There is therefore the need to separate the pulp from the desired
clear juice. The juice contains about 3.92% pulp and is to enter the centrifuge at
1,804.56 kg/h and deliver an output mass flow rate of 1,737.34 kg/h.

7.3 EQUIPMENT SELECTION

Centrifuges are classified according to the mechanism used for solids separation
namely:

104

i.

Sedimentation centrifuges: In such units, the separation is dependent on a

difference in density between the solid and liquid phases.

ii.

Filtration centrifuges: Such devices separate the phases by filtration. The walls
of the centrifuge basket are porous and the liquid filters through the deposited
cake of solids and is removed.

The performance criteria for the selection of a centrifuge for a particular application
depends on the purity of centrate (sedimenting centrifuge) or filtrate (filtering
centrifuge), cake dryness or moisture content, total solids recovery, polymer dosage,
size recovery and yield, volumetric and solids throughput, solid purity and wash ratio
and power consumption (Darkwah, 2010).
A filtration centrifuge is found to be the appropriate for this project, simply because of
the small-size, soft and the light-weight nature of the pulp.
7.4 JUSTIFICATION
A pusher centrifuge is chosen amongst other types of centrifuge simply because of its
continuous mode of operation and the fact that it incorporates the process of filtration in
its separation. This makes it suitable for separating the pulp of size, 125 m since
pusher centrifuges separate slurries with particles as small as 0.08 m. The G-factor of
pusher centrifuges ranges from 300 to 2000 and its maximum retention time is 60 s
(Purchas, 1977). They dewater and wash 0.3 to 25 tons/hr of solids containing no more
than about 10% by weight (McCabe et. al, 1985). This makes the pusher centrifuge the
most suitable type of centrifuge for this project.
7.4.1 Equipment Description
In the pusher centrifuge, which is a type of filtration centrifuge, the driving force is the
centrifugal pressure due to the liquid and suspended solids, and this will not be affected

105

by the presence of solid particles deposited on the walls. The Pusher centrifuge is made
up of two main units namely;
a) base unit
b) basket unit
7.4.1.1 Basket Unit
The feed is introduced into the centrifugation area by a pipe that delivers the slurry to a
vane distributor .The helical nature of the side of the vane head distributes the feed
uniformly in the basket. The slurry is thus pre-accelerated giving the material a boost in
its kinetic energy before the centrifugal action takes place. The basket unit comprises of
wedge shaped screens on which the main centrifugal action is effected. A rotating shaft
initiates the rotation of the basket to produce the centrifugal action. The shaft is driven
by a v-belt assembly and is supported by bearings so as to minimise deflections and
precession or slow gyration motion, which occurs when basket is tilted. Basket sizes
range from 300 to 1200 mm (McCabe et. al, 1985) and are built with corrosion resistant
materials. Mechanical pusher drives are fitted to machines with smaller basket
diameters up to 500 mm; those with greater nominal diameters operate efficiently using
hydraulic drives. The rotor is cantilever mounted in a horizontal arrangement, however
the larger the rotor, the slower the maximum speed. Retention time is a feature of
centrifuge operation that determines how efficient the separation process is achieved
and the moisture content of the final throughput. Pusher centrifuges are equipped with
baskets which have slotted openings in the direction of the solids travel to ensure that
enough moisture is removed during the pushing movement. Multi-stage centrifuges
possess several baskets that loosen the filter cake and reshape it by moving it from the
inner basket to the next larger basket. Through this re-shaping process, moisture which
forms between the particles is exposed and filtered.
106

7.4.1.2 Base Unit

The Base unit is made up of the following:
i.

the pusher shaft assembly

ii.

the hydraulic system

iii.

the drive system

iv.

the throughput

7.4.1.2.1 Pusher Shaft Assembly

The Base section is also the site for the hydraulic piston action. The main shaft rotating
the basket also carries the pusher shaft (piston). It is supported by brushings which is
lubricates with oil to reduce friction. The pusher fits closely into the basket screen and
has a head diameter almost equal to the nominal diameter of the screen. The stroke of
the piston ensures the discharge of solid material with every centrifugation cycle. The
feed stream is pulsed, which means, that during back stroke of the pusher plate the
slurry valve is open and during the dangerous forward stroke the feed valve is closed.
7.4.1.2.2 The Hydraulic System
An inbuilt tank stores the hydraulic oil used for the pushing process, the base unit is the
main reservoir of the oil used in the centrifuge.
7.4.1.2.3 The Drive System
The basket is run by a v-belt assembly that is run by a motor. The power delivered is
used to turn the shaft which in turn rotates the basket. The shaft is supported by bearings
at the front of the base unit, behind the basket and at the rear end just ahead of the
transfer brushing.

107

7.4.1.2.4 Throughput
Typically a centrifuge may leave about 2 to 10 percent of the weight of the crystals as
adhering mother liquor on the surface. This varies greatly with the size and shape or
habit of the crystals. Large, uniform crystals precipitated from low-viscosity mother
liquors will retain a minimum of mother liquor, while non uniform or small crystals
precipitated from viscous solutions will retain a considerably larger proportion.
Typically, with a product separated on a centrifuge, the adhering mother liquor would
be in the range of 2 to 10 percent of the weight of the crystals. The difference between
this and a purity of 100 percent is generally the result of small pockets of mother liquor
called occlusions trapped within the crystal. To increase the purity of the crystal beyond
the point where such occlusions are normally expected (about 0.1 to 0.5 percent by
volume), theres the need to recycle the filtrate.
7.4.2 Equipment Operation
A steel-made rotating basket with a slotted wall is fed through a revolving feed funnel.
The purpose of the distributor is to cause acceleration to the feed slurry (pulp-containing
orange juice) in a gentle and smooth manner. Orange juice enters the small end of the
funnel from a stationary pipe at the axis of rotation of the basket. It travels toward the
large end of the distributor, gaining speed as it goes, and when it spills off the
distributor onto the wall of the basket, it is moving in the same direction as the wall and
at very nearly the same speed. Clear orange juice flows through the basket wall, which
may be covered with a woven stainless steel cloth. A layer of thick pulp is formed. This
layer is moved over the filtering surface by a reciprocating pusher. Each stroke of the
pusher moves the pulp a few inches toward the lip of the basket and on return stroke; a
space is opened on the filtering surface in which more cake can be deposited. When the
pulps reach the lip of the basket, they fly outward into a large casing and drop into a
108

collector chute. Filtrate (orange juice) and any wash liquid that is sprayed onto the pulp
during their travel leave the casing through separate outlets. The gentle acceleration of
the pulp-containing orange juice and deceleration of the discharged pulps minimize the
distance of travel of the pulp. Multistage units that minimize the distance travelled by
the pulp in each stage are used with solid cakes that do not convey properly in a singlestage machine.
7.5 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN
Data Given;
Specific gravity of orange juice = 1.048
Density of orange juice,

= 1048 kg/m3

Specific gravity of orange pulp = 1.27

Density of orange pulp,

= 1270 kg/m3

Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 ms-2

Particle size of pulp = 125 microns
Absolute viscosity of orange juice = (55 - 75) Cp
Assuming a viscosity value,
Absolute viscosity,

of 60 Cp for orange juice = 60 10-3 Pa.s = 0.06 Pa.s

of orange pulp = 600 Cp = 600 10-3 Pa.s = 0.6 Pa.s

Flowrate of pulp-containing juice into the feed pipe of the centrifuge = 1804.56 kg/hr
Pulp content of feed flow rate = 3.92%
Assumptions:
i.

the efficiency of basket screen is assumed to be 95%

109

ii.

the effects of gravity and of changes in kinetic energy of the liquid are neglected

iii.

the pressure drop from centrifugal action equals the drag of the liquid flowing
through the cake

iv.

A Basket Diameter of 300 mm is assumed based on real examples from the

market.

Flowrate of juice out of the discharge of the centrifuge

= 1,737.34 kg/hr
7.5.1 Average Density
Given the densities of juice and pulp to be
the feed into the centrifuge with

and

respectively, the average density of

being the weight percentage of each component is

given by,
(6.0)

+
= 1,056 kg/m3

7.5.2 Average Viscosity

Also, given the viscosities of juice and pulp to be and

respectively, the average

viscosity of the feed into the centrifuge is given by

... (7.1)

+
= 0.08 Pa.s
110

7.5.3 Rotational Velocity

. (7.3)

G-force = 0.000559
Where

(Darkwah, 2010)

is the speed of the basket

is the basket diameter

Where,

is the rotational velocity of the basket.

7.5.4 Settling velocity of the pulp

The settling velocity of a pulp particle is given by

(7.4)

Where

is the settling velocity of the pulp

is the acceleration of gravity

is the square of the pulp size

111

Mass flow into centrifuge= 1804.56 kg/hr

Volumetric flow into centrifuge,

................................. (7.5)

Since 1 hr = 3600 s

7.5.5 Height of the Basket

For optimum separation, the bowl is designed to have a height equal to its diameter. The
height of the bowl h, is therefore = 0.3 m (Svarovsky, 1983).
7.5.6 Linear Velocity of the Juice
The linear velocity of the orange juice in the centrifuge basket, u is given by
.. (7.6)
112

Where A is the area of the basket given by

Therefore,

7.5.7 Retention time

The time taken for a pulp within the requisite size range to settle from through the liquid
medium x1 to x2 is given by,
........................ (7.7) (Backhurst J.R et al, 2002)

a=
Where,

.. (7.8)

-angular velocity of basket

is the density of the pulp

is the density of juice
is the diameter of the pulp
a=
a=0.9532
= 0.95
Therefore,
113

This is a very low value equivalent to a velocity of (0.3/0.59) = 0.51 m/s. Because of the
very small diameter of the particle, it is more than likely that the conditions are laminar,
even at this particle velocity.
For juice with viscosity,
Re =

, then:
. (7.9)

And hence by applying the equation,

(7.10)

114

7.5.8 Summary of Chemical Engineering Design

Parameter

Value

Feed mass flow rate

1,804.56 kg/hr

Feed volumetric flow rate

4.7410-4 m3s-1

Discharge mass flow rate

1,737.34 kg/hr

Average Density of juice with pulp

1,056.70 kg/m3

Average Viscosity of juice with pulp

0.08 Pa.s

Basket Diameter

300 mm

Basket Height

300 mm

Rotational Speed

1,046.01 rpm

Rotational Velocity of the Basket

109.54 rads-1

Pulp size

125 m

Centrifuge Efficiency

95%

Settling Velocity of Pulp

2.3610-5 ms-1

Linear Velocity of the Juice

3.3510-3 ms-1

Retention time

28.51 s

115

7.6 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN

7.6.1 Data Specification of the Pusher Centrifuge
Density of stainless steel type 316 = 8030 Kg/m3
Mass flow rate, into centrifuge Q = 1804.56 kg/hr
G-factor for pusher centrifuges ranges from (300 to 2000) (Purchas, 1977). A G-factor
value of 1800 is chosen for this equipment
7.6.2 Volume of the Basket
The volume of the separation space V, is given by
(7.11)

7.6.3 Reaction at 60 pipe elbow

Assumption:
Flow is laminar and orange juice is flowing through the pipes at a low Reynolds number
The resulting force in x-direction, Rx is given by

........................... (7.12)

......................... (7.12a)

But

116

Also

Where A is the area of cross-section of the steel pipe

is the average density of the pulp-containing juice

is the linear velocity of the fed orange juice

is the bend angle

Similarly in the y direction:

........................... (7.13)

................................ (7.13a)

......................... (7.14)

1.1829 N

117

7.6.4 Pressure and Stress Analysis

The total stress on a centrifuge , is given by
.... (7.15) (Sinnot, 1999)
Where

is the self stress of the bowl and

is the pressure in the orange juice

The pressure of the orange juice in the basket is given by the expression
. (7.16) (Sinnot, 1999)

Where,

is the pressure in the centrifuge basket

is the average density of the juice with pulp

is the internal radius of the centrifuge basket

is the radius of the liquid surface which goes to zero before maximum fluid pressure

will occur.
The maximum fluid pressure,

The rotation of a cylindrical object such as an empty cylinder creates a self stress, Sc
(7.17) (Sinnot, 1998)

which is given by

But,
.. (7.18)
118

Where,

is the minimum wall thickness which is assumed to be 1.5 mm. This value

was chosen because it is the least thickness of stainless steel available on the market and
also because of the small value of the pressure exerted by the orange juice.
is the maximum allowable stress
.. (7.19) (Walas, 1990)

But,

Therefore,

7.6.5 Weight of the Centrifuge

The total weight of the centrifuge, Wt is given by
(7.20)
Where

is the effective weight of centrifuge bowl including internal fittings and

discs
is the weight of feed in the basket and
is the weight of the feed pipe
=

.. (7.21) (Sinnot, 2003)

119

Where

is a factor to account for the internal support and fittings which is 1.08 for

steel vessels
is the thickness of the basket
is the mean diameter of the basket

= (240

Where,

is the total weight of the basket.

For the weight of the feed pipe which is made of steel, a diameter of 5% the basket
diameter is chosen, therefore 0.05

as the diameter of the steel pipe.

A steel pipe diameter of 15 mm should have a nominal pipe size, schedule number,
outside diameter, wall thickness, a cross-sectional area and a pipe weight of 0.5 in, 40,
0.840 in, 0.109 in, 0.250 in2 and 0.85 lb/ft respectively (McCabe et. al, 1985). A pipe
length of 500 mm (1.64 ft) would therefore require a pipe mass of 0.63 kg (1.394 lb).
(7.22)

120

7.6.6 Torque on rotor

.. (7.23)

From the general balance equation,

The above equation reduces to
Kinetic energy for torque motion of centrifuge is given by
Where,

. (7.24)

is the moment of inertia given by

... (7.25)

Therefore,

Assuming 65% efficiency, shaft work by motor,

Frequency of the basket =

= 17.43 Hz
Torque calculated for the rotor shaft is
7.6.7 Support for the Centrifuge
The following are considered when choosing a support for a vessel.
a. Size, shape, and the weight of the vessel.
b. The design temperature and pressure.
c. The location and arrangement of the vessel.
d. The internal and external fitting and attachment.
The types of support are saddle supports, skirt supports, and bracket supports.

121

Horizontal vessels are usually mounted on two saddle supports; Skirt supports are used
for tall, vertical columns; Brackets or lugs are used for all types of vessel. The pusher
centrifuge will be supported by reinforced concrete saddle supports capable of
balancing the live weight of the centrifuge
7.6.7.1 Determination of live weight stress
.. (7.26)

This value of the dead weight stress is far less than the maximum allowable stress of
175 N/mm2 and therefore, it makes the material of construction chosen suitable.
7.6.7.2 Determination of stresses and saddle location
The ends of the vessel will stiffen if saddles are not located D/4 or more from the ends.
Therefore saddle location, L2 = 0.3 m/4
Saddles will be located approximately 0.075 m from both ends.
The longitudinal stress at the mid-span of the vessel is given by;
(7.27)

Where;
ML1 = longitudinal bending stress at the mid-span
D = basket diameter
122

t = basket thickness
D = 0.3 m
t = 1.5 mm = 0.0015 m
.. (7.28)

L1 = location of mid-span = 0.3 m/2

L1 = 0.15 m
Length of basket = 0.3 m = 300 mm
W = load per unit length = dead weight of equipment per unit length

ML1 = 15783.525 Nmm

Longitudinal stress at mid-span,

= 0.1489 N/mm2

Longitudinal stress at the support is given by;

123

... (7.29)

Ch = an empirical constant = 0.1 for unstiffened vessel

But;
. (7.30)

L2 = location of support = 0.075 m

W=

ML2 = 3945.881 Nmm

Longitudinal stress at support,

= 0.372 N/mm2

124

7.6.8 Summary of Mechanical Engineering Design

Parameter

Value

Basket Thickness

1.5 10-3 m

Volume of the Basket

0.04 m3

Reaction at 60o elbow

1.18 N

Total Stress on the Centrifuge

1.29 MPa

Total Weight of the Centrifuge

420.89 N

Moment of Inertia

0.32 kgm-2

Torque on the Rotor

1255.69 J

Frequency of the Basket

17.43 Hz

Dead Weight Stress

0.296 N/mm2

Longitudinal stress at mid-span

0.1489 N/mm2

Longitudinal stress at support

0.372 N/mm2

125

CHAPTER EIGHT
8.0 INTRODUCTION
The production of powdered orange concentrate is associated with some defects such as
corrosion, flavour deterioration, nutrient damage, frothing and otherwise damages the
quality of the juice or the concentrate. The main cause of these defects is the presence of
non-condensable gases especially oxygen in the juice. Oxygen is the main cause of
enzymatic browning, flavour deterioration and corrosion in tanks, feedlines, feedpumps,
and boilers and in many process equipments (Shaw et al, 1993). One of the most serious
aspects of oxygen corrosion is that it occurs as pitting. This type of corrosion can
produce failures even though only a relatively small amount of metal has been lost and
the overall corrosion rate is relatively low. The degree of oxygen attack depends on the
concentration of dissolved oxygen.
This chapter of the project is focusing on the removal of the dissolved oxygen in the
orange juice. The embedding of air and therefore oxygen can lead to negative effects on
the orange juice such as degeneration of smell and taste, oxidation and therefore deaeration can not be overlooked in the processing of powdered orange concentrate.
8.1 OBJECTIVES
8.1.1 Main Objective
To design a de-aerator for the removal of oxygen from the orange juice.
8.1.2 Specific Objectives
The specific objectives in this section of the project are:
a) to carry out a detailed chemical and mechanical engineering design of a deaerator
b) to do a mechanical engineering drawing of the de-aerator
c) to carry out material and energy balance of the de-aerator
126

d) to cost the de-aerator

8.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
In the production of powdered orange concentrate, the essence of a de-aerator cannot be
overemphasized. The orange juice contains some amount of dissolved gas and hence the
need for de-aeration. The de-aeration process involves the removal of these dissolved
gases mainly oxygen from the orange juice being processed into the powdered
concentrate. Water, being one of the main components of the juice, is also removed in
the process.
This section of the project is aimed at designing a tray-type de-aerator to remove
oxygen from orange juice. The equipment is to process the juice with an input rate of
1735.60 kg/hr with the assumption that 0.1% of the feed input being the amount of
oxygen. The de-aerator will reduce the oxygen content from about 1001.53 ppm to a
considerably lower level and deliver 1726.92 kg/hr of juice.
8.3 JUSTIFICATION
A tray-type de-aerator is chosen amongst other types of de-aerator because of its
flexibility and ease of operation. It has a minimal loss of product and is comparatively
cheaper to the other types. The trays increases contact time between the juice and the
steam and therefore increase efficiency. The tray-type de-aerator has a spray nozzle that
sprays the juice into droplets increasing the surface area of contact between the juice
and the steam. This type of de-aerator is therefore the most suitable for this project.
8.4 DE-AERATOR
De-aerator is an equipment for the removal of dissolved gases such as oxygen and
carbon dioxide from a process fluid. De-aerators use steam to heat the feed to the full
saturation temperature corresponding to the steam pressure in the de-aerator and to
scrub out and carry away dissolved gases. Steam flow may be parallel, cross, or counter
127

to the feed flow. A de-aerator is an essential part of a steam system (Anonymous).

Oxidation, which is the interaction between oxygen molecules and all the different
substances they may contact, can be very destructive. Oxidation can cause rusting of
equipments or the spoiling of fresh fruit juice. Therefore, the de-aeration stage in the
processing of powdered orange concentrate would mainly seek to reduce levels of
dissolved oxygen in addition to the following;
reduce flavour deterioration
prevent degradation of ascorbic acid as well as
reduction of frothing
8.4.1 De-aeration Principle
De-aeration is based on two scientific principles described briefly below:
a) The first principle is described by Henrys law. The quantity of a gas dissolved
in a given quantity of liquid is directly proportional to its partial pressure
surrounding the liquid. Therefore reducing the partial pressure of the unwanted
gases in the surrounding atmosphere, the gases are diminished.
10.0
Where:
Xa = mole fraction of the gas in the liquid
Pa = partial pressure of the gas in vapour above the liquid
H = Henrys constant (Ringblom, 2004)
b) The second scientific principle that governs de-aeration is the relationship
between gas solubility and temperature. Gas solubility in a solution decreases as
the temperature of the solution rises and approaches saturation temperature. A
128

de-aerator utilises both of these natural processes to remove dissolved oxygen,

carbon dioxide and other non-condensable gases (Lewis, 2006).
8.4.2 Tray-type De-aerator
8.4.2.1 Equipment Description
The typical horizontal tray-type de-aerator has a vertical domed de-aeration section
mounted above a horizontal storage vessel. The de-aerator consists mainly, a deaeration section, a storage tank, a vent and a control panel. The equipment has one inlet
for the juice which is located on the de-aeration section and a pump that pumps the juice
into the equipment. There is an external control that monitors the low and high level
conditions of the juice in the equipment. A low or high level shall ring an alarm and
light a red light on the control panel notifying the operator (Anonymous). There is also
an inlet for steam as the purge gas just below the de-aeration section. The steam is
controlled in a similar manner to the control of the level of the juice via a similar
controller and is based on temperature in the vessel; this controls an electronic
modulating steam make-up valve. There are also pressure indicators on the equipment
to monitor the operating pressure inside the vessel. The equipment also consists of
stacked trays in the de-aeration section. A stand is bolted to the de-aerator on which the
storage tank section lies. The stand is made to be structurally sound and designed for the
weight of the unit. There is also a control panel mounted on the stand assembly
complete with starters, fuse protection, switches, lights and pre-wired terminal blocks.
Wiring to feed pump motor and all controls is standard (Anonymous).
8.4.2.2 Mode of Operation of De-aerator
The juice enters the vertical de-aeration section above the perforated trays and cascades
down the series of trays. Low-pressure de-aeration steam enters the chamber below the
perforated trays and flow is such that the steam entering first comes in contact with the
129

hottest juice which is leaving the last row of trays and then proceeds upward through the
tray stack in a counter-flow fashion. The steam is regulated to come in at a desired
temperature and pressure to enhance the stripping of the oxygen. The steam bubbles
through the juice both heating and agitating it. Using steam is advantageous in that the
solubility of a gas in a liquid decreases with an increase in temperature of that liquid
(Anonymous).
The juice to be de-aerated enters the vessel through a stainless steel spray tube. The inlet
juice should be largely free from suspended solids which can clog spray valves and
ports of the inlet distributor and de-aerator trays. The spray tube disperses the juice into
a vent condenser section that is sealed so that escaping gases can not come in contact
with the vessel walls. The gases escape through an air vent pipe on top of the tray box
that extends out the top of the vessel. The spray tube directs the juice into a directing
cone welded on top of the stacked trays. The juice falls downward from the cone and
spreads over the stainless steel trays. The steam strips oxygen from the feed and
sufficient amount of the steam will then be vented to carry the removed gas out into the
atmosphere via the vent at the top of the domed section. The vent condenser traps and
recovers any juice entrained in the vented gas. The vent line includes a manual valve
and just enough steam is allowed to escape with the vented gases to provide a small and
visible telltale plume of steam. After de-aeration, the juice falls into the storage tank
where a steam blanket protects it from recontamination before it is sent to the next stage
for further processing (Anonymous).
8.4.2.3 Advantages of Tray-type De-aerator
a) High throughput rates
b) Flexible batch sizes
c) Minimal loss of product
130

d) Fast and easy cleaning

e) Low maintenance
f) Easy operation
8.4.2.4 Applications of De-aerator
Some of the areas where a de-aerator is extensively used are as follows:
1. Food industry: syrup, beverages, peanut butter, ketchup
2. Cosmetics industry: liquid soaps and detergents, shampoo, shower gel,
toothpaste
3. Pharmaceutical industry
4. Chemical industry: paints, printing inks, sealing masses, sealants, plastisols,
lubricants, latex compounds
8.4.3 Features of De-aerator
The major components of a tray-type de-aerator include:
1. Control Panel
2. Pressure Indicators
3. Pressure Control Valve
4. Juice Level Indicator
5. Juice Level Alarm Switches
6. Steam Pressure Regulator
7. Automatic and Manual Air Vent
8. Thermometer
9. Manway
8.5 MATERIAL FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF DE-AERATOR
The major material used in construction of de-aerator varies from stainless steel,
carbon-manganese steel and cast iron. For the purpose of this project, stainless steel is
131

the main material being used. There are more than 70 standard types of stainless steel.
Stainless steel is iron-based, with 12 to 30 percent chromium, 0 to 22 percent nickel,
and minor amounts of carbon, copper, molybdenum, selenium, tantalum and titanium. It
is very popular in the food process industries, it is heat and corrosion resistant, noncontaminating, and easily fabricated into complex shapes. Stainless steel and its alloys
can be hardened by heat treatment. It can be used in corrosive environment. (Afrane et
al, 2006)
8.6 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN OF DE-AERATOR
The design of an effective de-aeration system depends upon the amount of gases to be
removed and the final oxygen gas concentration desired. Normal design practice is to
calculate the amount of steam required for heating and then make sure that the flow is
sufficient for stripping as well. The de-aerator is of the tray- type utilizing controlled
parallel directional flow of steam and juice through the tray stack. The equipment shall
heat, de-aerate and deliver 1726.92 kg/hr of juice and provide storage below the
overflow level. For optimum oxygen removal, the juice in the storage must be heated to
within 5 oC of the temperature of the steam at saturation conditions.
8.6.1 Chemical Engineering Calculations
Amount of oxygen in orange juice, is assumed to be 0.1 % of the flowrate of the input
juice to the de-aerator. Therefore;

= 1.74 kg/hr of air is removed

Amount of dissolved oxygen in ppm (w/w) is therefore given by;

132

=
The juice is assumed to lose 0.5 % of the input feed rate as water vapour. Therefore;

= 8.69 kg/hr
ASSUMPTIONS
1. Constant density
2. Steady state conditions
Known parameters:
Specific gravity of juice = 1.048
Density of juice,

= 1048 kg/m3

Heat capacity of juice, Cp = 3.77 kJ/kgK

Steam quality, x = 0.95
Assuming good lagging of equipment such that heat losses can be neglected;
Heat from steam = heat gained by juice to move from 25 oC to 50 oC
Heat gained by juice is given by;

Q=

..8.1

Mass flowrate of juice, mj = 1726.92 kg/hr

Mass flowrate of water vapour, mw = 8.69 kg/hr
Mass flowrate of oxygen, mo = 1.74 kg/hr
133

Heat capacity of oxygen,

= 0.9226 kJ/kgK

Hfg of steam at 50 oC = 2382.1 kJ/kg

= 50 25 = 25 K

Temperature change,
Q=
=
=

Heat gained by juice = heat supplied by steam

Therefore,

Where, x = steam quality = 0.95

Hfg of steam at 50 oC = 2382.1 kJ/kg

Mass of steam required, ms = 81.089 kg/hr

8.6.1.1 De-aeration section
Mass of juice in de-aeration section,
Density of orange juice,

= 1737.34 kg/hr

= 1048 kg/m3

Mass of steam in de-aeration section,

= 81.089 kg/hr
134

Density of steam at 50 oC,

= (molar volume)-1

From steam table, molar volume of steam at 50 oC is 12.04 m3/kg

Density of steam at 50 oC = (12.04)-1
Density of steam,

= 0.0830565 kg/m3

Volume of juice in de-aeration section per second is given by:

Volume of steam in de-aeration section per second is given by:

Total volume in de-aeration is given by:

Where;

135

8.6.1.2 Storage tank section

Flowrate of juice into the storage tank = 1726.92 kg/hr
Density of orange juice

= 1048 kg/m3

Volume of juice into storage tank per hour is given by:

But volume of storage tank contains the volume of orange juice and a blanket of steam.
The volume of the storage tank can therefore be assumed to be twice that of the juice.
Therefore,
V = 3.2956 m3/hr
8.6.1.3 Sizing De-aeration Column
The principal factor that determines the column diameter is the vapour or steam flow
rate. The vapour velocity must be below that which would cause excessive liquid or
juice entrainment or a high pressure drop. The given equation below, which is based on
the well-known Souders and Brown equation, Lowenstein (1961), can be used to
estimate the maximum allowable superficial vapour velocity and hence the column
diameter (Richardson and Coulson,).
... 8.1

Where; Uv = maximum allowable vapour velocity, based on the gross (total) column
cross-sectional area, m/s
136

lt = plate spacing, m
= density of the juice = 1048 kg/m3
= density of the steam at 50 oC= 0.0830565 kg/m3

The column diameter, Dc, can then be calculated by;

8.2

Where;
Vw = maximum vapour or steam rate, kg/s = 81.0885 kg/hr = 0.022525 kg/s

137

8.6.1.4 Height of Column

Volume of cylindrical column, VT =

. 8.3

Where;
h = height of the column
r = radius of the cylindrical column
VT = 0.24 m
r = Dc/2 = 0.188 m

Height of column, h is approximately 2.00 m

138

Table 8.1 Summary of chemical engineering calculation

Parameter

Value

Unit

Amount of oxygen in juice

1001.53

ppm (w/w)

Amount of water removed

8.69

Kg/hr

Amount of energy needed

454.84

kJ

Amount of steam needed

81.089

Kg/hr

Diameter of column

0.376

Height of column

2.16

Capacity of storage tank

3.2956

m3/hr

Capacity of de-aeration section

0.24

m3/s

8.7 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN OF DE-AERATOR

8.7.1 Support for Equipment
The following are considered when choosing a method to support a vessel
1. Size, shape, and the weight of the vessel.
2. The design temperature and pressure.
3. The location and arrangement of the vessel.
4. The internal and external fitting and attachment.
The support is constructed with any material of high tensile strength, carbon steel
possess the aforementioned qualities and can thus serve that purpose adequately.
The types of support are saddle supports, skirt supports, and bracket supports.
Horizontal vessels are usually mounted on two saddle supports; Skirt supports are used
139

for tall, vertical columns; Brackets, or lugs, are used for all types of vessel; the supports
must be designed to carry the weight of the vessel and contents, and any superimposed
loads, such as wind loads.
8.7.2 Choice of Support
The support for the equipment is attached to the storage tank. For horizontal cylindrical
vessels, saddle support is the best support available. Horizontal vessels are usually
mounted on two saddle supports. Saddles should be strong enough to withstand the
loads imposed on the vessel (Joshi and Mahajani, 1996).
8.7.3 Thickness of Equipment
For cylindrical shell or column, minimum thickness is given by;
8.4(Sinnot, 1999)

Where;
e = minimum thickness, mm
Di = internal diameter of column, mm
Pi = design pressure or internal pressure of column, N/mm2, usually 5 to 10 % above the
normal working pressure to avoid spurious operation during minor process upsets.
f = design stress, N/mm2
Di = 376.298 mm
Normal working pressure, P = 0.1233 bar
Design pressure, Pi = 110/100(0.1233)
Pi = 0.13563 bar = 0.013563 N/mm2
140

For stainless steel type 316;

f = 175 N/mm2 (Sinnott, 1999)

e = 0.014583 mm
But for a vessel with diameter up to 1 m, the minimum thickness is 5 mm including a
corrosion allowance of 2 mm (Sinnot, 1999). Therefore, the vessel thickness is taken as
5 mm.
8.8 Dead Weight of Equipment
The de-aerator is divided into two main parts; the de-aeration part and the storage part.
The dead weight of the equipment is therefore the sum of the dead weights of the two
parts.
The approximate weight of a cylindrical vessel with domed end and uniform wall
thickness can be estimated from the following equation:
.. 8.5(Sinnot, 1999)
Where;
Cv = 1.15 for vessel with plates and 1.08 for vessels with only a few internal fittings to
account for the weight of nozzles, manways, etc.
Hv = height of vessel, m
t = thickness of vessel, mm
Do = outside diameter of vessel, m (Sinnot, 1999)
For vertical column (de-aeration column);
141

Cv = 1.15
Hv = 2.00 m
Do = 0.376 + 2(0.005) = 0.386 m
t = 5.00 mm

For the storage section;

Cv = 1.08
Hv = 2.50 m (assumed value)
Diameter of storage tank = 1.2955 m
Do = 1.2955 + 2(0.005) = 1.3055 m
t = 5.00 mm

Total dead weight of equipment is given by;

142

= 7.227 kN
8.9 Determination of bending stresses in vessel wall
The stress due to the weight of the equipment horizontally is given by;
. 8.6(Sinnot, 1999)

Where;
M = total bending moment at the plane being considered which is taken as the bending
moment due to wind load
t = thickness of vessel = 5.0 mm
Iv = second moment of area of the vessel at the plane of bending.
8.7(Sinnot, 1999)

Where;
Do = outside diameter = 1.3055 m = 1305.5 mm
Di = inside diameter = 1.2955 m = 1295.5 mm

Again;
. 10.8(Sinnot, 1999)

x = diameter of vessel = 1.2955 m

w = dead weight of vessel/length of vessel
143

M = 2425750.502 Nmm

8.10 Determination of longitudinal stress due to internal pressure

8.9(Sinnot, 1999)
p = 0.1233 bar = 12330 N/m2 = 0.01233 N/mm2

8.11 Determination of circumferential stress due to internal pressure

Circumferential stress,

.............................................. 8.10(Sinnot, 1999)

144

8.12 Determination of dead weight stress

. 8.11(Sinnot, 1999)

The resultant longitudinal stress is given by;

(Sinnot, 2005)
= 0.798676 + 0.353762 + 0.366632 = 1.51907 N/mm2
= 0.798676 + 0.353762 0.366632 = 0.78581 N/mm2
The greatest difference the principal stresses would lie on the downwind side is
= 1.51907 0.78581 = 0.73326 N/mm2
This value is well below the maximum allowable stress of 175 N/mm2 and therefore
makes the material of construction chosen suitable.
8.13 Determination of stresses and saddle location
The ends of the vessel will stiffen if saddles are not located D/4 or more from the ends.
Therefore saddle location, L2 = 1.2955/4 m
Saddles will be located approximately 0.3 m from both ends.
The longitudinal stress at the mid-span of the vessel is given by;
8.12(Sinnot, 1999)

145

Where;
ML1 = longitudinal bending stress at the mid-span
D = vessel diameter = diameter of storage section
t = vessel thickness
D = 1.2955 m
t = 5 mm = 0.005 m
8.13(Sinnot, 1999)

L1 = location of mid-span = 1.2955/2 m

L1 = 0.64775 m
Length of storage tank = 2.5 m = 2500 mm
W = load per unit length = dead weight of equipment per unit length

ML1 = 606437.6307 Nmm

146

Longitudinal stress at mid-span,

= 0.920 N/mm2

Longitudinal stress at the support is given by;

. 8.14(Sinnot, 1999)

Ch = an empirical constant = 0.1 for unstiffened vessel

But;

L2 = location of support = 0.323875 m

W=

ML2 = 151609.4077 Nmm

Longitudinal stress at support,

= 0.230 N/mm2

147

Table 8.2 Summary of mechanical engineering calculations

Parameter

Value

Unit

Thickness of equipment

5.00

mm

Dead weight of equipment

7.227

kN

Dead weight stress

0.354

N/mm2

Circumferential stress due to internal pressure 1.597

N/mm2

Longitudinal stress due to internal pressure

N/mm2

Bending stress in vessel wall

0.799
0.367

148

N/mm2

CHAPTER NINE

9.0 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The aim of this project is to design a pasteurizer that is capable of heating1729.6 kg/hr
of orange juice to a temperature of between 85 oC; in order to inhibit proliferation of
disease causing micro-organisms and pathogens that may reside in the juice.

9.1 INTRODUCTION
Orange juice is a beverage of high nutritional value because it contains vitamins,
minerals and anti oxidants. Processed orange juice however may be the hub of residual
microorganisms or pathogens that are responsible for several health related problems in
humans. Microorganisms enter the processing plant via the surface of the fruit; having
originated from soil, untreated surface water, dust and decomposing fruits. The degree
of contamination varies, depending upon how the fruit was handled from the field to the
processing plant. Proper grading and washing of fruits contribute materially to the
reduction of contamination. Product quality however cannot be compromised; thus the
need for requisite steps to ensure pathogenic destruction or minimize their growth.
Extracted orange juice is subjected to the thermal treatment, pasteurization; to produce a
fairly pathogenic-free product of desirable quality. By pasteurization the juice is heated
to a sufficiently high temperature to eliminate microbes that would cause the destruction
or spoilage of the juice product. The type of operation would depend on the factors such
as;

The thermal resistance of the micro-organisms and enzymes present in the food

The initial microbial content contained in the food prior to treatment

The pH of the food

The physical state of the food

149

At pH values between 3.4 to 4.0 (which is typical of most orange juice products),
bacteria such as Lactobacillus sp. and Leuconostocsp. are prone to survival. These
bacteria can cause abnormal flavours and odours. Acetic acid bacteria, Salmonella,
moulds and yeasts primarily responsible for spoilage of untreated juice are also
present and can multiply when the juice is held at temperatures permitting their growth.
Heating to temperatures in the range of 75- 95oC, for the required length of time would
be sufficient to break the thermal resistance of most of these microbes. The process of
pasteurization is carried out essentially, in a heat transfer equipment. Most industrial
pasteurizers are heat exchangers that involve the transfer of heat in either heated process
water or steam to orange juice running through annular spaces.

9.2 IMPORTANCE OF PASTEURIZATION

This operation eliminates disease causing microbes and pathogens from the juice
product. Pasteurization is a crucial requirement of the Good Manufacturing Practices
(GMPs) and the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) as recommended by
standards and regulatory bodies for the production of fruit juice concentrates.
Pasteurization increases shelf life of product and above all assures consumers of product
quality.

9.3 TYPES OF PASTEURIZATION

According to Kay (2009); pasteurization can be grouped under six different categories
based on the process technique. These are listed below;
7. Batch holder process
8. Continuous Holding process
9. In bottle process
10. Flash process
150

11. High temperature, short time

12. Ultra-high temperature
9.3.1 In-bottle Process
The juice feed is heated in a large jacketed container by steam or hot water circulating
an interspace. The temperature to which the juice is raised and held varies (in different
countries depending on the margin of safety to allow) from not less than 60oC to as
much as 65.5oC, for at least thirty minutes. The juice is then cooled, still in the container
to 10oC or less. The batch holder vessel has to be emptied, and there is a break in the
operation for at least one hour before the next batch is ready for filling.
9.3.2 Continuous Holding Process
This is an extension of the batch system, by which juice is heated and subsequently
cooled by a plate heat exchanger outside the actual holding vessel of which there may
be four or more and each of which may have a capacity of up to five hundred litres. The
heated juice, at say 65oC is run into the first holding vessel, where its temperature is
maintained by a hot-water jacket or other means. When the first holder is full, which
takes perhaps 10-15 minutes, the filling of the second holder begins automatically and
so on. By the time the first holder has been held for 30 minutes, the last is just being
filled. A virtually continuous flow of pasteurized juice can be obtained. Large volumes
can be treated in few hours.
9.3.3 In-Bottle Process
This involves the heating of juice to relatively colder pasteurization temperature and
filled into special bottles which are then hermetically sealed. The filled bottles are
maintained at those temperatures for about thirty minutes

151

9.3.4 Flash Process

This is the process by which juice is heated as rapidly as possible to75oC or 80o C, or
even above, and then cooled rapidly.
9.3.5 High Temperature, Short Time
This is a continuous process by which juice is rapidly brought to a temperature of 7172o C, and held at that temperature for not less than 15 seconds, and is then rapidly
cooled to 10 or below. These temperature and time give a good margin of safety.
Heating is usually by hot water, and the rapid heat exchange is effected through
stainless steel plates, by passing the juice through the annular space between concentric
water-heated tubes.
9.3.6 Ultra-high Temperature
This is another continuous process by which juice is heated rapidly usually in two stages
(the second stage being under pressure), to between 135oC and 150oC for times of the
order of a few seconds only, and is cooled rapidly.

9.4 EQUIPMENT SELECTION

According to Kay (2009) the high temperature short time (HTST) pasteurization is the
most principal form of pasteurization in most process industries at present. The batch
holder process though is common for a relatively small output; in the region of 200 to
300 litres per day. The in-bottle process, despite its ability to provide almost immune
from the risk of post pasteurization contamination has never been popular mainly on the
account of its initial cost, the large and cumbersome nature of the plant and the high
cost of operation.
Advantages of the HTST over the other methods

152

For the same output of pasteurized product the initial cost of the HTST
pasteurization equipment is less than that of the methods.
The day to day operating cost are relatively lower
The area of floor space required for the HTST equipment is much less, and the
plant can be increased or diminished with changing requirements much more
easily than with the other methods.
Has a shorter residence time
It is easier to cleanse and maintain
It requires less labour to keep in hygienic shape
It can process very large quantities of juice per hour.
The HTST pasteurizer is essentially a heat transfer equipment that provides a surface
area for the exchange of heat between a hot process fluid and the relatively cold,
unpasteurized juice feed. The plate heat exchanger is used extensively for industrial
applications of the HTST form of pasteurization. The plate heat exchanger would thus
be designed to serve the purpose of pasteurization in this project.

9.5 JUSTIFICATION
The plate heat exchanger is less cumbersome and occupies a relative less space for the
duty it performs. The equipment is made up of individual plates which can be cleaned
easily and has a high heat transfer co-efficient.

9.6 EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION

The fundamental structure of the pasteurizer comprises the plate heat exchanger, which
consists of a pack of corrugated metal plates with portholes for the passage of the two
fluids between which heat transfer will take place. The plate pack is assembled between
a fix frame plate and a movable pressure plate and compressed by tightening bolts. The
153

plates are fitted with a gasket which seals the interpolate channel and directs the fluids
into alternate channels. The frame plate and the pressure plate are suspended from an
upper carrying bar and located by a lower guiding bar both of which are fixed to a
support column.

Fig 8.1: A plate heat exchanger for pasteurization. (Kreith et al, 1999)

9.7

MECHANISM

OF

THE

HIGH

TEMPERATURE

SHORT

TIME

PASTEURIZATION USING THE PLATE HEAT EXCHANGER

Juice from the de-aerator enters the pasteurizer as the unpasteurized feed. It then flows
through a number of heat exchange plates where it attains a temperature of 85oC. Owing
to the regenerative process by which the cold incoming juice, cools down and is itself
partially warmed by the hot pasteurized juice by rapid heat transfer through thin,
stainless steel plates, the apparatus is economical in its steam requirements. The juice
warned in this way passes on to be further heated to the correct pasteurization
temperature by circulating process water only a few degrees hotter than the juice. The
juice is held at that temperature for not less than 15 seconds by passing it through a pipe
154

of requisite length (the holding tube) (Kay, 2009). A rapidly acting flow-diversion valve
thermo-statically controlled at the end of the holding tube prevents juice which has not
reached the pasteurization temperature from passing out of the unit.

9.8 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN

In designing a plate heat exchanger for pasteurization the following design parameters
are considered;
Overall heat transfer
Log mean temperature difference
Surface area
Number of plates
Flow arrangement and number of passes
Film heat transfer co-efficient
Pressure drop across fluids

155

9.8.1 Fluid properties

Table 9.1 Showing the properties of the two fluid media.

Condensing steam

Orange Juice

133.5a

50 a

Outlet temperature, o C 133.5 a

85 a

Inlet temperature, o C

Flow rates, kg/hr

41.29 a

1726.92 a

Flowrate, kg/s

0.011 a

0.48 a

Density, kg/m3

1.651 b

1048 c

Viscosity

1.3 10 - 5 b

6 10 - 4 c

Thermal conductivity

0.016 c

0.59 c

Heat capacity, J/ kg. K

2.1981 10 3 b

3.77 10 3 c

a table of material balance calculations, chapter 4 of report

b ( ThermExcel, 2004)
c (Engineering toolbox, 2011)
From the energy balance across the pasteurizer (Chapter 4.2.7)
The rate of heat transfer, Q =188502.41 kJ/hr
= 52361.78 W
9.8.2 Logarithmic Mean Temperature difference
The logarithmic mean temperature difference (
transfer process.
156

is the driving force for the heat

.equation 9.1

Ta and Tb are the terminal temperature difference of the heat exchanger.

Ta= TH in - TC out
Tb= TH out - TC in
Ta = 133.5 75 = 48.5
Tb = 133.5 50 = 83.5

9.8.3 Logarithmic Mean Temperature difference correction factor

The log mean temperature correction factor can be estimated for a plate heat exchanger
as a function of number of transfer of units (NTU) and the number of passes (Sinnot,
2005)
The number of transfer units (NTU) is given by the equation;

equation 9.2

NTU = 0.54
Reading from the chart of log mean temperature correction factor for plate heat
exchangers (Sinnot, 2005). For a plate heat exchanger with an NTU value as calculated

157

above and assuming a 2:2 pass configuration, the correction factor is estimated to be
0.98.
9.8.4 Heat Transfer area
The heat transfer area required can be estimated by use the equation
..equation 9.3
Where,

is the corrected mean temperature difference

And U; the overall heat transfer co-efficient with juice as medium;

U = 2000 Wm-2oC-1
From equation 7.2

9.8.5 Number of Plates

Assuming plate dimensions of 0.4m by 0.2m;
The effective plate area for a single plate would be = 0.4 0.2
= 0.08 m2
Number of plates = total heat transfer area / single plate area
Number of plates = 0.41 / 0.08
= 5.18 plates
Therefore the approximate number of plates would be 5.

158

9.8.6 Flow arrangement and number of pass

For an odd number of plates, there would be no need to adjusted. Thus the total number
of plates would be 5.
Since the two fluids flow in alternate channels, the number of channels per pass of fluid;
(Number of plates 1) / 2

2 channels per pass

9.8.7 Residence Time

The residence time (t r) for the process can be defined as the time a unit drop of particle
resides in the equipment.
tr = volume available for flow/ volumetric flow rate
mass flow rate = 1726.92 kg/hr
taking density of juice to be 1048 kg/m3, then
Volumetric flow rate = mass flow rate / density
= 1726.92 / 1048 = 1.65 m3 / hr
Volume of flow = total volume of channels per pass
= 0.003 0.2 0.4 = 0.00024 m3
Now, t r = 0.00024/1.65 = 0.000146 hrs = 0.524328 sec
tr = 0.52 sec

159

But according to Kay (2009), the length of pasteurization is 15 seconds. Therefore,

adjusting residence time to the above value would mean adjusting the number of plates
for the same flowrate of material into the equipment.
Dividing theoretical t r by the calculated value gives a factor for scaling up.
Factor = 15/0.52 = 28.60
9.8.8 Adjusted number of plates
Therefore adjusted number of plates = 28.60 5.18
= 148.29 plates = 148 plates, approximately.
9.8.9 Adjusted number of channels per pass
For an odd number of plates, it would have to be adjusted to make room for the frame
plates. Therefore total number of plates would be (148 +1 ) = 149
Therefore number of pass = (number of plates 1) / 2
= (149 1) / 2 = 74 channels per pass
9.8.10 Adjusted total heat transfer area, A
The total heat transfer area now becomes;
Scale up factor initial total area
57.22 0.41= 23.46 m2
9.8.11 Plate heat transfer co-efficient
From R K Sinnot in 1999 the plate heat co-efficient for a fluid can computed from the
relation;

equation 9.4

160

Where;

Nusselt number, Nu..equation 9.5

hp= plate film coefficient,

Re = Reynold number = Gpde/ = upde / ..equation 9.6
Pr = Prandtl number = Cp / kf.equation 9.7
Gp = mass flow rate per unit channel cross-sectional area = w / Af ,kg m-2s1

,equation 9.8

w = mass flow rate per channel, kg/s,

Af = cross-sectional area for flow, m2,
up=channel velocity, m/s,
de= equivalent (hydraulic) diameter, taken as twice the gap between the plates, m.
9.8.12 Juice side co-efficient
.equation 9.9

Channel velocity =

Channel velocity = (0.48/0.0060) (1/1048) (1/74) = 0.010316 m/s

From equation 8.6

Re =

; where de = 2 0.003 = 0.006 m

Re =

108.11

From equation 9.7

161

Pr =

Combining equations 9.4 and 9.5

Nusselt number can be computed as
Nu

(the viscosity terms are negligible)

Nu

6.59

From equation 8.5

Nu =

Therefore hp=

647.73

Plate heat co-efficient for juice side = 647.73

9.8.13 Steam side co-efficient
Channel velocity =

Channel velocity

0.15m/s

From equation 9.6

Re =

; where de = 2 0.003 = 0.006 m

Re =

114.35

From equation 9.7

Pr =
162

Combining equations 9.4 and 9.5

Nusselt number can be computed as
Nu

(the viscosity terms are negligible)

Nu

6.14

From equation 9.5

Nu =

6.14

Therefore hp=

16.37

Plate heat co-efficient for juice side =

9.8.14 Overall heat transfer co-efficient
According to Boles and Cengel, (2005), the overall heat transfer co-efficient, U of a
plate heat exchanger is given by the relation;
equation 9.10

Where
U = the overall heat transfer co-efficient
R wall =

. equation 9.11

ho, hi are the plate heat transfers co-efficient for juice and steam respectively,
hod, hid are the fouling factors for the respective fluids,
k = thermal conductivity of plate
l = thickness of thermal plate
163

Now substituting equation 9.10 into equation 9.11 gives;

equation 9.12

ho= 647.73
hi =
hod = 10000 W/ m2 C (Sinnot , 2005)
hid = 10000 W/ m2 C (Boles and Cengel, 2005)
l = 1.5 mm = 1.5 10 -3
k = 16 W/ m.K (Engineering toolbox, 2004)
Substituting the above values into equation 7.11 gives;

164

9.8.15 Summary of Chemical Engineering Calculations

Heat transfer duty, W

52361.78

Log mean temperature difference,

64.42

Log mean correction factor

0.98

Corrected log mean temperature difference

63.14

Total heat transfer area, m2

23.46

Number of plates

149

Number of thermal plates

147

Number of channels per pass

74

Steam side heat transfer co-efficient, W/ m2 C

10.88

Juice side heat transfer co-efficient, W/ m2 C

412.78

Overall heat transfer co-efficient, W/ m2 C

10.57

9.9 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN

In designing the plate heat exchanger for pasteurization, several mechanical design
factors would have to be considered. The equipment should be designed to withstand a
variety of stress and forces that would be impacted from operation.
9.9.1 Basis of Analysis
Material of Construction
Thermal Plates, stainless steel 304 L
Frame plate, mild steel

165

Gasket linings, rubber

9.9.2 Design Pressure
A vessel must be designed to withstand the maximum pressure to which it is likely to be
subjected in operation. For vessels under internal pressure, the design pressure is
normally taken to be 5 to 10 per cent above the normal working pressure. The
hydrostatic pressure in the base of the column is added to the operating pressure to
determine the design pressure (Sinnot, 1999).The inter-plate gasket sealing is subjected
internal pressure in the course of operation. This pressure is given by the relation below.
Internal pressure = hydrostatic head + atmospheric pressure
Pi = gh Patm ..equation 9.13
Where is the density of working fluids
For juice
= 1048 kg/m3
For steam
= 1.651 kg/m3
g is the acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2
h = 0.40 m
Patm = 101325 N/m2
Pi

= ((1048 + 1.651) 0.40 9.81) + 101325

= 105443.83 N/m2

Design pressure = internal pressure + 10% of internal pressure

166

Design pressure = 110 % of internal pressure = 110% of 105443.83

= 115988.21 N/m2
= 0.12 N/mm2
9.9.3Dead Weight
The total weight of the equipment is given by the sum of the thermal plates and the end
plates frame and movable plates as the gasket linings.
From the plate dimension; 0.4 0.2 0.0015 m
Where height
Width

= 0.4 m
= 0.2 m

Thickness = 0.0015 m
Spacing between plates = 0.003 m
Length of equipment = (number of plates plate thickness) + (number of channels
spacing)
= (149 0.0015) + (74 0.003)
= 0.45 m
Cross-sectional area equipment = length maximum width
= 0.89 0.2
= 0.18 m2
Cross-sectional area of individual plate = Width height
= 0.2 0.0015
167

= 0.0003 m2
Volume of an individual plate = height cross-sectional area
= 0.4 0.0003
= 0.00012 m3
Taking density of stainless steel (neglecting corrugations), as 7750 kg/ m3 (reference,
1996)
Weight of an individual plate = volume density
= 0.00012 7750
= 0.93 kg
Taking acceleration due to gravity as 9.8 m/s2 (Boles and Cengel, 2005), weight of an
individual plate is given as;
= 0.93 9.8 = 9.12 N
Total weight of plates = 9.12 149= 1358.88 N
9.9.5 Support

The equipment would be supported on two saddle supports of considerable height to

reinforce the sides of the equipment. The equipment will be supported on a carrying bar
at the top and a lower guiding bar at the bottom and held tight with a bracket column on
the sides and bolts and nuts across. The supports would be constructed of mild steel
because it has a high compressive strength.

Mechanical Properties of mild steel (Sinnott, 2005)

Tensile strength= 430 N/mm2
168

Density= 7900 kg/m3

Modulus of elasticity=210 N/mm2
9.9.5.1 Normal Stress on Carrying bar
= F/A

Where:

F = load acting on the support

A= area of the support

A = surface area of the bar

For bolts of diameter,D 10 mm

Total surface area =

= 0.03 m2

Therefore:
= 1358.88 N/ 0.03m2
= 45,296 N/m2

9.9.5.2Wind Loading

Assuming a wind speed of 160 km/h (100 mph) for preliminary design studies (Sinnot,
2005), the wind loading on the supporting column can be calculated from the relation,
Pw= 0.05(uw) 2............................................................................................. (Sinnott, 2005)

Where:
169

uw= wind speed in wind pressure in N/m2

therefore:
Pw= 0.05 x (160 km/h) 2 = 1280 N/m2

9.9.5.3 Bending Stress

The bending stresses will be compressive or tensile, depending on the location is given
by:

........................................................................... (Sinnot 2005)

Where:

Mv= the total bending moment at the plane being considered

Iv= the second moment of area of the equipment about the plane of bending.

but: Mv=

w= loading per unit length due to wind pressure =1280N

x=height of equipment = 0.4m

Mv= (1280 x 0.4) / 2 = 256 Nm

The second moment of area is estimated as follows:

Assuming a diameter of 50 mm (0.05m) and a thickness of 5mm (0.005 m)

Iv = / 64 (0.0054)...................................................................................(Sinnot, 2005)

170

Iv= 3.06 10-11m4

From the relation above

Iy = / 64 (0.054)= 3.07 10 -7 m4

Therefore the bending stress:

........................................................................... (Sinnot, 2005)

b = 774.4 / 3.06 10-11 (0.05/2 +0.005)

b=8.44 1014N/m2

9.9.6 Summary of Mechanical Engineering Design

Design pressure, N/ mm2

0.128

Dead weight, N

1358.88 N

Normal stress on carrying bar, N/ m2

45,296

Wind Loading, N/ m2

1280

Bending stress, N/ m2

8.44 1014

171

CHAPTER TEN

10.0 INTRODUCTION
Evaporation is a unit operation used to concentrate solutions of solid substances at the
boiling point, through fractional removal of the solvent into the vapour state. In most
cases, the solvent is water, but it can also be any liquid. Evaporation process
presupposes that the solute is not volatile and does not decompose at the working
temperatures.
The use of an evaporator to concentrate solutions is extensively employed in chemical
engineering, food, metallurgical and other industries. The process is energy intensive,
and the units involved in the process makes it material intensive. It is therefore
necessary, in each specific situation, to so design and operate the process as to achieve
maximum economy of energy and materials (Woode, 2005).
An evaporator consists of either plate type or shell and tube type heat exchanger. The
type of evaporator to be used is selected depending upon the operating conditions and
process parameters of the evaporation plant like specific heat, flow behaviour as well as
several other characteristics such as tendency to fouling, sensitivity to temperature,
precipitation of salts, etc. The different types of evaporators are:
Falling Film Evaporators
Agitated Thin Film Evaporator
Plate Evaporators
Forced Circulation Evaporators and
Natural Circulation Evaporators

172

10.1 OBJECTIVES
10.1.1 Main Objectives
To design a long tube vertical falling film evaporator as a unit for the production of
powdered citrus concentrate from orange fruit.
10.1.2 Specific Objectives
The precise objectives in this project are:
a) to specify the type of centrifuge for this unit operation as well as its material of
construction
b) to carry out detailed chemical engineering calculations on the evaporator
c) to carry out detailed mechanical engineering calculations on the evaporator
d) to give a detailed mechanical engineering drawing of the selected evaporator

10.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

The objective of evaporation is to concentrate a solution consisting of a non-volatile
solute and a volatile solvent. In the project aimed at designing a plant to produce
powdered citrus concentrate, there is therefore the need to design an evaporator to
remove 1245.9 kg/hr of water as vapour from a stream of orange juice of 1552.68 kg/hr
in order to produce 388.1 kg/hr of concentrated juice of 20% water.
10.3 JUSTIFICATION OF CHOICE OF EVAPORATOR
Among the different types of evaporators, a multiple effect falling film evaporator
operated in forward feed is chosen. The choice of a falling film version of the long tube
vertical evaporator is justified on the basis of the under listed reasons:
The operation of falling film evaporators is safe and efficient.
Relatively small floor space requirement.
173

a) Falling film evaporators provide a low hold-up time of the material being
evaporated to avoid degradation.
b) The heat transfer coefficients are relatively high.
Besides, the forward feed operation of the evaporator is due to the reasons below:
a) The feed under consideration is hot and
b) The final concentrated product might be damaged at very high temperatures.
10.4 EQUIPMENT AND PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Concentration of highly heat-sensitive materials such as orange juice requires a
minimum time of exposure to a heated surface. This can be done in once through falling
film evaporators, in which the liquid enters at the top, flows downstream inside the
heated tubes as a film, and leaves from the bottom. The tubes are large, 50 to 250mm (2
to 10 in) in diameter. Vapour evolved from the liquid is usually carried downward with
the liquid and leaves from the bottom of the unit. In appearance these evaporators
resemble long, vertical, tubular exchangers with a liquid- vapour separator at the bottom
and a distributor for the liquid at the top.
The chief problem in a falling film evaporator is that of distributing the liquid uniformly
as a film inside the tubes. This is done by a set of perforated metal plates above a
carefully levelled tube sheet, by inserts in the tube ends to cause the liquid to flow
evenly into each tube.
10.4.1 Mode of Operation of a Triple Effect Falling Film Evaporator
In this system, each effect in itself acts as a single effect evaporator. In the first effect,
raw steam is used as the heating medium to this effect, which is boiling at temperature
T1 and pressure P1. The vapour removed from the first effect is used as the heating
medium, condensing in the second effect and vapourizing water at temperature T2 and
pressure P2 in this effect. To transfer heat from the condensing vapour to the boiling
174

liquid in this second effect, the boiling temperature T2 must be less than the condensing
temperature. This means that the pressure P2 in the second effect is lower than P1 in the
first effect. In a similar manner, vapour from the second effect is condensed in the third
effect. Hence pressure P1 is less than P2. If the first effect is operating at 1 atm abs
pressure, the second and third effects will be under vacuum.
In the first effect, raw dilute feed is added and it is partly concentrated. Then this partly
concentrated liquid flows to the second evaporator in series, where it is further
concentrated. This liquid from the second effect flows to the third effect for final
concentration.
10.5 OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS AND DESIGN CONSIDERATION
10.5.1 Heat Transfer Co-efficient
This is the most important factor in evaporator design, since the heating surface
represents the greatest part of the evaporator cost. All other things being equal, the type
of evaporator selected is the one with the highest heat- transfer cost co-efficient under
desired operating conditions (i.e. KW/oC.$ installed cost). In most heat transfer
calculations, no allowance no allowance is made for superheat in steam or sub cooling
of condensate, nor are boiling point elevations taken account of. Temperature difference
calculated on these assumptions are called Apparent T, and their corresponding heat
transfer co-efficient are called Apparent U. If the boiling point rise is deducted from the
Apparent T, the terms T corrected for boiling point rise and U corrected for boiling
point rise are used, which is the most common basis for reporting evaporator heat
transfer data and is also the best basis for comparing performances of various
evaporator types.

175

10.5.2 Entrainment (Vapour-Liquid separation)

This may be important for fighting product loss, pollution, contamination of the
condensed vapour, fouling or corrosion of surfaces on which vapour is condensed.
Primary separation of liquid from vapour is accomplished in the vapour head by making
the horizontal plan area large enough so that most of the entrained droplets can settle
out against the rising flow of vapour.
10.5.3 Steam Economy
Evaporator performance is rated mainly on the basis of steam economy. This is the
amount of solvent evaporated per kg of steam used. In evaporators, heat is used to raise
the temperature of the feed from initial to boiling, and to vapourize the solvent. The
greatest steam economy is achieved by reusing the vapourized solvent. This is done in a
multiple effect evaporator by using the vapour in one effect as the heating medium for
another effect in which boiling takes place at a lower temperature and pressure.
In multiple effect evaporators increasing in economy through the use of multiple-effect
evaporation is obtained at the cost of reduced capacity.. The total capacity of a multipleeffect evaporator is usually no greater than that of a single-effect evaporator for having
a heating surface equal to one of the effects and operating under the same terminal
conditions, and when there is an appreciable boiling-point elevation, is often
considerable smaller. When the boiling point elevation , is negligible, the effective
overall change in temperature equals the sum of the change in temperatures in each
effects, and the amount of water evaporated per unit area of surface in an N-effect
multipleeffect evaporator is approximately (1/N)th that in the single effect. (McCabe et
al, 1985).

176

10.5.4 Corrosion
The corrosion factor may also influence evaporator selection. This is because
evaporators which are less corrosive are more apparent when expensive materials of
construction are indicated. Corrosion is more severe in evaporators than other
equipments because of the high liquid and vapour velocities used, the frequent presence
of solids in suspensions, and the necessary concentration difference.
10.5.5 Product Quality
Consideration of product quality may limit holdup time and operational temperature to
avoid degradation. The low holdup time requirement eliminates some types of
evaporators, and some types are also eliminated because of poor heat transfer
characteristics at low temperature. Product quality also dictates special materials of
construction to avoid metallic contamination or a catalytic effect on decomposition of
the product.
10.5.6 Scaling, Salting and Fouling
Some solutions deposit scale on the heating surface. The overall coefficient then
steadily diminishes, until the evaporator must be shut down and the tubes cleaned.
When the scale is hard and insoluble, the cleaning is difficult and expensive. It can be
reduced by keeping the evaporating liquid in close or frequent contact with a large
surface of crystallized solid.
Salting is the growth on the body and heating surface walls of a material having a
solubility that increases with increase in temperature. It is frequently encountered in
crystallizing evaporators, and can be reduced in the same way as that of scaling.
Fouling is the deposition of solids other than salts or scales, on the surfaces of the
evaporator. It may be due to corrosion, solid matter entering with the feed, or deposits
formed by the condensing vapour.
177

10.5.7 Wetting Surfaces

Wetting rate is a measure of the amount of liquid flowing down the tubes in the vessel
and is used to ensure that no part of the heating surface is allowed to run dry. For a fixed
area, the required wetting rate can be maintained either by changing the liquid flow to
the evaporator or by increasing the recycle around the evaporator for a reduced input
feed rate.
10.6 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS
The following are the design parameters considered for the chemical engineering
calculations; these parameters are determined for each of the three effects respectively.
a) Flow rate of Concentrate
b) Concentration of concentrate (%)
c) Flow rate of saturated vapour
d) Steam economy
e) Operating Vapour Pressure
f) Operating temperature
g) Energy Input
h) Residence Time
i) Film Thickness
j) Tube-side Pressure Drop
k) Shell side Pressure Drop Heat Transfer Area

178

Table 10.1 Symbols and their meanings (unless otherwise stated) as used in the
calculation
Quantity
Symbol
S I unit
Amount of feed
F
Kg/ hr
Total amount of water
V
Kg /hr
evaporated
Amount of Vapour from
Vi
kg/hr
each Effect
% wt of solids in feed
Xf
%
% wt of solids in
Xi
%
concentrate
from each effect
Amount of concentrate
Li
kg/hr
from
each evaporator
Specific heat capacity of
Cpf
kJ/kg.K
Feed
Specific heat capacity of
Cpl
kJ/kg.K
stream L1
latent
heat
of
s
kJ/kg
evaporation of
Steam
Latent
heat
of
i
kJ/kg
evaporation,
Vapour from each effect
Overall Heat Transfer
Ui
W/m2.K
Coefficient of each
effect
Temperature of Feed
Tf
0C
Temperature of Steam
Ts
0C
Temperature of vapour
Ti
0C
Boiling point rise in
BPRi
0C
each effect
Saturated temperature of
Ti
0C
vapour in each vapour
Steam Pressure
Ps
Bar
Operating
Vapour
Pi
KPa
pressure in each effect
Heat transfer area of
Ai
m2
each
Evaporator
Enthalpy of saturated
Hv
kJ/kg
water vapour
Enthalpy of concentrate
Hi
kJ/kg
Enthalpy of vapour in
Hi
kJ/kg
each effect
Enthalpy of vapour at
His
kJ/kg
saturation temperature
Energy supplied by
Qi
MW
steam
Amount of steam
S
kg/hr
179

Steam economy
Total heat transfer area
of evaporator
Heat transfer area of
tube
Inner tube diameter
Outside tube diameter

E
AT

m2

At

m2

Di
Do

M
M

10.6.1 Material and Energy Balance on Evaporator

Assumptions:
a) There is equal amount of vapour from each effect. Thus V1 = V2 = V3
b) The energy input is assumed to be the same for all effects, thus Q1 = Q2 = Q3,
(Geankoplis, 1993)
c) Pressure of steam to the first effect is about 3 bar i.e. 300kPa
d) The viscosity of the orange juice is considered constant throughout the process
e) Overall Heat transfer coefficient, U is 1.5 kW/m2K and it is assumed to be equal
for all the three evaporators (Geankoplis, 1993) is used for all the three effects.
f) The vapour pressure in the third effect is 7kPa
g) Concentrate flow rate of the third effect evaporator is increased by 15% as an
over design factor. Therefore the new design flow rate of concentrate L3 = 0.15
x 388.18 = 58.23 kg/hr is justified in making allowances for changes in
operating performance with time. Fouling is an example of a change in operating
performance.
h) The heat capacity of the orange juice is
i) Boiling point rise in each effect is calculated by the relation; 1.78 + 6.22 2
,BPR= 7.79oC for all three effects (Geankoplis, 1993).
Design Parameters Known:
a) The product flow rate, L = 388.17 kg/hr
180

b) The feed flow rate, F = 1552.68 kg/hr

c) The weight percent of solids in the feed is,
d) The weight percent of solids in the final product is,
e) The heat capacity of the feed is
f) The overall heat transfer coefficient, U = 1.5 kW/m2K
g) Temperature of the feed, Tf =50C
h) Pressure of the steam is 3 bar

Overall mass balance

F = V 1 + V 2 + V 3 + L 3..(10.1)
Assuming V = V1 = V2 = V3
F = 3V + L3
Therefore:
1552.68 = 3V + L3
Component balances on the juice concentrate around the evaporator unit:
F Xf = L3 X3
1552.68 0.2 = 0.79 L3
310.54 = 0.79L3
L3 =
L3 = 388.18 kg/hr
Therefore V can be calculated.

181

V=

V=

V = 388.17 kg/hr
Balance around evaporator 1
F = L1 + V1.. (10.2)
L1 = 1552.68 388.17
L1 = 1164.51 kg/hr
Component balance on evaporator 1
F Xf = L1 X1
1552.68 0.2 = 1164.51 X1
310.54 = 1164.51 X1 =
X1 = 0.27
Balance on evaporator 2
L1 = V2 + L2..(10.3)
L2 = L1 V2
L2 = 1164.51 388.17
L2 = 776.34 kg/hr
Component balance on evaporator 2
L1 X1 = L2 X2
182

1164.51 0.27 = 776.43 X2

314.42 = 776.43 X2
X2 =
X2 = 0.40
Balance on evaporator 3
L2 = V3 + L3. (10.4)
776.43 = 388.17 + L3
L3 = 766.43 388.17
L3 = 388.26 kg/hr
Component balance on evaporator 3
L2 X2 = L3 X3
766.43 0.40 = 388.26 X3
306.57 = 388.26 X3
X3 =
X3 = 0.79

183

V1

V2

Ts1

Ts2

V3

1552.68 kg/hr

Xf = 0.2
Tf = 500C
P = 0.123bar
S, 3bars
Ts1=133.50C

L 1,X1

L 2,X2

TS3
L3,X3

10.6.2 Energy Balance on Evaporator

10.6.2.1 Boiling Point Rise (BPR) in each effect:
The boiling point rise in each effect can be calculated using the relation, 1.78
6.22

, where

For effect 1,

is the solid in solution.

= 0.27

BPR1 = 1.78(0.27) + 6.22(0.27)2 = 0.93 oC

For effect 2,

= 0.4

BPR2 = 1.78(0.4) + 6.22(0.4)2 = 1.71 oC

For effect 3,

= 0.79
184

BPR3 = 1.78(0.79) + 6.22(0.79)2 = 5.29 oC

Assume an overall heat transfer co-efficient of 1.5kW/m2K for all the effects. the
average temperature difference T may thus be calculated as follows:
T = 133.5 - 50 7.93 = 75.57oC

From

Tn

T
n 1

1/ U1

1/ U1
1/ U 2 .....1/ U n

where n = 1, 2, 3...

Tn for each effect can be calculated

T1 =
T1 = 25.19 oC
However, since a cold feed enters effect 1, this effect requires more heat. Increasing
T1, and lowering T2 and T3 proportionately as a first estimate gives the following:
T1 = 28.19 oC T2 = 25.19 oC

T3 = 22.19 oC

Therefore the actual boiling point in each effect can be calculated

T1 = TS1- T1, ( TS1 is the condensing temperature to effect 1)
T1 = 133.5 28.19 = 105.31 oC
T2 = T1-BPR1- T2
T2 = 105.31 0.93 25.19 = 79.19 oC
Ts2 = T1- BPR1 = 105.31 0.93 = 104.38 oC (condensing temperature of steam to effect
2)
T3 = T2 BPR2 - T3 = 79.19 1.71 22.19 = 55.29 oC

185

TS3 = T2 BPR2 = 79.19 1.71 = 77.48 oC (condensing temperature of steam to effect 3)

Therefore
T1 = 378.46K, T2 = 352.34K, T3 = 328.44K
Table 10.2 data from steam tables on properties of heating steam:
Effects

T,K

Hg, KJ/kg

Hf, KJ/kg

P, kPa

378.46

2683.89

441.22

2242.67

12.35

352.34

2641.80

331.50

2310.30

9.60

328.44

2591.02

231.96

2359.06

7.00

From steam tables, the latent heat of vapourization of steam

at 133.5 oC is 2164 KJ/kg

The under-listed equations are obtained by taking balances (both energy and material
balances) around each effect. Suppose the reference temperature is 0oC.
Energy balance on first effect yields:
1.

................................ (10.5)

Energy balance on second effect yields:

2.

...........................(10.6)

Energy balance on third effect yields:

3.

.........................(10.7)

Substituting known values and solving equations 2 & 3 simultaneously

186

NB:

L1(3.77)(378.46 - 273.15) + 2242.67(1552.68 L1) = L2(3.77)(352.34 273.15) + (L1

L2)(2641.8).(10.8)
L2(3.77)(352.34 273.15) + L1 L2(2310.30) = (388.18)(3.77)(328.44 273.15) + (L2
388.26)(2591.02)(10.9)

Solving equations (1) and (2), it follows that:

L1 = 1198.31 kg/hr, L2 = 803.37 kg/hr

Substituting the values of

into equation (1) we have

1552.68(3.77)(30) + 2164 S = (1198.31)(3.77)(105.31) + (354.37)(2683.89)

S = 578.20
V1 = 1552.68 1198.31 = 354.37 kg/hr.
V2 = L1 - L2 = 1198.31 803.37 = 394.94 kg/hr
V3 = L2 L3 = 803.37 - 388.17 = 415.20 kg/hr

Table 10.3 Summary of Material Balance Calculations on Concentrate

Effect

Liquid Concentrate

Mass flowrate(kg/hr) Solid Content,% Temperature, K

L1

1198.31

27

378.46

L2

803.37

40

352.34

L3

388.17

79

328.44

187

Table 10.4 Summary of Material Balance Calculations on Vapour

Effect

Liquid

Mass flowrate(kg/hr) Pressure, kPa

Temperature, K

concentrate
1

V1

354.37

101.33

373.15

V2

394.94

50.66

355.15

V3

415.20

12.49

323.15

10.6.3 Steam Economy:

Amount of steam needed, S =

= 2.01

10.6.4 Heat Energy Input:

Effect 1:

Effect 2: Q2

Effect 3: Q3 =

Average heat input =

MW

= 0.28MW

10.6.5 Heat Transfer Area:

The rate of heat transfer is given by

Q = U/ATi, Ti where is the mean temperature difference

It implies that, the heat transfer Area is given by, A=

NB: U = U1 = U2 = U3 = 1.5kW/m2K

188

= 8.5 m2

For the first effect,

AT1 =

For the second effect,

AT2 =

= 6.1 m2

For the third effect,

AT3 =

= 7.8 m2
= 7.5m2

Average total heat transfer area, Aavg =

NB: the length of tube usually used in the industry is 6m with an outside diameter d0 of
0.0254m (Perry and Green, 1987); the wall thickness of the tube is therefore t=0.0034m
and the inside diameter di = 0.01859m (Geankoplis, 1993)

10.6.6 Tube Side Pressure Drop

The pressure drop on the tube side is given by the correlation:
... (10.10)

Where m=0.25 for laminar flow and m=0.14 for turbulent flow.
Np = number of tube-side passes= 1
jf = friction factor
= fluid viscosity at the bulk fluid temperature, Ns/m2
= fluid viscosity at the tube wall
V = fluid velocity
di= tube internal diameter
L= tube length
= fluid density

189

(Sinnot, 1999)
Tube cross-sectional area =

Since the number of pass is 1, it implies the total flow area = Nt

total cross-sectional

area
10.6.7 Number of Tubes in each Effect

1.

2.

3.

Therefore for all the effects we have:

m2

1. Total area of flow = 18 x

2. Total area of flow = 13 x

= 0.00351 m2

3. Total area of flow =16 x

= 0.00432 m2

The mass velocities (G) and the linear velocities (v) are calculated as G =

Hence calculating G for each effect;

Effect 1:

=88.74 kg/

Effect 2:

= 92.16 kg/
190

Effect 3:

The

= 49.92 kg/

linear

velocity

for

each

Effect 1:

effect

is

calculated

as

where

Effect 2:

Effect 3:

Table 10.5 Summary of mass and linear velocities for concentrate through the
tubes

Effect

Linear velocity v,

88.74

0.085

92.16

0.086

49.92

0.046

Reynolds Number (

Re =

Mass velocity G,

):

(10.11)

NB: Re < 2100 corresponds laminar flow

191

2100 < Re < 4000 corresponds transition flow

Re > 4000 corresponds turbulent flow

Assuming a viscosity value of orange juice = 1.5 10-3 Pa.s

Effect 1:

Effect 2:

Effect 3:

For each effect, the following were obtained with the corresponding
(Sinnott, 1999)

Effect 1:

Effect 2:

Effect 3:

The pressure is thereby calculated with the relation below;

.(10.12)

The viscosity correction

ignored; (Sinnot R.K 3rd Ed. Volume 6). Therefore

by substituting the known values the

is obtained for all the effects from the equation

above as:

192

Effect 1: P1

Effect 2: P2

Effect 2:

P3

10.6.8 Residence Time

Residence time, t = L/v where v is the linear velocity and L is the length of the tube,
L=6m

Effect 1:

ins

Effect 2:

Effect 3:

10.6.9 Shell Side Pressure Drop

..(9.13)

Where L= tube length and LB = baffle spacing = 0.5Ds = 0.5

The term

1.08 = 0.54

is the number of times the flow crosses the tube bundle = (Nb+1) where

Nb is the number of baffles.

v is the linear velocity of the fluid, m/s
de is the shell side fluid density, kg/m3

Ds is the shell side diameter, m = 0.61m

193

Pt=1.25do and 0.3Ds are the pitch distances (distance between tube centres) and
optimum baffle spacing respectively.
Pt= 1.25do= 1.25(0.0254) =0.0318 m
m

Ignoring the term

in the equation, the pressure drop for the shell side of each

effect can be calculated (Sinnott, 1999).

Effect 1:

Effect 2:

Effect 3:

194

Table 10.6 Summary of Chemical Engineering Design Calculations

PARAMETER

SYMBOL

SI UNIT

VALUE
Effect 01

Flow

rate

of

Effect 02

Effect 03

1198.31

803.37

388.17

27

40

79

Kg/hr

Concentration

Rate of evaporation

Kg/hr

354.37

394.94

415.20

Operating

kPa

12.35

9.60

7.00

378.46

352.34

328.44

MW

0.36

0.23

0.26

m/s

0.09

0.09

0.05

Residence time

mins

1.18

1.16

2.17

Tube

concentrate

vapour

pressure
Operating
Temperature
Energy Input
Linear

velocity

of

concentrate

side

Pressure

kPa

0.15

0.15

0.08

Side

Pressure

kPa

0.21

0.21

0.11

Cross-sectional

At

4.86

3.51

4.32

8.5

6.1

7.8

18

13

16

2.71

2.71

2.71

Drop
Shell
Drop
Tube

m2 ,10-3

flow Area
Heat Transfer Area

Number of Tubes

Nt

Cross-Sectional Area

aT

m2

m2,10-4

195

10.7 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATION

a) Design Parameters Considered:

b) Total height of evaporator
c) Total weight of evaporator
d) Stress analysis on Evaporator
e) Supports
f) Total Stress on Supports
g) Height of supports

10.7.1 Bundle Diameter

(10.14)

Where K1=0.215 and n1=2.207 for square arrangement of tubes and pitch distance pt=
1.25

, (Sinnot, 2005).

The bundle diameter for each effect is as follows:

1.

2.

3.

10.7.2 Shell Diameter

The shell diameter is given by:

196

The bundle diameter clearance is determined based on the bundle diameter, which is
obtained from a graph of bundle diameter against bundle diameter and is determined as
10 mm (0.001 m), (Sinnot, 2005).
1.
2.
3.
10.7.3 Shell Thickness
The shell thickness is calculated from the equation:
.(10.15)

Where PD = the design pressure (which is an increment of 10% on the calculated

operating pressures).
Ds is the shell internal diameter
F = the permissible design stress at design temperature (TD) (the maximum temperature
attainable and is 10% > the normal operating temperatures of the shell). Both the 10%
increment on the operating pressures and temperatures respectively is done for safety
reasons.
C (corrosion allowance): is the additional thickness of metal added to allow for
material lost by expected corrosion and erosion, or scaling by providing additional
material thickness over and above the thickness determined from design conditions. The
allowance to be used should be agreed between the customer and manufacturer) this is
normally 0.004 to guard the equipment against intense scaling. (Sinnot, 1999).
J (Welded joint factor): The strength of a welded joint will depend on the type of joint
and the quality of the welding. The soundness of welds is checked by visual inspection
197

and by non-destructive testing (radiography).The possible lower strength of a welded

joint compared with the virgin plate is usually allowed for in design by multiplying the
allowable design stress for the material by a "welded joint factor" J. The value of the
joint factor used in design will depend on the type of joint and amount of radiography
required by the design code. For a double-welded butt or equivalent the welded joint
factor J=1 or 100%, this is used for the following calculations.
10.7.3.1 Design Conditions and Stresses
The design conditions for pressure vessels are specified in terms of pressure and
temperature. Vessels are protected with safety devices such as safety valves or bursting
discs. The design pressure is, therefore dependent on the setting pressure of the safety
devices, which is generally taken as equal to the maximum operating pressure or
working pressure, including static head plus 10%.
10.7.3.2 Design Temperature (TD)
The strength of metals decreases with increasing temperature so the maximum
allowable design stress will depend on the material temperature. The design temperature
at which the design stress is evaluated should be taken as the maximum working
temperature of the material, with due allowance for any uncertainty involved in
predicting vessel wall temperatures.
For effect 1:
Since J= 1, PD = 111.46kPa, Ds = 0.191m, F = 132.05 N/mm2

For effect 2:
J = 1,

PD = 55.73kPa,

Ds = 0.161m, F = 140.67 N/mm2

198

For effect 3:.

J = 1,

PD = 13.74kPa,

F = 148.60 N/mm2

Ds = 0.181m,

10.7.4 Design of evaporator Height

10.7.4.1 Ellipsoidal Head
The evaporator head is the Ellipsoidal head type.
The height (h1) is the inside depth of the ellipsoidal head; there the total height is given
by Hh= th+ h1
h1= DS/4, th = shell thickness

For effect 1:

th=0.0043, h1=0.191/4 = 0.0478m

Hh=0.0043 + 0.0478 = 0.052m

Following similar calculations:

For effect 2:

Hh=0.045m

For effect 3:

Hh=0.049m
199

10.7.4.2 Height of Evaporator

The height of the evaporator = Height of tubes + Feed distribution allowance + Space
beneath tube + Ellipsoidal Height
For effect 1:
H1 = 6 + 0.25 + 1.6 + 0.052 = 8 m
For effect 2:
H2 = 6 + 0.25 + 1.6 + 0.045 = 8 m
For effect 3:
H3 = 6 + 0.25 + 1.6 + 0.049 = 8 m
10.7.5 Baffles
Baffles are provided in the shell to direct fluid flow and support the tubes. They as a
result improve the rate of heat transfer.
The Baffle Diameter (DB) is calculated as (DS 0.0016m), (given in Table 12.5 of
Sinnot R.K, 2005 pg: 651)
For effect 1:
DB = DS - 0.0016 = 0.191 - 0.0016 = 0.1894m
For effect 2:
DB = Ds 0.0016 = 0.161 0.0016 = 0.1594m
For effect 3:
DB = Ds 0.0016 = 0.181 0.0016 = 0.1794m

200

10.7.5.1 Number of Baffles:

NB= L/LB, where

NB

of baffles,

, LB = 0.5

For effect 1: where

LB = 0.5

= 0.0955 m

For effect 2: where L = 6m

LB = 0.5

NB = 6/0.0805 = 75

For effect 3: where L= 6m

LB = 0.5

0.181 = 0.0905m

NB = 6/0.0905 = 66
10.7.6 Shell and Tube Geometry
The bypass and leakage areas, window area, and the number of tubes and tube rows in
the window and cross-flow zones can be determined precisely from the tube layout
diagram. For preliminary calculations they can be estimated with sufficient accuracy by
considering the tube bundle and shell geometry.

10.7.6.1 Tube Sheet

In operation the tube sheets are subjected to the differential pressure between shell and
tube sides. Therefore knowing the thickness of tube sheet needed is important. The tube
201

sheet forms the barrier between the shell and tube fluids, and where it is essential for
safety or process reasons to prevent any possibility of intermixing due to leakage at the
tube sheet joint, double tube-sheets can be used with the space between the sheets
vented. To allow sufficient thickness to seal the tubes the tube sheet thickness should
not be less than the tube outside diameter (Sinnot, 1999).
10.7.7 Design of Shell Nozzle
10.7.7.1 Thickness of nozzle
.(10.16)

Where;

, 0.037m and 0.042m respectively for

the three evaporators.

N/mm2 J = 1 and C = 0.004m

111.46kPa,

The nozzle thicknesses are 0.00401m and 0.00400m respectively for the 2nd and 3rd
evaporators.
10.7.7.2 Nozzle Height
(10.17)
Hn = 0.64( 0.044)0.5 = 0.1342 m
Thus the following values are obtained 0.1231m and 0.1312m respectively for 2nd and
3rd effect respectively.
10.7.7.3 Channel Cover
The thickness of channel cover is given by:

202

.(10.18)

Where GC = Mean gasket diameter for cover = shell outside diameter = 0.191m
P = design pressure = 11457.5 N/m2

and F = design stress = 132.05

106 N/m2

Similarly the channel cover thickness is 0.002m and 0.001m for 2nd and 3rd evaporators
respectively.
10.7.8 Weight of Evaporator
The major sources of dead weight loads are:
The evaporator shell.
The evaporator fittings: manways, nozzles.
Internal fittings: tubes (plus the fluid in the tubes); and weight of steam in the shell
External fittings: ladders, platforms, piping.
Insulation
Ws = 240CsDM(HS + 0.8DM)tW(10.19)
Where

= total weight of the shell, excluding internal fittings, such as tubes,

= a factor to account for the weight of nozzles, manways, internal supports, etc;
which can be taken as 1.08 for vessels with only a few internal fittings,
= height, or length, between tangent lines (the length of the cylindrical section), m,
t = wall thickness, mm this is taken as the shell thickness
DM = mean diameter of vessel = (DS + t

)m

For effect 1:
203

DS = 0.191 m, Dm =

= 0.1910m, Cs = 1.08, Hs = 6m,

= 0.1610m, Cs = 1.08, Hs = 6m,

= 0.1810m, Cs = 1.08, Hs = 6m,

tW = 4.53m

For effect 2:
DS = 0.161 m, Dm =

tW = 4.53m

For effect 3:
DS = 0.181 m, Dm =

tW = 4.53m

10.7.8.1 Total weight of insulation

The type of material to be used for insulation is mineral wool
Weight of insulation:
Mineral wool density = 130 kg/m3
Approximate volume of insulation = 2dht
Where d = is the diameter of evaporator = diameter of shell
H= height of shell
t= the thickness of insulation= 75mm = 0.075m (Sinnot, 1999)
204

V=
Weight = 0.27 x 130 x 9.81 = 344.50 N
The weight of insulation is doubled to allow for fittings, sealing and moisture absorbed;
the total weight of insulation is therefore

688.66 N

By similar calculations, the weight of insulation for effect 2 and 3 is determined as,
580.54N and 652.65 N respectively.
The total weight of shell and insulation is thus calculated:
WT =
1. 1379.87 + 688.66 = 2068.53N
2. 1158.60 + 580.54 = 1739.15N
3. 1305.93 + 652.65 =1958.58N
10.7.8.2 Weight of Tubes
The weight of tube is calculated from the general formula
. (10.20)
Where WT = weight of one tube in Newton, N
= the density of metal (stainless steel) which is 7817Kg/m3 (Geankoplis, 6th Ed)
V= volume of one tube = d2L/4, m3
g is the acceleration due to gravity, ms-2
V

205

Since the tubes are of uniform thickness and the same diameters, the diameter for a
single tube is same for all.
230.05N
For the total number of tubes in the first effect evaporator, the total weight is as follows:
1.
2. WT = 13
4. WT = 16

= 2990.65 N
= 3680.8 N

Table 10.7 Summary of Tube Total Weight

EFFECT Nt Total Weight, N

1

18

4140.90

13

2990.65

18

3680.80

10.7.8.3 Total Weight of orange juice liquor in Evaporator

Where WL = weight of liquid, N

m=

mass of liquid in evaporator, Kg and g = 9.81m/s2

Where L is the feed flow rate to evaporator, Kg/s and t is the residence time of feed in
the evaporator.
For effect 1

206

Table 10.8 Summary of Liquid Weights in Evaporator

EFFECT L, Kg/s t, s

WL , N

0.43

70.59

297.77

0.33

69.77

225.87

0.22

130.43 281.49

10.7.8.4 Dead Weight (total weight) of Evaporators

This is equal to the summation of weight of tubes, shells, liquid feed in evaporator and
insulation material; and the weight of separator.
Table 10.9 Summary of total weight of evaporator during operation
PARAMETER

UNIT EFFECT 1 EFFECT 2 EFFECT 3

Weight of Shell and Insulation N

2068.53

1739.15

1958.58

Tube weight

4140.90

2990.65

3680.80

Liquid weight in evaporator

297.77

225.87

281.49

Dead weight of evaporator

6507.20

4955.67

5920.87

10.7.9 Primary Stress on evaporator

The stresses to be calculated are the longitudinal stress, circumferential stress and direct
stress.

207

10.7.9.1 Longitudinal stress on evaporator

(10.21)

where

the

design

pressure,

Pa,

Longitudinal

stress,

Ds = shell diameter, m ts = shell thickness, m

For effect 1: PD = 111.458kPa, Ds = 0.191m, t = 0.0041m

Therefore:
= 1298.08 kN/m2

By similar calculations, the longitudinal stress for effect 2 and 3 is determined as,
560.78 kN/m2 and 154.98 kN/m2 respectively.

10.7.9.2 Circumferential Stress:

.(10.22)

where

Circumferential Stress,

Ds = shell diameter, m

PD= The design pressure, Pa

ts = shell thickness, m

For effect 1: PD = 111.458kPa, Ds = 0.191, t = 0.0041m

= 2596.16 k

By similar calculations, the circumferential stress for effect 2 and 3 is determined as,
1121.57 N/m2 and 309.96 kN/m2 respectively

10.7.9.3 Direct Stress :

This is the stress due to the weight of the vessel, its contents and any attachments.
208

................................................................(10.23)

= the total dead weight of evaporator, N, t = thickness of shell, Ds = shell diameter,

m

For effect 1: WT = 6507.20 N, Ds = 0.191m, ts = 0.0041m

= 2589.42 k

By similar calculations, the direct stress for effect 2 and 3 is determined as, 2390.06
kN/m2 and 2546.85 kN/m2 respectively

Table 10.10 Summary of stresses on the evaporators

PARAMETERS

SYMBOL SI UNIT

EFFECT
1

Design Pressure

PD

KPa

111.46

55.73

13.74

Shell Inside Diameter

DS

mm,

190

160

180

Total weight of evaporator

KN

6.51

4.96

5.92

Shell thickness

tS

mm

4.1

4.00

4.00

Longitudinal Stress

kN/m2

1298.08 560.78

Circumferential Stress

kN/m2

2596.16 1121.57 309.96

Direct Stress

kN/m2

2589.42 2390.06 2546.8

154.98

10.7.10 Evaporator Support

The support type suitable for vertical standing equipment such as the long-tube vertical
type evaporator is the skirt support. A skirt support consists of a cylindrical or conical
shell welded to the base of the vessel. A flange at the bottom of the skirt transmits the
load to the foundations. Openings must be provided in the skirt for access and for any
connecting pipes. The straight skirt support is used.
209

10.7.10.1 Stresses on Skirt

The skirt thickness must be sufficient to withstand the dead-weight loads and bending
moments imposed on it by the evaporator. The only stress considered here is the dead
weight stress on the skirt, it suitable not to install the evaporator in the open, but support
it with structural steel work to reduce or ignore the effect of wind pressure. Therefore
the bending moment on the evaporator is considered negligible. The dead weight stress
in the skirt is given by:
..(10.24)

Where; W = total weight of the evaporator and contents

DS = inside diameter of the skirt, at the base,
tS= skirt thickness, the minimum thickness should be not less than 6mm, making
allowances of 2 mm as corrosion factor. The material of construction is mild steel.
(Sinnot R.K, 6th Ed)

By similar calculations, the direct stress for effect 2 and 3 is determined as, 1.34
N/m2 and 1.43

N/m2 respectively.

Table 10.11 Summary of dead weight stress on support

EFFECT W, N

DS, m tS, m

,N/mm2

6507.20 0.19

0.007

1.49

4955.67 0.16

0.007

1.34

5920.87 0.18

0.007

1.43

210

Table 10.12 summary of mechanical engineering design calculation

PARAMETERS

SYMBOL

UNIT

EFFECT 1

EFFECT 2

EFFECT 3

Bundle Diameter

0.190

0.160

0.180

Shell Diameter

0.191

0.161

0.181

Shell Thickness

mm

Ellipsoidal Head

0.052

0.045

0.049

Number of Baffles

___

63

75

66

Baffle Diameter

0.189

0.159

0.179

Height of evaporator

Ht

Nozzle thickness

tn

0.004

0.004

0.004

Nozzle height

Hn

0.34

0.123

0.131

Thickness of channel

0.002

0.002

0.002

Shell Weight

1379.870

1158.600

1305.93

Insulation Weight

688.660

580.540

652.650

Weight of Tubes

4140.900

2990.650

3680.800

Weight of Feed

297.770

225.870

281.490

6507.200

4955.670

5920.870

Longitudinal Stress

kN/m2

1298.080

560.780

154.980

Circumferential

kN/m2

2596.160

1121.570

309.960

Direct Stress

kN/m2

2589.420

2390.060

2546.800

Dead Weight Stress

kN/m2

1490

1340

1430

cover

Dead

Weight

of

Evaporator

Stress

on the Skirt
211

10.8 ANCILLARY EQUIPMENTS

10.8.1 Pumps
The pumps used for evaporator work are in general standard equipment of a design
appropriate to the composition and texture of the material to be handled, for this process
a centrifugal pump is used. The main criteria for the selection of pumps are product
properties, suction head conditions, flow rates and the pressure ratios in the evaporation
plant. For low-viscosity products, centrifugal pumps are mostly used. Highly-viscous
products require the use of positive displacement pumps. For liquids containing solids
or crystallised products, other pump types such as propeller pumps are used.
10.8.2 Separators
Each evaporator is equipped with a unit for separating vapours from liquids. Depending
on the field of application different types of separators are chosen, e.g. centrifugal
separators, gravitational separators or separators equipped with internals. Essential
design criteria are separating efficiency, pressure loss and frequency of cleaning.
10.8.3 Preheaters and Heaters
Liquor is preheated before it enters the evaporators. Vapour from the boiling liquor
itself will be used for this purpose. High velocity heaters designed to give rates of heat
transfer with small temperature differences between the vapour and liquid is
recommended. Heaters of this type are of multi-pass tubular construction, with the
liquor inside the tube and vapour outside; this ensures easy cleaning of the exchanger.
Quickly removable end-covers are used to give ready access to the tubes. The heaters
may be mounted vertically as less space is required.
10.8.4 Condenser
Where possible, the heat content of the vapours produced during evaporation is used for
heating subsequent effects and pre heaters, or the vapours are recompressed and re212

utilized as the heating medium. The residual vapours from the last effect of an
evaporation plant which cannot be used in this way must be condensed. Evaporation
plants can be equipped with surface, contact or air-cooled condensers to serve this
purpose.
10.8.5 Deaeration/Vacuum Systems
Vacuum pumps are required for maintaining the vacuum in the evaporation plant. They
discharge leakage air and non-condensing gases from the process, including dissolved
gases which are introduced in the liquid feed. For this application, jet pumps and liquid
ring pumps can be used depending on the size and the operating mode of the
evaporation plant.
10.8.6 Vents Systems
Non-condensable gases may be present in the evaporator vapour as a result of leakage,
air dissolved in the feed, or decomposition reactions in the feed. When the vapours are
condensed in the succeeding effect, the non-condensable increase in concentration and
impede heat transfer. This occurs partially because of the reduced partial pressure of
vapour in the mixture, but mainly because the vapour flow toward the heating surface
creates a film of poorly conducting gas at the interface. The most important means of
reducing the influence of non-condensable on heat transfer is by properly channeling
them pass the heating surface. A positive vapour-flow path from inlet to vent outlet
should be provided, and the path should preferably be tapered to avoid pockets of low
velocity where non-condensable can be trapped. Excessive clearances and lowresistance channels that could bypass vapour directly from the inlet to the vent should
be avoided.

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CHAPTER ELEVEN
11.0 OBJECTIVES
11.0.1 Main Objective
To design a dryer as a unit of the plant used in the production of powdered citrus
concentrate.
11.0.2 Specific Objectives
The precise objectives are;
e) to specify the type of dryer for this unit operation as well as its material of
construction
f) to carry out detailed chemical engineering calculations on the dryer
g) to carry out detailed mechanical engineering calculations on the dryer
h) to give a detailed mechanical engineering drawing of the selected dryer
11.1 DESIGN PROBLEM STATEMENT
In the production of concentrated citrus powder, there is the need to reduce the moisture
content of the product from the evaporator. The removal of moisture from the
concentrate is a very critical stage in the production line because higher moisture
contents affect the shelf life of the product and tend to ease transportation. The design
aims at the effective removal of moisture from 20.98 % to 0.59 % free moisture content
by the use of a spray dryer at a low operating cost.
11.2 SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT
Drying in general is a unit process which deals with the removal of relatively small
amounts of water from material or substances. Removal of water from solids is most
often accomplished by contacting them with air of low humidity and at elevated
temperature. Water can be removed mechanically from solids in some cases by
214

centrifuging, pressing and their likes. Mechanical methods are less expensive and are
easier to use than thermal methods. The amount of moisture in a finally dried product
varies depending on the type of product required. Drying is usually the final step in any
manufacturing process that is, done before packaging (Walas, 1990).
Drying is carried out in the chemical industries for the following reasons:
to preserve or improve on the quality of the material
to reduce the cost of transport
to make a material more suitable for handling e.g. powdered soap, dye stuffs and
fertilizers
to provide definite properties e.g. the free flowing nature of salt
to prevent corrosion e.g. drying of coal gas
11.2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF DRYERS
Dryers may be classified according to either the method of heat transferred to the wet
solids or by the handling characteristics and physical properties of the wet material. The
first method of classification reveals differences in the dryer design and operation, while
the second method is most useful in the selection of a group of dryers for preliminary
consideration in a given drying problem. Drying processes can also be classified as
batch, where the material is inserted into the drying equipment and drying process for a
given period of time, or as continuous, where the material is continuously added to the
dryer and dried material continuously removed. Scale of production can also be used to
categorize dryers and drying methods.
11.2.1.1 Classification on basis of heat transfer
Heat being the main energy source for drying, can be a basis by which dryers can be
classified. Heat can get to the material by different means of which some are
convection, conduction and radiation. The above mentioned means have their own
215

implications and how the heat gets into contact with the materials. To follow are some
means of heat application and examples of dryers used.

Infrared or radiant heat dryers and dielectric heat dryer are usually used in freeze
drying where water is sublimed from frozen materials. Examples include
microwave and infrared dryers.

Direct continuous dryers have heat added by direct contact with heated air at
atmospheric pressure and the water vapour formed is removed by the air with
product extracted continually. Examples include pneumatic conveying dryers,
rotary dryers, spray dryers, through-circulation dryers and tunnel dryers

Direct batch dryers have heat added by direct contact with heated air at
atmospheric pressure and the water vapour formed is removed by the air with
product obtained in batches. Examples include batch tray and compartment
dryers, batch through-circulation dryers and fluidized beds.

Indirect continuous dryers evaporate water at low pressures and heat is added
indirectly by contact with a metal wall or by radiation and products extracted
continually. If products can discolour or decompose at high temperatures, low
temperatures are used under vacuum. Examples are cylinder dryers, drum
dryers, screw-conveyor dryers, vibrating try dryers and steam-tube rotary dryers.

Indirect batch dryers also undergo the same principle as indirect continuous
dryers but their product is extracted in batches. Examples include agitated-pan
dryers, freeze dryers and vacuum rotary dryers (Geankoplis, 1990).

11.2.1.2 Classification based on physical form of material.

Dryer types can be classified by the condition of the feed that is, the state of the material
to be dried. Below are the some of the forms material can be and examples of dryers
used in these forms:

216

Wet feed which are in liquid form, examples of dryer used includes, agitated
batch, drum and spray dryer.

Slurry (pumpable slurry or suspension), examples of dryer used includes,

agitated batch, vacuum band, drum and spray dryer.

Paste (soft paste or slurry), examples of dryer used includes, vacuum tray,
agitated batch, convection tray, fluid bed dryer, vacuum band dryer etc.

Reform (preformed paste),examples of dryer used includes, vacuum tray,

convection tray, batch through-circulation, fluid bed etc.

Hard (hard paste or matrix), examples of dryer used includes, vacuum tray,
convection tray, indirect rotary, continuous tray dryer etc.

Granular (free-flowing granular or crystalline solid),examples of dryer used

includes, vacuum tray, agitated batch, pneumatic, batch through-circulation
Fluid bed etc.

Fibrous (fibrous solid),examples of dryer used includes, convection tray,

vacuum tray, indirect rotary, batch- through circulation, pneumatic etc.

Sheet,examples of dryer used includes, vacuum tray, convection tray, drum and
continuous tray.

11.2.1.3 Scale of production

Dryers can be classified according to the amount of substance to be dried. Some dryers
are used for small and special works whiles others are used for a wider range of
operations. The scales of by which dryers are classified includes;

Small scale process involves feed rate of 20 to 50kg/h. it is always a batch

process of which dryer types of these category involves; Vacuum tray, Agitated,
Convection tray, Through-circulation and Fluid bed dryer.

Medium scale process involves feed rate of 50 to 1000kg/h. it is either batch or

continuous. Medium scale batch dryers includes; Agitated, Through-Circulation
217

and Fluid bed dryer. Medium Scale continuous dryers include; Fluid bed,
Vacuum band, Indirect Rotary, Spray, Pneumatic dryer etc.

Large scale process involves feed rate of tones/h. the process is always done
continually. Examples of dryers used in this process include; Indirect rotary,
Spray, Pneumatic, Direct rotary and Fluid bed dryer. (Walas,1990)

11.2.2 Design parameters of a dryer

The typical design parameters of dryers are:

Heat transfer method

Retention or cycle time

Feed conditions

Suitability for heat sensitive materials

Jacketing

Typical evaporation capacity (area in volume)

Capacity

Operating pressure

11.3 JUSTIFICATION
Spray dryers can dry a product very quickly compared to other types of dryers. A
consistent particle size distribution is a reason for choosing a spray dryer. A counter
current spray dryer fitted with a pressure nozzle atomizer will be required. Counter
current flow is preferred, because the temperature of the outlet air is lower than the feed
outlet temperature which implies that more energy is transferred to the feed, hence
drying is more effective than a co-current flow. For spray dryers equipped with pressure
nozzle atomizer, their length to diameter ratio ranges from 4-5 as compared to wheel
atomizers which have their length to diameter ratio to range from 0.5-1. Due to these,

218

there is larger retention time in spray dryers equipped with pressure nozzles than those
with wheel atomizer and hence effective drying.
11.4 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of the dryer section is to take the relatively concentrated orange paste from
the evaporating or dehydrating section containing about twenty-one percent (21 %)
moisture and remove the additional water until the desired final moisture level is
achieved, typically fifty-nine part of ten thousand weight of the final product. For
economic and quality reasons, the juice is usually concentrated prior to drying. The
dryer section most commonly consists of spray dryers, equipment attendant (operators)
and auxiliary devices. Every spray dryer consists of feed pump, atomizer, air heater, air
dispenser, drying chamber and systems for exhaust air cleaning and powder recovery.
Widely varying drying characteristics and quality requirements of the thousands of
products spray dried determine the selection of the atomizer, the most suitable airflow
patter, and the drying chamber design.
Spray drying is a method of producing a dry powder from a liquid or slurry by rapidly
drying with a hot air. Spray drying is the most widely used industrial process involving
particle formation and drying. It is suited for the continuous production of dry solids in
either powder, granulate or agglomerate form from liquid feedstock as solutions,
emulsions and pump able, suspensions. Therefore, spray drying is an ideal process
where the end-product must comply with precise quality standards regarding particle
size distribution, residual moisture content, bulk density and particle shape.
Spray drying involves the atomization of a liquid feedstock into a spray of droplets and
contacting the droplets with hot air in a drying chamber. The sprays are produced by
either rotary (wheel) or nozzle atomizers. Evaporation of moisture from the droplets and
formation of dry particles proceed under controlled temperature and airflow conditions.
Powder is discharged continuously from the drying chamber. Operating conditions and
219

dryer design are selected according to the drying characteristics of the product and
powder specification (Vogel and Todaro, 1997).
11.4.1 MODE OF OPERATION OF A SPRAY DRYER
Spray drying process mainly involves five steps:
(i)

Concentration: feedstock is normally concentrated prior to introduction into

the spray dryer.

(ii)

Atomization: the atomization stage creates the optimum condition for

evaporation to a dried product having the desired characteristics.

(iii)

Droplet-air contact: in the chamber, atomized liquid is brought into contact

with hot gas, resulting in the evaporation of 95 % plus of the water contained
in the droplets in a matter of a few seconds.

(iv)

Droplet drying: moisture evaporation takes place in two stages1. During the first stage, there is sufficient moisture in the drop to replace the
liquid evaporated at the surface and evaporation takes place at a relatively
constant rate (Keey& Pham, 1976).
2. The second stage begins when there is no longer enough moisture to maintain
saturation at the droplets surface, causing a dried shell to form at the surface.
Evaporation then depends on the diffusion of moisture through the shell, which
is increasing in thickness.

(v)

Separation: cyclones, bag filters, and electrostatic precipitators may be used

for the final separation stage. Wet Scrubbers are often used to purify and
cool the air so that it can be released to atmosphere.

The formation of sprays having the required droplet size distribution is vital to any
successful spray dryer operation so that powder specifications can be met. Atomization
is a high technology area which has played a central role in the development and use of
nozzles and rotary atomizers in spray drying.
220

It takes a liquid stream and separates the solute or suspension as a solid and the solvent
into a vapour. The solid is usually collected in a drum or cyclone. The liquid input
stream is sprayed through a nozzle into a hot vapour stream and vaporized. Solids form
as moisture quickly leaves the droplets. A nozzle is usually used to make the droplets as
small as possible, maximizing heat transfer and the rate of water vaporization. Droplets
sizes can range from 20 to 180 um depending on the nozzle.
11.4.1.1Design and critical elements of spray drying
11.4.1.1.1 Atomizers
The "heart" of any spray dryer is the atomizer, small in size, big in importance,
installing the right atomizer is essential to spray drying success. The atomizer must
fulfill several important functions which are summarized below:

It must dispense the feed material into small droplets, which should be well
distributed within the dryer and mixed thoroughly with the hot gas.

The droplets produced must not be so large that they are incompletely dried, nor
so small that product recovery is difficult. Small particles may also overheat and
become scorched.

The atomizer must also act as a metering device, controlling the rate at which
the material is fed into the dryer.
The selection and operation of the atomizer is of extreme importance in
achieving an optimum operation and production of top-quality powders. There
are four main types of atomization:

i.

Centrifugal atomization, the most common, uses a rotating wheel or disc to

break the liquid stream into droplets. The rotational speed determines the mean
particle size, while the particle size distribution about the mean remains fairly

221

constant in a system. Centrifugal atomizers are available in a large variety of

sizes, from laboratory scale to very large commercial units.
ii.

Hydraulic pressure-nozzle atomization forces pressurized fluid through an

orifice. Multiple nozzles are used to increase capacity. The particle size depends
on the pressure drop across the orifice, so that the orifice size determines the
capacity of the system. This type of atomization is simpler than centrifugal, but
cannot be controlled as well. It is not suitable for abrasive materials, or materials
that tend to plug the orifices.

iii.

Two-fluid pneumatic atomization uses nozzles, as well, but introduces a second

fluid, usually compressed air, into the liquid stream to atomize it. This type of
atomization has the advantage of relatively low pressures and velocities and a
shorter required drying path. It is most often used in small-scale equipment,
laboratory or pilot size.

iv.

Sonic atomization, not yet widely used, passes a liquid over a surface vibrated at
ultrasonic frequencies. It can produce very fine droplets at low flow rates.
Current limitations are capacity and the range of different product that can be
atomized.

11.4.1.1.2 Airflow in Spray Dryers

The initial contact between spray droplets and drying air controls evaporation rates and
product temperatures in the dryer. There are three modes of contract:
a. Co-current
Drying air and particles move through the drying chamber in the same direction.
Product temperatures on discharge from the dryer are lower than the exhaust air
temperature, and hence this is an ideal mode for drying heat sensitive product.
When operating with rotary atomizer, the air disperser creates a high degree of air
rotation, giving uniform temperatures through the drying chamber
222

b. Counter-current
Drying air and particles move through the drying chamber in opposite directions.
This mode is suitable for products which require a degree of heat treatment
during drying. The temperature of the powder leaving the dryer is usually higher
than the exhaust air temperature
c. Mixed flow
Particle movement through the drying chamber experiences both co-current and
counter-current phases. This mode is suitable for heat stable products where
coarse powder requirements necessitate the use of nozzle atomizers, spraying
upwards into an incoming airflow, or for heat sensitive products where the
atomizer sprays droplets downwards towards and integrated fluid bed and the air
inlet and outlet are located at the top of the drying chamber.
11.4.1.1.3 Spray drying chamber
Air within the chamber maintains a flow pattern, preventing deposition of partially dried
product, on the wall or atomizer (Ronald, 1997). Air movement and temperature of inlet
air influence the type of final product. Spray drying chamber can also be called the fluid
bed.
11.4.1.1.4Cyclone
Fine or very small particles that move with the exhaust air are separated from the air
outlet in this chamber. Fines return into the spray chamber as fines returns or fluid bed
to enhance agglomeration process.
11.4.1.2 Critical parameters of spray drying
a) Inlet temperature of air: higher the temperature of inlet air, faster is the moisture
evaporation but the powder is subjected to higher temperature, which may

223

distort the chemical/physical properties of heat sensitive product (Michael,

1993).
b) Outlet temperature of air: it govern the sizing of powder recovery equipments,
higher is the outlet air temperature larger will be the size of powder recovery
equipment and conveying ducts and plenums (Maury et al., 2005). Outlet air
temperatures control final moisture content of powder.
c) Viscosity: high viscosity hinders correct drop formation. As the viscosity is
lowered, less energy or pressure is required to form a particular spray pattern.
d) Solid content: care must be taken with high solid loadings (above 30%) to
maintain proper atomization to ensure correct droplet formation.
e) Surface tension: addition of a small amount of surfactant can significantly lower
the surface tension. This can result in a wider spray pattern, smaller droplet size,
and higher drop velocity.
f) Feed temperature: as the temperature of a solution to be sprayed is increased, the
solution may easily dry as it brings more energy to the system.
g) Volatility of solvent: a high volatility is desirable in any drying process.
Unfortunately, choices are limited today. In many cases, these restrict the
solvent choice to water.
h) Nozzle material: most pharmaceutical applications use stainless steel inserts.
However, tungsten carbide nozzles are often available and have excellent
resistance to abrasion and good corrosion resistance for most feedstock.
11.5 MATERIAL FOR CONSTRUCTING A SPRAY DRYER
The material parts of a spray dryer are constructed by using various ranges of steel. For
the sake of this project, the material to be used is a stainless steel. There are over 100
standard types of stainless steel (Perry, 1997). Stainless steel is chromium nickel steel
with chromium content between 18 and 25 % and nickel content between 8 and 20 %.
224

The carbon content of steel varies between 0.04 and 0.25 %. According to the carbon
content, they can be used for plates, forgings, coating and for bolting. Those with
carbon content higher than 0.1 % are hardened by heat treatment (Joshi and Mahajans,
1996). There can also be those with essentially high chromium or high nickel chromium
alloys of iron containing small amount of other essential elements. They have excellent
corrosion and heat resistance properties. Addition of molybdenum to the alloy increases
corrosion resistance and high temperature strength. Certain varieties of stainless steels
are hardened by cold working whiles others by heat treatment (Afrane et al, 2009).
11.6 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN
The design of an efficient spray dryer is based on the amount of moisture to be removed
and the remaining moisture in the material to be considered. Calculating the amount of
heated air required for this process is one design practice which cannot be overlooked.
The spray dryer is of a counter current flow, and equipped with a pressure or spray
nozzle also referred to as a counter current tower spray dryer due to the length to
diameter ratio. Flow of air shall be such that the air enters the blower and then get
heated after which it has attained some pressure and flows in the opposite direction to
the feed. The equipment shall operate to deliver a product with moisture content of
approximately 0.59 %. The spay dryer is to operate with a retention time of 30 sec to
enhance optimum drying.
11.7 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS
Parameters to work with
Material of construction: stainless steel type 304
Properties:
Density, s =8030 kg/m3
Poissons ratio, = 0.305
225

Modulus of elasticity, E = 190103 MN/m3

(Joshi and Mahajans, 1996)

Humid volume of inlet air

For inlet air,

Temperature (Tinlet) = 100 oC
Relative humidity = 10 %
From the psychometric chart, the absolute humidity corresponding to the inlet air
parameters is 0.068 kg H2O/kg DA
Also wet bulb temperature (Twb) = 51 oC
..11.7.1
Where Hinlet is the inlet absolute humidity
Cp(inlet) =1.005+1.88(0.068)
Cp(inlet) =1.005+0.1278
Cp(inlet) =1.1328KJ/kg DA

..11.7.2
Humid volume (VH(inlet))=(2.8310(-3)+4.5610(-3) (0.068) )(100+273)
VH(inlet)=0.00314(373)
VH(inlet) =1.1713 m3/kg DA

Quantity of Air used (m air)

Mass of water to be evaporated (mw) = 79.57 kg/hr

Absolute humidity of inlet air = 0.068
..11.7.3
226

mair=79.57/0.068
mair=1170.1471 kgDA/hr
Total outlet rate = mw + mair
Total Outlet rate = 79.57 + 1170.1471
Total outlet rate = 1249.7171 kg/hr
% weight of air in the outlet=(1170.1471/1249.7171)100
%weight of air in the outlet=93.63 %
% weight of moisture in the outlet=(79.57/1249.7171)100
% weight of moisture in the outlet=6.37 %

Humid volume For Air outlet

Let Y = molal humidity

Y1 =absolute humidity
Nw = weight fraction of water
Nair = weight fraction of air
Mair =Molar mass of air
Mw =Molar mass of water
.11.7.4
..11.7.5
Y1=18/286.37/93.63
Y1=0.0437 kg H2O/kg DA
11.7.6
Cp(outlet) =1.005+1.88(0.044)
Cp(outlet) =1.0877KJ/kg DA
Humid volume (VH(outlet))=(2.8310(-3)+4.5610(-3) (Y1 ) )(Toutlet+273)11.7.7
227

V(H(outlet)) =(2.8310(-3)+4.5610(-3) (0.0437) )(58+273)

VH(outlet) =1.0031 m3/kg DA

Heat absorbed

..10.7.8
Cp=1.1328-1.0877
Cp=0.0451KJ/kg DA
For spray dryers that operate co-currently, their residence times vary from 3 to 6 sec
whiles those operating in a counter current flow state, have residence time variation of
25 to 30 sec. Since the spray dryer being designed is to operate under counter current
condition, 30 sec is assumed to be the residence time to enhance adequate drying since
the operating temperature is at 100 0C.
Mass of air, mair= 1.0031 kg DA/hr
Mass of air per second = mass per hour/number of seconds per hour
Mass of air per second = 1170.147 1/3600
Mass of air per second = 0.325 kg DA/sec
Volumetric flow rate per second of feed=humid volume of outlet airmass of air per
second
Volumetric flow rate per second of air = 1.003 0.325
Volumetric flow rate per second of air = 0.326 m3/sec
With a residence time of 30 sec,
Volume of air = volumetric flow rate residence time
Volume of air = 0.32630
Volume of air = 9.780 m3
228

For a spray dryer fitted with a spray nozzle, the length to diameter ratio (L/D) is
understood to range from 4 to 5.
Assume the length to diameter ratio of the spray dryer to be designed to be 4
.11.7.9

Therefore,
9.780 = 4D(D2/4)+0.866D3/12
9.780 = D3+0.072D3
9.780 = (D3+0.072D3)
9.780 = 1.072D3
9.780 = 3.368D3
2.904 = D3
D = 1.427 m
D is approximately equal to 1.5 m

Since the length of the spray dryer is 4 times the diameter

Length, L = 4Diameter, D
L = 41.5
L = 6.0 m
Height of the conical part of the dryer
Slanted side, H*2 = the radius, R2+the height of the conical part, H2.11.7.10
H*2 = 0.752+ H2
But the conical side makes an angle of 60 o with the axis
Therefore, cos 60 = R/H*11.7.11
Thus, H* = 0.75/cos 60
H* = 1.5 m
From above,1.52 = 0.752+H2
H2 = 1.52-0.752
H2 = 1.688
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H = 1.299 m
H 1.3 m
Therefore the height of the cylindrical part = 6 - 1.3
Height of the cylindrical part = 4.7 m
Table 11.1 SUMMARY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATION
PARAMETERS
Volume of column

SYMBOLS
V

UNITS
m3

AMOUNT
9.780

Length of column

Diameter of column

1.5

Permissible internal pressure

Pi

KN/m2

22394.826

Inlet air temperature

Tinlet

100

Absolute humidity of inlet air

Hinlet

Kg H2O/Kg DA

0.068

Humid volume of inlet air

VH(inlet)

m3/Kg DA

1.1713

Humid heat of inlet air

Cp(inlet)

KJ/Kg DA

1.1328

Outlet air temperature

Toutlet

58

Absolute humidity of outlet air

Y1

Kg H2O/Kg DA

0.0437

Humid volume of outlet air

VH(outlet)

m3/Kg DA

1.0031

Humid heat of outlet air

Cp(outlet)

KJ/Kg DA

1.0877

Total air inlet

mair

Kg DA/hr

1170.1471

Heat absorbed by material

Cp

KJ/Kg DA

0.0451

230

11.8 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATION

Stresses
A vessel built up by wrapping a series of sheets of relatively thin metals tightly round
one another over a core tube and holding each sheet with a longitudinal weld. The inner
cylinder is 6 to 12 mm thick. Assume a two layered vessel of 9 mm and a corrosion
allowance of 3 mm on both sides.
Therefore, wall thickness will be 24 mm
Therefore the wall thickness of the spray dryer will be approximately = 24 mm
Taking the diameter of the spray dryer calculated to be the internal diameter,
Hence internal radius, R1 = diameter/ 2
R1 = 1.5/2
R1 = 0.75 m
Outer radius of the spray dryer, R2 = inner radius, R1 +wall thickness
R2 = 0.75+0.024
R2 = 0.774 m
Let P1 be the internal pressure of the spray dryer
P2 be the external pressure of the spray dryer, which is equal to atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure = 101325 N/m2
Spray dryers fitted with spray nozzles have higher pressures which ranges from 300 psi
to 4000 psi.
2068.427 KN/m2 to 27579.083 KN/m2
Assume an internal pressure, P1 of 20 N/mm2 20000 KN/m2 which makes the spray
dryer fit for higher pressure vessels.
Stresses in a spray dryer
..11.8.1
But K is a constant which is the ratio of R2 to R1
231

K = R2/R1
K = 0.774/0.75
K = 1.032
Implies that K2 = 1.065
fp= 20000((1.065+1)/(1.065-1))
fp= 2000031.758
fp = 635157.480 KN/m2
..11.8.2
fr = (200000.752/(0.7742-0.752))((0.7742/0.752)-1)
fr= (11250/0.037)0.065
fr= 307578.7400.065
fr= 20000 KN/m2

11.8.3
Axial stress, fa= 20000(1/(1.065-1)
fa= 2000015.379
fa= 307578.740 KN/m2

Permissible internal pressure, P i

11.8.4
Where thickness, t= 0.024 m
Stress, f= 635157.480 KN/m2
Outer radius, R2= 0.774 m
Pi=2.31635157.480(0.024/(20.774))(1-0.024/(20.774))
Pi=1467213.779(0.0155)(0.984)
232

Pi=22394.826 KN/m2

Maximum tangential stress

..11.8.5
f(p(max)) = (22394.826/0.024)((0.752+0.7742)/(0.75+0.774))
f(p(max)) = (933117.75)((1.1616)/(1.524))
f(p(max)) = (933117.75)0.7621
fp(max) = 711129.037 KN/m2

Yield point stress, f yp

The yield point stress of a material in simple tension, which is a criterion of design
based on the maximum energy distortion theory.
11.8.6
2fyp2=(635157.480-20000)2+(20000-307578.740)2+(307578.740-635157.480)2
2fyp2=(615157.480)2+(-287578.740)2+(-327578.74)2
fyp2=(5.6841011)/2
fyp=(2.8421011)
fyp=533117.289 KN/m2

Joint efficiency
Taking fp as the allowable tensile stress, f.
Then, t = R1(((fJ+Pt)/(fJ-Pt))-1)11.8.7
But thickness, t = 0.024 m
0.024 = 0.75(((635157.480J+20000)/(635157.480J-20000))-1)
0.032+1 = ((635157.480J+20000)/(635157.480J-20000))
233

1.0322 = (635157.480J+20000)/(635157.480J-20000)
1.065(635157.480J-20000) = 635157.480J+20000
41300.48J = 41300.48
J=1
Therefore the joint efficiency is 1

Maximum shear stress

11.8.8
f(s(max)) = 0.5(635157.480-20000)
f(s(max)) = 0.5(615157.480)
f(s(max)) = 307578.740 KN/m2

Strains
In the inner core
..11.8.9
R1= (200000.75)/(190106) ((0.7742+0.752)/ (0.7742-0.752) - 0.305(0.752/ (0.77420.752) -1))
R1=0.079(31.758-4.386)
R1=0.079(27.372)
R1=2.16110(-3)
Outer core
11.8.10
R2= (200000.774)/ (190106) (0.7742/ (0.7742-0.752) (2-0.305))
R2= (8.14710(-5)) (27.762)
234

R2=2.26210(-3)
Total weight of shell
11.8.11 (Sinnot, 1999)
Where Cv = factor to account for the weight of manholes, internal supports and nozzles
= 1.08
m = density of material of construction of the vessel = 7750 kg/m3
Hv = height of the vessel = 6 m
tc = wall thickness = 0.204 m
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2
Dm = mean diameter of the vessel
Dm = Di+ tc
Dm = 1.5 + 0.204
Dm = 1.704 m
Wv = 1.08 7750 1.704 9.81[6 + 0.8(1.704)] 0.204
Wv = 660253.471 N

Dead Weight Stress

Dead weight stress in the vessel wall is given by
..11.8.12

(Sinnot, 1999)

Where Wv is the total weight of the shell and w is the stress in the wall of the vessel
due to its dead weight.
w = 660253.471/((1.5+0.204)0.204)
w = 604.590 kN/m2 (compressive and therefore negative).
The bending stresses in the wall of the cylinder are negligible as compared to the other
stresses (Sinnot, 1999).
235

The resultant longitudinal stress is:

z = L + w.................................................................11.8.13
Substituting values into the equation, gives
z(upwind/ downwind) = (635157.480) 604590.143 = 30567.337 N/m2
The principal stresses on the vessel wall are the down-wind stress and the horizontal
stress. The greatest difference between these stresses is:
h - z(downwind) = 307578.740 - 30567.337
h - z(downwind)= 277011.403 N/m2
This stress is far less than the tensile strength of 510 106 N/m2 for stainless steel so the
metal can be used for the construction of the vessel.
Design Of Skirt Support
Skirt diameter Ds= diameter of vessel = 1.5 m
As a first approximation, the thickness of the skirt is taken as ts = 20mm.
Dead weight stress in the skirt, ws=

..11.8.14

(Sinnot,

1999)
Where W = total weight on skirt = Wv + Weight of concentrated orange powder +
weight of saturated air in use..11.8.15
But weight of concentrated orange, Wco=mass of orange occupying the system at any
time, m x acceleration due to gravity, g
Mass flowrate of powdered orange per second= mass flowrate per hour/3600
Mass flowrate of powdered orange per second=306.78/3600
Mass flowrate of powdered orange per second=0.085 kg/s
With a retention time of 30 s, then total mass per retention=0.085 x 30
=2.557 kg
Therefore, weight of concentrated orange powder = 2.557 x 9.81
236

Weight of concentrated orange powder= 25.079 N

Weight of saturated air in use, Wsa= weight of dry air, Wda+ weight of water evaporated,
Wwe
Wda=mdax g
Where, mda=mass of dry air
g = acceleration due to gravity
Wda= 9.75 x 9.81
Wda= 95.648 N
Wwe=mwex g
Where, mwe = mass of evaporated water
Wwe = 0.678 x 9.81
Wwe = 6.654 N
Wsa = 95.648 + 6.654
Wsa = 102.302 N
Substituting into equation 10.8.15,
W =660253.471 + 102.302 +25.079
W= 660380.852 N
ws = 660380.852/((1.5+0.02)0.02)
ws = 6914662.955 N/m2
The dynamic wind pressure on the vessel = the atmospheric pressure on the vessel =
101325Pa
Wind loading per unit length of vessel diameter, Fw = 101325 1 = 101325N/m

Bending Moment in Skirt

Considering the vessel as a cantilever beam with height 6 m, the bending moment in the
skirt is:
237

Ms =

.11.8.16

(Sinnot, 1999)

Where x = height of vessel.

Ms= (101325 62)/2
Ms = 1823850 Nm

Bending Stress In The Skirt

The bending stress in the skirt,
bs =

..11.8.17

(Sinnot, 1999)

bs =
bs = 50925393.5 N/m2

Total Stresses
The resultant stress in the skirt is:
s(compressive) = bs - ws..11.8.18 (Sinnot, 1999)
s(compressive) = 50925393.5 N/m2 - 6914662.955 N/m2
s(compressive) = 44010730.55 N/m2
s(tensile) = bs + ws 11.8.19

(Sinnot, 1999)

s(tensile) =50925393.5 + 6914662.955

s(tensile) = 57840056.46 N/m2
For correct design, the two criteria below must be satisfied.
s(tensile)

..11.8.20

(Sinnot,1999)

Where is the base angle of the skirt = 90 for cylindrical skirt,

J = welding factor = 0.85
fs = tensile strength of material of construction of skirt = 430x106 N/m2
by Substitution,
238

57840056.46 430 x106x 0.85sin 90

57840056.46 N/m2 365.5 106 N/m2
s(compressive) 0.125Ets/Ds.11.8.21
Where E = Youngs modulus of elasticity of material of construction of skirt = 210 000
106N/m2
Substituting values into the equation above,
44010730.55 0.125 210 000 106 (0.02/1.5)
44010730.55 N/m2 350 106N/m2
Both criteria are satisfied. Adding 4mm to allow for corrosion, design thickness of the
skirt is 24mm.
Design of Ring and Anchor Bolts.
Number of Bolts
Approximate pitch circle diameter = diameter of vessel + thickness of skirt
Approximate pitch circle diameter = 1.5 m + 0.024 =1.524m
Circumference of pitch circle = 1524 mm
Number of bolts (Nb) required at a minimum bolt spacing of 600 mm
Nb = 1524/600 = 7.98
The closest multiple of 4 is 8, (Sinnot, 1999)
Hence Nb = 8.

Bolt root diameter

Bolt design stress, fb = 125 106
Area of bolt, Ab =

11.8.22

Ab = 1/(8125 106 ) [(4 1823850)/1.524)-660380.852]

Ab = 4.127 10-3m2
239

Bolt root diameter =

..11.8.23

Bolt root diameter =

Bolt root diameter = 72.486 mm

Width of Base Ring

Total compressive load on base ring per unit length is:
Fb =

.11.8.24

Fb =(4 1823850)/( 1.5242 ) + [660380.852/(1.524)]

Fb = 1137767.51 N/m
Minimum width of base ring is:
Lb = Fb/fc.11.8.25
Where fc is the bearing pressure of the concrete foundation = 5 106 (Sinnot, 1999).
Lb = 1137767.51/ (5 106)
Lb = 227.554 mm

Base Ring Thickness

Actual width of base ring = B + 50mm
From Fig13.30 (Anchor bolt chair design parameters in Sinnot 1999), gives B = Lr =
178mm.
Actual width = 178mm + 50mm
Actual width = 228 mm.
Actual bearing pressure of concrete,
fc' = Fb/Lb.11.8.26
fc'= 1137767.51/0.228
fc' = 4.990 106 N/m2
240

(Sinnot, 1999)

Base ring thickness,

tb = Lr((3fc')/fr ) .11.8.27

(Sinnot, 1999)

tb = 0.152 ((3 4.990 106)/(140 106 ))

tb = 49.70 mm
From Fig 13.30 (Anchor bolt chair design parameters in Sinnot, 1999)) the suitable bolt
type is M30

241

Table 11.2 SUMMARY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATION

PARAMETER
Tangential stress

SYMBOL
fp

UNITS
KN/m2

AMOUNT
635157.480

Radial stress

fr

KN/m2

20000

Axial stress

fa

KN/m2

307578.74

Dryer thickness

0.024

Maximum tangential
stress
Maximum shear stress

fp(max)

KN/m2

711129.037

fs(max)

KN/m2

307578.74

Yield point stress

fyp

KN/m2

533117.289

Joint efficiency

Inner core strain

R1

2.16110-3

Outer core strain

R2

2.26210-3

Dead weight stress

N/m2

604590

Total compressive stress

s(compressive)

N/m2

44010730.55

Total tensile stress

s(tensile)

N/m2

57840056.46

N/m2

510 106

N/m2

50925393.5

Tensile strength of
stainless steel
Bending stress in skirt

bs

Number of bolts

Nb

Area of bolts

Ab

m2

4.127x10-3

Bolt root diameter

fD

mm

72.486

Skirt thickness

ts

0.020

Base ring thickness

tb

mm

49.7

Bending moment in skirt

Ms

Nm

1823850

242

CHAPTER TWELVE
12.0 PLANT LOCATION AND SITING
Every project design should start with a clear specification, defining the product,
capacity, raw materials, process and site location. Many factors must be considered
when selecting a suitable site, and only a brief review of the principal factors will be
given in this section.
The principal factors to be considered are:
Choice of Location
Marketing area
Availability of utilities, water, fuel, power, e.t.c
Availability of Suitable Land
Environmental Impact and Waste Disposal
12.0.1 Choice of Location
The geographical location of the plant is a major decider in the economic viability of the
plant. Therefore a plant should be located where minimization of cost and maximization
of revenue would be attained.
Our plant will be sited in Asebu, a town in Cape Coast, the Central Regional capital of
Ghana. The under-listed factors necessitated the choosing of the site for the plant:
Raw material supply
Transport Facilities
Availability of Labour

243

12.0.1.1 Raw Material Supply

The availability and price of suitable raw materials will often determine the site
location. Plants are best located close to the source of the major raw materials. The raw
material for the production of orange juice is orange. Looking at the statistics of the
annual production of orange as provided by the ministry of food and agriculture, it is
has been identified that the Asebu is noted for the highest production of orange and a
relatively low price of orange in the country, thus the decision to site the factory in
Asebu in Central Region.
12.0.1.2 Transport Facilities
The transport of materials and products to and fro the plant will be a major factor in the
plant location. In Ghana, the most applicable means of transportation is by road and all
the possible plant site are favoured by this factor. The roads in Asebu are suitable for
easy transportation of goods and services and this will facilitate the transport of the
products, and so the choice of the site at Asebu in the Central Regional capital of the
country.
12.0.1.3 Availability of Labour
Labour will be needed for the construction of the plant and its operation. Skilled
construction workers will usually be brought outside the site area, but there should be an
adequate pool of unskilled labour available locally, and labour suitable for training to
operate the plant. Skilled tradesmen will be needed for plant maintenance. There is
cheap labour in Asebu and this favours the sitting of the plant in the area.
12.0.2 Availability of Utilities
On any plant site there should be easy access to certain utilities which help in the
operation of the plant. Portable water, fire station, emergency services and other offices
for general administration should be made available for the smooth running of the plant.
244

The District has been linked up to the national electricity grid. There is readily
availability of water in the Asebu township since water will be needed for the various
production processes, as well as other non- production related purposes such as
drinking, washing and sanitary purposes among others. Asebu in the Central Region has
a good source of water which is of good quality to our plant.
12.0.3 Availability of Suitable Land
Sufficient suitable land must be available for the proposed plant and for future
expansion. The land should ideally be flat, well drained and have suitable load-bearing
characteristics. Asebu in the Central Region has suitable lands and this will facilitate in
the siting of the plant.
12.0.4 Marketing Area
The needs of the local market and that of export are usually the primary focus for
production, since future expansion would seek to explore opportunities in the West
African region as well as other parts of the world. The selected site at Asebu, a town in
Cape Coast, the Central Regional capital of Ghana is one of interest because, the site is
close to the Accra - Cape Coast road and that of the Cape Coast Takoradi which are
major trade centres. Accesses to these major roads support our choice of plant location.
12.0.5 Environmental Impact and Waste Disposal
In choosing a plant site for production, the permissible tolerance levels for various
methods of waste disposal should be considered carefully, and attention should be given
to potential requirements for additional waste-treatment facilities or the disposal of the
waste. This is because many legal restrictions have been placed on the methods for
disposing of waste materials from the process industries, since all industrial processes
produce waste products and full consideration must be given to the difficulties and cost
of their disposal. The location selected for a plant should have adequate capacity and
245

facilities for correct waste disposal. The disposal of toxic and harmful effluents will be
covered by local regulations, and the appropriate authorities must be consulted during
the initial site survey to determine the standards that must be met. However an
environmental impact assessment should be made for each new project, or major
modification or addition to an existing process.

12.1 PLANT LAYOUT

The plant layout involves placing the different types of equipments in order to
minimize:
a) Construction Cost
b) The number of people required to operate the land
c) Damage to persons and properties
d) Maintenance Cost
e) The cost of the planned future expansion
f) Operating Cost

As stated earlier, the layout of the is based on intuition and not any other
calculation.
Attached to this paper is the plant layout for the production of powdered citrus
concentrate from orange fruit.

246

CHAPTER THIRTEEN
13.0 SAFETY AND POLLUTION CONTROL
In every manufacturing or process industry, the workers are exposed to some amount of
risk. This risk can be as a result of:
1. The use of equipments or machinery
2. Exposure to emissions from the process
Safety measures are therefore very important factors considered in any manufacturing
industry. Safety measures when ensured and encouraged increases efficiency on the part
of both the workers and the equipments. These measures ensured will reduce downtime
of plants as well as ensure that equipments are kept free from any form of damage or
destruction.
The hazards likely to be encountered in the orange juice industry include the following;
1. Electrical hazards
2. Mechanical hazards
3. Fire hazards
13.0.1 Electrical Hazard
The use of electricity for any purpose carries with it the risk of shock or electrocution.
As such the use of brand tested quality wiring as well as proper and adequate insulation
will be ensured on the plant. Fuses, circuit breakers and earth leakage breakers which
will ensure minimum risk in times of power fluctuations will also be employed to
ensure the safety of all workers. In the light of this, all electrical equipments would be
grounded.

247

13.0.2 Mechanical Hazard

In the operation of the various units, any mechanical fault, from the manufacturer,
induced stresses during operation or operator carelessness can cause serious injury or
even a loss of life as well as damage to the equipment. Hence, inspection of the
equipment before installation is necessary to eliminate the possibility of manufacturer
negligence. Also, the rules and regulations outlined in the operation manual of the
equipments would be adhered to. There will also be regular checks and maintenance
operations carried out on all the units or equipments to ensure that developing faults are
noted early and rectified.
13.0.3 Fire Hazard
Many fire outbreaks in the country started about as a result of small fires through
mainly smoking and electrical faults. As a result of this, smoking will be strictly
prohibited within and around the environs of the plant. This also would ensure that
products are not contaminated. Again, regular checks would be conducted to identify
electrical faults early and rectified. Provision would also be made for fire hydrants and
extinguishers at vantage points to help battle fire in the case of an outbreak. Some of the
workers would also be taken through training and given certificates on fire control.
Lastly to ensure the safety of workers, they would be provided with safety equipments
and also be passed through safety trainings. The safety gadgets include;
1. Safety boots
2. Ear plugs
3. Nose mask
4. Overall coats
5. Eye goggles
248

6. Hairnets
7. First aid kits
There would also be a clinic on the facility to manage minor injuries and illnesses. The
workers would also be insured against these hazards and would receive some amount of
compensation in the unlikely event of injury.
13.1 POLLUTION
Every manufacturing or process industry is faced with the problem of pollution control.
An important consideration in the modern food manufacturing industry is to minimise
the effect or impact of pollution on the environment. Many legal restrictions have been
placed on the methods of disposal of waste from industries. The goal is to preserve
environmental quality for the benefit of present inhabitants and future generations
(Smook, 1994).
There are many forms of waste that cause pollution to the environment. These include;
1. Solid waste
2. Liquid waste
3. Emissions to air
13.1.1 Solid Waste
The main solid wastes of the plant are the orange peels, seeds and pulp from the orange
fruit, and rubbish collected daily. Traditionally, this waste has been consigned to
landfill. Incineration is becoming popular; however, it produces waste in the form of ash
which goes to landfill. The solid waste can however be managed in different ways:
1. Spillage of solids would be swept of with brush and collected into a bin.
2. The peels can be processed and the essential oils extracted from it. This oil can
be used in the manufacture of mosquito repellents amongst others.
249

3. The pulp from the fruits can be used as a supplement to animal feed and
therefore can be sold to farmers.
4. Different containers would be marked for the different forms of rubbish and
would be collected daily for proper disposal. Theses containers would be placed
at various points for easy access.
Generally, solid wastes from the plant can be sent to the landfill for proper disposal.
13.1.2 Liquid Waste
The main liquid waste from the plant is the muddy water from the washing unit. The
waste water from this unit would be sent to a water treatment unit, where the soil
particles would be separated, the water treated and sent back for different operations.
The disposal of other effluents will be guided by local regulations.
Liquid spills would be washed off with pressurised water and swept off into a drain.
13.1.3 Emission to Air
The major emissions to the atmosphere includes, exhaust steam from some of the plants
particularly the de-aeration plant, exhaust fumes from boiler. The exhaust gases include
carbon dioxide (CO2), small traces of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen dioxide (NOx)
from incomplete combustion. The gases from the plant are minimal and considered
relatively insignificant. However, an environmental impact assessment would be made
regularly to ensure that emissions are within standards.

250

CHAPTER FOURTEEN
14.0 PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION
Process control is important in any chemical design as it makes any process satisfy the
safety production specifications, environmental regulations, operational constraints and
economics (Sinnot, 1999).
Instruments are therefore, provided to monitor the key process variables during plant
operation. They may be incorporated in automatic control loops, or used for the manual
monitoring of the process operation. They may also be part of an automatic computer
data logging system. Instruments monitoring critical process variables will be fitted with
automatic alarms to alert the operators to critical and hazardous situations (Sinnot,
1999).
14.0.1 Instrumentation and Control Objectives
The primary objectives of the designer when specifying instrumentation and control
schemes are:
1. Safe plant operation: To keep the process variables within known safe operating
limits, to detect dangerous situations as they develop, to provide alarms and
automatic shut-down systems and to provide interlocks and alarms to prevent
dangerous operating procedures.
2. Production rate: To achieve the design product output
3. Product quality: To maintain the product composition within the specified
quality standards
4. Cost: To operate at the lowest production cost, commensurate with the other
objectives.
These are not separate objectives and must be considered together. The order in which
they are listed is not meant to imply the precedence of any objective over another, other
251

than that of putting safety first. Product quality, production rate and the cost of
production will be dependent on sales requirements. For example, it may be a better
strategy to produce a better-quality product at a higher cost.
In a typical chemical processing plant these objectives are achieved by a combination of
automatic control, manual monitoring and laboratory analysis.
14.0.2 Automatic-control schemes
The detailed design and specification of the automatic control schemes for a large
project is usually done by specialists. Only the first step in the specification of the
control systems for a process will be considered: the preparation of a preliminary
scheme of instrumentation and control, developed from the process flow-sheet. This can
be drawn up by the process designer based on his experience with similar plant and his
critical assessment of the process requirements. Many of the control loops will be
conventional and a detailed analysis of the system behaviour will not be needed, nor
justified. Judgement, based on experience, must be used to decide which systems are
critical and need detailed analysis and design.
A typical control system consist of
a. Measuring Device/Sensor
b. Controller
c. Final Control Element
d. Transmittors
The variables monitored here include pressure, pH/concentration, temperature, flowrate
and level. The types of control include the following;
i.

Feed back (Post-facto)

ii.

Feed forward (Pre-facto)

iii.

Cascade
252

iv.

Ratio

v.

Internal Model Control (Baah-Ennumh, 2011).

In this project however, the Post-facto control with a PID controller is employed. The
traditional way to control a process is to measure the variable that is to be controlled,
compare its value with the desired value (the set point to the controller) and feed the
difference (the error) into a feedback controller that will change a manipulated variable
to drive the controlled variable back to the desired value. Information is thus fed back
from the controlled variable to a manipulated variable.
14.0.3 Consistency Control System
In this control system, sensor measures consistency in the stock line and transmits an
appropriate signal to the controller. The controller then compares the incoming signal to
the set point and transmits an error signal to the dilution valve in the case of an error and
a biase signal when there is no error. Error signal is sent through the transmitter to a
controller. An actuating signal from the controller then causes a variance in the orifice
of the valve. From the process flow diagram, it is realized that the control valve plays a
significant role in the process of paper making. Finally, the dilution valve opening is
then attenuated in the direction of correcting the error (Baah-Ennumh, 2011).
14.0.4 Flowrate Control
Flow rate is checked by the help of a valve and flow meters. Overflowing is undesirable
in any chemical plant hence the control valve and flow meters are to ensure that the set
flow of material moves from one equipment to another. The flow meters in this case
acts as the measuring device which measures the errors in the flow.
A control valve is essentially, a variable orifice used to regulate the flow process fluid in
accordance with the requirement of the process. Some of the types of control valves

253

used in industries are diaphragm, ball plug, lubricated plug, gate, globe and butterfly
valves.
14.0.5 Temperature Control
Temperature control is quite essential in process design for some equipment such as the
pasteurizer, evaporator and the spray-dryer. The spray-dryer happens to be the
equipment with the highest heat consumption at a temperature of 100 oC and hence
temperature control is deemed very necessary so as to achieve this temperature.
Most of the equipment in the process flow diagram like the washing unit and the pusher
centrifuge are operating under room temperature and will not require any control
system.
14.0.6 Pressure Control
Pressure is also another manipulated variable in the production of orange juice
concentrate. The evaporator, de-aerator and spray-dryer extensively use huge pressures
in their modes of operation to expel some amount of air and water. Pressure control
devices are thus needed to control the pressures in the various units. The pressure
control system will keep operating pressures within design limits so that any excessive
pressure that builds up will be relayed to pressure relief valves to open in order to offset
the deviation.
Other control devices such as alarms, safety trips and interlocks will be employed where
necessary to ensure safe operations and these instruments may be controlled by a central
computer.
14.0.7 Alarms, Safety trips and Interlocks
Alarms are used to alert operators of serious and potentially hazardous deviations in
process conditions. Key instruments are fitted with switches and this relays to operate
254

audible and visual alarms on the control panels and annunciation panels. Where there is
a delay or lack of response by the operator, it is likely to lead to the rapid development
of a hazardous situation. The instrument would be fitted with a trip system to take action
automatically to avert the hazard; such as shutting down pumps, closing valves,
operating emergency systems.
The basic components of an automatic trip system are:
1. A sensor to monitor the control variable and provide an output signal when a
preset value is exceeded (the instrument).
2. A link to transfer the signal to the actuator, usually consisting of a system of
pneumatic or electric relays.
3. An actuator to carry out the required action; close or open a valve, switch off a
motor.
A description of some of the equipment (hardware) used is given by Rasmussen (1975).
A safety trip can be incorporated in a control loop. In this system the high-temperature
alarm operates a solenoid valve, releasing the air on the pneumatic activator, closing the
valve on high temperature. However, the safe operation of such a system will be
dependent on the reliability of the control equipment, and for potentially hazardous
situations it is better practice to specify a separate trip system. Provision must be made
for the periodic checking of the trip system to ensure that the system operates when
needed.
14.0.7.1 Interlocks
Where it is necessary to follow a fixed sequence of operations for example, during a
plant start-up and shut-down, or in batch operations interlocks are included to prevent
operators departing from the required sequence. They may be incorporated in the
control system design, as pneumatic or electric relays or may be mechanical interlocks.
Various proprietary special lock and key systems are available.
255

14.0.8 Computers and Microprocessors in Process Control

Computers are being increasingly used for data logging, process monitoring and control.
They have largely superseded the strip charts and analogue controllers seen in older
plant. The long instrument panels and "mimic" flow-chart displays have been replaced
by intelligent video display units. These provide a window on the process. Operators
and technical supervision can call up and display any section of the process to review
the operating parameters and adjust control settings. Abnormal and alarm situations are
highlighted and displayed.
Historical operating data is retained in the computer memory. Averages and trends can
be displayed, for plant investigation and trouble shooting. Software to continuously
update and optimize plant performance can be incorporated in the computer control
systems. Programmable logic controllers are used for the control and interlocking of
processes where a sequence of operating steps has to be carried out: such as, in batch
processes, and in the start-up and shut down of continuous processes.
A detailed discussion of the application of digital computers and microprocessors in
process control is beyond the scope of this volume. The use of computers and
microprocessor based distributed control systems for the control of chemical process is
covered by Kalani (1988).

256

CHAPTER FIFTEEN
The purpose of every chemical process is to make profit. An understanding of process
economics is therefore critical in plant design. An acceptable plant design, thereof must
present a process that is capable of operating under conditions which will yield profit
(Peters and Timmerhaus, 1991). Process economics has three basic roles in process
design:
Evaluation of design options
Process optimization
Overall project profitability
In this chapter, however the economics of the overall project would be evaluated to
assess whether the project is economically viable or not. The economic potential of this
project would be evaluated based on the two main parameters; total capital investment
and the production cost. The two provide a fore knowledge of the funding needed for
start up and running of the plant, and the cost of producing a unit product. With the
above parameters established, and a projection of the expected earnings, the overall
profitability can then be easily assessed.
15.1 Total capital investment
This refers to the total funds needed to start up a chemical plant. Before the plant can be
put into operation, a large sum of money must be supplied to purchase and install the
necessary machinery and equipment. Land and service facilities must be obtained, and
the plant must be erected complete with all piping, controls, and services. In addition, it
is necessary to have money available for the payment of expenses involved in the plant
operation (Peters and Timmerhaus, 1991). The total capital investment is the sum of the
fixed capital investment and the working capital.

257

15.2.1 Fixed capital investment

Fixed capital is the total cost of the plant ready for start-up. It is the capital needed to
supply the necessary manufacturing and plant facilities. The fixed capital can either be
direct cost or indirect cost.
Direct cost comprises all expenses that are necessary for the installation of process
equipments with all auxiliaries that are needed for complete process operation e.g.
purchased equipment cost, equipment installation cost, instrumentation and control cost,
piping cost, electrical installations and material cost, building (including services) cost,
yard improvement cost, service facilities cost, land cost etc.
Indirect cost on the other hand comprises all expenses that are not directly related to
plant operation e.g. engineering and supervision cost, construction expenses,
contractors fee, contingency fees, warehouse, laboratories, transportation, utility.
15.2.2 Equipment Cost Estimation
The equipment cost was evaluated based on information from the SIS engineering
services, Ayigya, Kumasi. Equipment costs are evaluated as a total of the cost of parts
and cost of manufacturing (shape moulding, welding, finishing, etc.). the table below
shows the unit equipment costs and the total equipment costs of the plant.

258

Equipment

Unit cost

Quantiy

Total

equipment

cost
washer

3,645.00

3,645.00

conveyor

12,753.00

25,506.00

peeler

2,400.00

2,400.00

extractor

13,845.60

13,845.60

centrifuge

10,878.00

10,878.00

deaerator

14,690.40

14,690.40

PHE

7,081.20

7,081.20

homogenizer

7,898.40

7,898.40

boiler

22,032.00

22,032.00

evaporator

9,000.00

9,000.00

dryer

35,024.40

35,024.40

packaging unit

11,040.00

11,040.00

TOTAL
EQUIPMENT
COST

163,041.00

The other assets of the fixed capital can be estimated as a factor of the total equipment
cost as adapted by Peter and Timmerhaus. The table below shows the estimation of the
fixed capital investment and the working capital.

259

fixed capital assets

description

cost(GHC)

direct cost
plant equipments costs (PEC)

163,041.00

equipment installation

40% of PEC

65,216.40

piping

70% of PEC

114,128.70

processing building

15% of PEC

24,456.15

land

calculated

4,800.00

site development

5% of PEC

8,152.05

storage facilities

15% of PEC

24,456.15

instrumentation and controls

20% of PEC

32,608.20

auxilliary building

15% of PEC

24,456.15

electricals

10% of PEC

16,304.10

utilities

50% of PEC

81,520.50
559,139.40

total direct cost (A)

indirect cost
engineering and design

30% of TDC

167,742

construction expenses

34% of PEC

55,434

contractors fee

5% of TDC

27,957

contingency

10% of TDC

55,914

total indirect (B)

307,047

total fixed (A+B)

866,186.07

working capital (WC)

10% of TFC

86,619

total capital investment

(TFC+WC)

952,804.68

15.3 ESTIMATION OF TOTAL PRODUCTION COST

The production cost entails the cost of the producing a unit of the product. The
production cost is basically the sum of the

260

Manufacturing cost and

General expenses
15.3.1 MANUFACTURING COST
The manufacturing cost is further sub-divided into three categories, the direct costs, the
fixed charges and the plant overheads (Silla, 2003).
The direct cost entails those expenses that directly associated with the manufacturing
operation. This type of cost involves expenditures for raw materials (including
transportation, unloading, etc.,); direct operating labor; supervisory and clerical labor
directly connected with the manufacturing operation, plant maintenance and repairs,
operating supplies, power, utilities and royalties.
The fixed charges refer to the expenses which remain practically constant from year to
year and do not vary widely with changes in production rate. Depreciation, property
taxes, insurance, and rent require expenditures that can be classified as fixed charges.
Plant-overhead costs are similar to the basic fixed charges in that they do not vary
widely with changes in production rate. Examples of these include expenses for hospital
and medical services; general plant maintenance and overhead; safety services; payroll
overhead including pensions, vacation allowances, social security, and life insurance;
packaging, restaurant and recreation facilities, salvage services, control laboratories,
property protection, plant superintendence, warehouse and storage facilities, and special
employee benefits(Timmerhaus, 1999)
15.3.1.1 Labour Costs
Labour involves the human resource required to man the plant operations. Labour is
either direct or indirect. Direct labour comprise those that directly results in the
production of a chemical or product (Silla, 2003). Indirect labour on the otherahnd
261

cmprises those that involve supervisory work or maintenance or management of

facilities.
The tables below provide a detail of the general plant staff and supervisory heads pay
scheme.
Table of Direct labour cost
Personnel

Number

Annual salary per Total

annual

head(GHC)

salary(GHC)

plant manger

18000

18000

production manger

18000

18000

quality
manager

control
1

18000

18000

quality
analyst

control
2

10800

21600

maintenance
manager

18000

18000

maintenance
labourers

3600

21600

prouction assistants

10800

64800

Workers
plant(unskilled)

51

3600

183600

on

Total cost of direct

labour
69

363600

262

Table of Indirect labour cost

Personnel

Number

Annual salary per Total

head(GHC)

salary(GHC)

Managing Director

27000

27000

accountant

16200

16200

Personnel manager

5400

5400

receptionist

7200

7200

GM's secretary

2700

16200

cleaners

2700

16200

security officers

27000

27000

total

17

88200

86

451800

Total
labour

annual

operating

(direct+indirect)

15.3.1.2 Raw Materials

The raw materials for orange are orange fruits. These would be purchased directly from
a farm site at the set farm price.
Amount of raw material = feed flow rate annual plant hours
= 3541.63kg/hr 7889.4 hrs
= 27,941,335.72 kg oranges /annum
The average mass of orange is 0.35 kg and cost an average of GHC 0.15 per fruit on the
local market vis-a-vis the average wholesale (farm) price being GHC 0.08 per fruit
(GHC 8 per 100 fruits).

263

Therefore the unit price of raw material would be GHC 0.08/ 0.35 kg orange
Annual cost of raw material = 27,941,335.72 kg oranges /annum GHC 0.05/ 0.35 kg
orange
= 6,386,591.02 GHC/ annum
15.3.1.3 Power and Utilities
These includes the cost of the total cost of electricity, process cooling water, steam
requirements

and any other form of utility that is required to keep the plant in

operation. This component is estimated as 10% of the total equipment cost

(Timmerhaus, 1991).
15.3.1.4 Maintenance and repairs
For efficient operating condition of the plant, a considerable amount of expenses would
be necessary for maintenance and repairs. This component is estimated as 5% of the
fixed capital investment (Sinnot, 2005).
15.3.1.5Operating supplies
In any manufacturing operation, many miscellaneous supplies are needed to keep the
process functioning efficiently. Operating supplies include items such as charts,
lubricants, test chemicals, custodial supplies, and protective clothing and equipment
which cannot be considered as raw materials or maintenance and repair materials. The
annual cost for operating supplies is assumed to be about 15 percent of the total cost for
maintenance and repairs (Timmerhaus. 1991).
15.3.1.6 Laboratory Charges
This involves cost of laboratory tests for control operation and product quality control.
It is taken as 20% of operating labour (Timmerhaus, 1991).

264

15.3.1.7 Patents & Royalties

This is taken to be 4% of total product cost.
Total Annual Direct Production Cost
Item

Description

Cost (GHC

Raw material

6,386,591.02

Operating labour (OL)

451,800

Power and Utilities

10% FCI

86,618.61

Maintenance and Repairs (MAR)

5% FCI

43,309.30

Operating supplies

15% MAR

6,496.40

Laboratory charges

20% OL

90,360

Total Direct Production Cost

7,065,175.33

15.3.2 Fixed Charges

The fixed charges or expenses are always present in the company whether or not the
plant is operation. These costs are basically invariant with the amount of production.
The fixed charge items include,
15.3.2.1 Depreciation
The value of a plant will decrease with time because of ware and technical obsolescence
(Silla, 2003). Equipment, buildings, and other material objects comprising a
manufacturing plant require an initial investment which must be written off as a
manufacturing expense. In order to write off this cost, a decrease in value is assumed to
occur throughout the usual life of the material possessions. This decrease in value is
265

designated as depreciation. In determining the rate of depreciation, a straight-line

method is usually assumed for engineering projects. In applying this method, a usefullife period and a salvage value at the end of the useful life are assumed (Timmerhaus,
1991). The annual depreciation is then calculated as the quotient of the difference
between the capital investment and the salvage value at the end of plant life over the
plant life.
From the basis stated above the plant life is 10 years, and the salvage life assumed to be
10% of the total investment (Silla, 2003). Therefore annual depreciation AD is;
AD = (total investment salvage value) / plant life
Total investment = GHC 952,804.68

Salvage value

= 10% of 952,804.68 = 95,280.47

AD = (952,804.68 95,280.47) / 10 = GHC 85,752.42

15.3.2.2 Insurance
The insurance cost paid on the plant and general site is estimated as 1% of the fixed
capital investment (Sinnot, 2005).
15.3.2.3 Local taxes and royalties
Local taxes are determined by government policies and regulations. These comprise
taxes on the property or facility. Local taxes are estimated as 10% of the fixed capital
investment (IRS Ghana, 2010).

266

Table showing Total Annual Fixed Charges

Description

Cost

Depreciation

85,752.42

Insurance

8,661.9

Local taxes and royalties

86,619

Total

181,033.32

15.3.3 Plant overhead

The plant overhead include all cost that associatd with plant operation but d not fall
under any of the above headings. These include expenses for hospital and medical
services; general plant maintenance and overhead; safety services; payroll overhead
including pensions, vacation allowances, social security, and life insurance; packaging,
restaurant and recreation facilities, salvage services, control laboratories, property
protection, plant superintendence, warehouse and storage facilities, and special
employee benefits(Timmerhaus, 1999). Plant overhead is usually estimated from the
operating labour cost, a typical value is 50% of the operating labour cost (Sinnot, 2005).
Plant overhead expenses = 50% of operating labour cost
Operating labour cost

= GHC 451,800

Plant overhead expenses = GHC 225,900

Total manufacturing cost = sum of direct cost, fixed charges and plant overhead. The
table below shows the total annual direct cost, fixed charges and plant overhead.

267

Item

Cost (GHC)

Total direct cost

6,975,901.23

Total fixed charges

181,033.32

plant overhead expenses

225,900

Total manufacturing cost

7,264,368.81

15.3.4 GENERAL EXPENSES

General expenses are associated with management of a plant. Included within general
costs are administrative, marketing, financing, and research and development costs
(Silla, 2003).
Administration expenses : the administration costs comprises those expenses that come
along with supply of office materials equipment, communications, upkeep of office
buildings, and other overhead items related with administrative activities. It is generally
assumed to be 20% of operating labour.
Research and Development: In order to remain in a competitive industrial position,
research and development (R&D) is essential. This component is estimated as 5% of the
total product cost (Peter and Timmerhaus, 1991).
Distribution and Marketing: Expenses associated with selling the products, sales office
and salaries of salesmen, advertising cost, container cost and shipping expenses. It is
estimated as 10% of the total product cost (Peter and Timmerhaus, 1991).
Financing: for a venture that requires the borrowing of funds for capital investment,
interest is considered to pay for the use of borrowed capital. A fixed rate of interest is
established at the time the capital is borrowed; therefore, interest is a definite cost if it is
necessary to borrow the capital used to make the investment for a plant. Although the
268

interest on borrowed capital is a fixed charge; it is preferable to separate interest from

the other fixed charges and list it as a separate expense under the general heading of
management or financing cost. Annual interest rates amount to 32.5% of the total value
of the borrowed capital (SG-SSB, 2011).
General Costs
Item

Description

Cost (GHC)

Administration expenses

20% of OL

90,360

Financing (interest)

32.5 % of TCI

107,023.51

Total

197,383.51

Total production cost can now be estimated as the sum of the manufacturing cost, fixed
charges and general cost.
Annual TPC = manufacturing cost + general costs + 4% TPC (patent royalties) + 5%
TPC (research and development) + 10% TPC (distribution and marketing)
TPC = 7,264,368.81 + 197,383.51+ 0.19 TPC
TPC = 7,872,130.17+ 0.19 TPC
TPC = (7,872,130.17) / (1 0.19)
Annual TPC = GHC 9,690,890.96
15.4 PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS
Having estimated the cost of investment and the cost of production, one will now be in a
position to assess the economic viability of the entire project, hence its profitability.

269

Any venture is economical viable or attractive only then manufacturing process reaps
more earning than cost..
Profitability analysis attempts to proof the desirability of taking risk and also serves as a
measure of attractiveness of this project in comparison to the other competing projects.
It is also a qualitative measure of profit with respect to the investment required to
generate that profit. The analysis of profitability will be based on the following
standards:
Break-even point (BEP)
Turn over Ratio (TOR)
Return on Investment (ROI)
Net Present Value (NPV)
Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return (DCFRR)
Payback Period
Basis of Project analysis
Start-up date of project: January 2012
Completion of project: December 2012
Commencement of production: January 2013
Expected plant life: 10 years
Plant life : 90%
Annual production rate: 2564931.6 kg/hrs
Available Working period: 0.9 365.25 24 = 7889.40 hrs
15.4.1 Cash flow analysis
Powdered orange concentrate is a very common commodity on the market; and sells at
an average price of GHC 0.20 per product in packs of 35 g net weight. The annual
production rate of the project amounts to 1947735.07 kg/hr in the first year at (80%
plant capacity).
270

Total annual production cost = GHC 9,690,890.96

Total product cost = (Total annual production cost) / annual production rate
= GHC 9,690,890.96 / 1947735.07 kg/annum
= GHC 4.98 / kg
With the above product costs and competitive market as a basis, the products shall be
sold at a price of GHC 0.25 per product pack of 50g net weight. Thus unit selling price
would be
GHC 0.25 / 0.05 kg = GHC 5/ kg
As a result the annual gross income from sales is expected to be,
GHC 5/ kg 1947735.07 kg/annum = GHC 9,738,675.36/ annum
Annual Cash flow table
Unit selling price GHC/kg

5.00

Annual sales of paper at 80% capacity (A) GHC/annum

9,738,675.36

Total Product Cost (B), GHC/annum

9,690,890.96

Gross profit (A - B), GHC/annum

47,784.40

Annual tax at 12.5% of taxable income (C)

5973.05

Net Annual profit (A B C), GHC/annum

109,514.55

15.4.2 Break Even Point

The break even point is the point in operation at which there is no profit or loss. At the
break even point the annual cost of production is equal to the annual income from sales.
The break even point can be estimated mathematically from the relation below.
Break even point = fixed costs / (total annual sales variable cost).equation 14.1
Fixed cost = general expenses + fixed charges + maintenance + operating labour +
laboratory cost + plant overhead
Fixed charges = 181,033.32
271

General expenses = 2,016,144.3

Maintenance = 43,309.30
operating labour = 451,800
laboratory cost = 90,360.00
plant overhead = 225,900.00

Fixed cost = 197,383.51 + 181,033.32 + 43,309.30 + 90,360.00 + 225,900.00 + 451,800

= GHC 3,008,546.92
Total annual sales = 9,738,675.36
Variable cost = sum of cost of raw materials, utilities, power and operating supplies.
Variable cost 496.40 = 6386675.36 + 451,800 + 86618.61+6 = GHC 6925,093.97
From equation 14.1,
Break even point = (3,008,546.92) / (9,738,675.36 6,925,093.97)
= 1.06
Therefore the break even point is 1.06
15.4.3 Turn Over Ratio
This is a rapid method suitable for order of magnitude estimates. In other words, it
could be the ratio of gross annual sales to the fixed capital investment.
That is,
TOR = (gross annual sales) / fixed capital investment 100
Gross annual sales for the first income year = 9,738,675.36
Fixed capital investment = 952,804.68
Turn over ratio = (9,738,675.36 / 952,804.68)
= 10.22
272

15.4.4 Return on Investment

The return on investment is the expected profit over the plant life divided by the total
capital invested. This is the percentage return that an investor may expect to eventually
earn on his money. It is the after-tax return on investment that the company or
individual must compare with the earnings from savings accounts, capital bonds, and
other projects to determine whether this is a good project in which to invest.
Return on investment =
(Cumulative net cash flow)/ (plant life capital investment) 100
The cumulative net cash flow = (20,095,442.63) / (10 952,804.68) 100
= 210.91 %
15.4.5 Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return (DCFRR)
This is rate of return on the project which includes the profit on the project, pay off
investment and normal interest charges on investment. It is the interest rate at which the
net present worth is zero. It is also known as investors rate of return and is given by the
formula; discounted cash flow rate of return is defined as the discount rate i, which
The value of i given by this equation is known as the discounted cash flow rate of return
(DCFRR).
It may be found graphically or by trial and error.
Discount factor = 1/ (1+ i)n
Where, = Interest rate /cost of capital
n = number of years after project start-up
The table below shows the discounted cash flow and the net present worth for a selected
interest rate of approximately 89.521%

273

years

annual

net discount factor

cash flow

at an interest of 89.52

discounted
cash flow

952,804.68

41811.35

0.52764295

22061.46407

352833.76

0.278407083

98231.41792

643894.74

0.146899535

94587.8377

5434017.5

0.077510504

421193.4346

4448542.71

0.040897871

181935.9257

4135776

0.021579473

89247.86774

2397794.75

0.011386257

27301.90715

2546432.25

0.006007878

15298.65484

744324.27

0.003170015

2359.518793

10

302829.38

0.001672636

506.5232771

total

952,725

The discounted cash flow rate of return (DCFRR) is then the set interest rate that yields
a net present worth of zero.
Discounted Cash Flow rate of return = 89.521%
15.4.6 Pay Back Period
Payback time is the time that elapses from the start of the project to the breakeven point.
274

The shorter the payback time, the more attractive is the project. Payback time is often
calculated as the time to recoup the capital investment based on the mean annual cash
flow. Pay back time is a useful criterion for judging projects that have a short plant life,
or when the capital is only available for a short time. The graph above shows the
cumulative cash flow of the project over the project life.
From the figures above the break even was 2.9 years

275

Cumulative Cash Flow of Project over the

plant life
21.00
20.00
19.00
18.00
17.00
16.00
15.00
14.00
13.00

cumulative cash flow, million GHC

12.00
11.00
10.00
9.00
8.00
7.00
6.00

BREAK EVENT
POINT

5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
-1.00

-2.00

PAY BACK PERIOD

-3.00
-4.00
-5.00

plant life, years

276

10

11

CHAPTER SIXTEEN
16.0 RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION
Assessing the economic facts about this project, a total capital investment of GHC
952,804.68 is to yield a rate on Investment of 201% in less than 3 years thus; it makes
the project a very profitable one. This project will also develop the Asebu Township and
also provide employment for its people and the people of Ghana as a whole.
It is therefore, recommended that investors both home and abroad invest in this project.
In view of the fact that all the main objectives as well as the specific objectives were
met, it can be concluded that the project was successful. It can also be concluded that an
orange juice powdered concentrate plant can operate effectively and successfully under
appropriate conditions in Ghana. It also produces huge profits as well as provides
employment for the people of our dear country.
On the whole, the project has been a very successful one.

277

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and Backhurst, J. R. (2002). Coulson and Richardsons Chemical Engineering,
Fifth edition, Volume 2, Centrifugal Separations, p: 430. ButterworthHeinemann, Jordan Hill (OX).
40. Walas, S. M. (1988).Chemical Process Equipment Selection and Design.
Chapter 10; pp 287-276 Butterworth Publisher (USA) Inc.
41. Walas, S. M. (1990). Chemical Process Equipments, Solid-Liquid Separation,
pp: 306-317. Butterworth-Heinemann, Washington Street (U.S.A.).
42. Walas, Stanley M (1990). Chemical Process Equipment Selection and Design.
Butterworth-Heinemann, a division of Reed Publishing (USA) Inc. pp: 675.
43. Woode, M.Y (2005). Lecture Notes on Simultaneous Heat and Mass Transfer.
Evaporation.

282

APPENDIX
APPENDIX A
MATERIAL BALANCE CALCULATION
Number of trees per 20 acre land = 2222.20
Average number of orange fruits per season = 765 oranges
Total orange fruits available in 20 acre land per season =
= 1699983 oranges
Average mass of an orange fruit = 350 g = 0.35 kg
Total mass of orange fruits available for production =
= 594994.05 kg
Number of working hours for plant operation in 7 days = 168 hrs

Orange feed flow rate =

= 3541.63 kg/hr.
Assuming 0.1 % of feed is dirt, leaves and branch sticks, then
99.9 % of feed = 3541.63 kg/hr.
100 % feed

= 3545.18 kg/hr.

283

SORTING UNIT

Unsorted oranges (1)

sorted oranges (3)

Crushed, spoilt, unriped oranges (2)

Assuming one of every thousand orange fruit is spoilt crushed or unriped and is to be
removed.
Feed flow rate to sorter = 3545.18 kg/hr.
Bottom material =

= 3.55 kg/hr.
Output flow rate from sorter =
= 3541.63 kg/hr.
Compositions of various streams on the sorting unit.
Component Stream 1

Stream 2

Stream 3

Mass, %

Mass
flowrate,
kg/hr

Mass, %

Mass
Mass, %
flowrate,
kg/hr

Mass
flowrate,
kg/hr

99.9

3541.63

100

3541.63

Crushed,
0.1
spoilt
or
unripe
orange

3.55

100

3.55

Total

3545.18

100

3.55

100

3541.63

Good
Orange
fruits

100

284

WASHING UNIT
Feed flow rate to washing unit = 3541.63 kg/hr.

Wash water (2)

Unclean orange fruits (1)

washed orange fruits (3)

Dirty water (4)

Assuming 0.1 % of the washing feed flow rate is dirt, mud, leaves and broken brunches
from the orange tree.
Feed flow rate to washer = 3541.63 kg/hr.
Bottom material flow rate =

= 3.54 kg/hr.
Output flow rate from washer =
= 3538.09 kg/hr.
Feed flow rate to separation unit = 3538.09 kg/hr.

285

Compositions of various streams on the washing unit

Component Stream 1

Stream 2

Stream 3

Stream 4

Mass, Mass
Mass, Mass
Mass, Mass
flowrate, %
flowrate, %
flowrate
%
kg/hr
kg/hr
, kg/hr

Mass,
%

Mass
flowrate,
kg/hr

Water

100

7083.26

99.95

7083.26

Dirt

0.1

3.54

0.05

3.54

Orange
fruits

99.9

3538.09

100

3538.09

Total

100

3541.63

100

350

100

3538.09

100

7086.8

PEELER

Orange fruits (1)

Peeled orange fruits (3)

Orange peels (2)

The peeler will separate the peels from the orange fruits. Assuming the orange peel
takes about 10 % of the mass of the orange fruit, 50 % being the juice and 40 % pulp.
Feed flow rate to peeler = 3538.09 kg/hr.
Bottom flow rate =

= 353.81 kg/hr.
Output flow rate =
= 3184.29 kg/hr.

286

Compositions of various streams on the Peeler

Component Stream 1

Stream 2

Stream 3

Mass, %

Mass
flowrate,
kg/hr

Mass, %

Mass
Mass, %
flowrate,
kg/hr

Mass
flowrate,
kg/hr

Orange
juice

50

1769.05

55.56

1769.05

Orange
peels

10

353.81

100

353.81

Orange
pulp

40

1415.24

44.44

1415.24

Total

100

3538.09

100

353.81

100

3184.29

EXTRACTOR
The extractor will separate the juice from the pulp. The average juice content of the
peeled orange fruit (feed to the extractor) is about 55.56 % and the remaining 44.44 %
being the pulp.
Juice extraction efficiency: 98 %, therefore 2 % juice is entrained in the pulp.
Extractors separation efficiency: 95 %, hence 5 % of chuff is retained in the juice.

Peeled orange fruits (1)

orange juice (3)

Chuff (pulp) with entrained juice (2)

Feed flow rate to extractor = 3184.28 kg/hr.

The juice content =

287

= 1769.19 kg/hr.
Pulp content =
= 1415.09 kg/hr.
5 % of the chuff = 70.75 kg/hr.

The actual juice output =

= 1733.80 kg/hr.
Total extractor output =
= 1804.56 kg/hr.
Compositions of various streams on the Extractor
Component Stream 1

Stream 2

Stream 3

Mass, %

Mass
flowrate,
kg/hr

Mass, %

Mass
Mass, %
flowrate,
kg/hr

Mass
flowrate,
kg/hr

Orange
juice

55.56

1769.05

2.56

35.38

96.08

1733.80

Orange
pulp

44.44

1415.24

97.44

1344.34

3.92

70.75

Total

100

3184.29

100

1379.72

100

1804.56

CENTRIFUGE
The centrifuge will separate pulp material from the juice upon extraction. The extractor
inefficiency introduces 3.92 % of pulp material into the centrifuge feed coming from the
extractor. Centrifuge Efficiency: 95 %

288

1804.56 kg/hr

Overflow (juice) (3)

Juice from extractor (1)

Underflow (pulp) (2)

Feed flow rate to centrifuge = 1804.56 kg/hr.

Pulp content of juice feed =

=
Since centrifuge is 95 % efficient, 5 % of this pulp would still remain in the juice
overflow

Thus; juice overflow =

=
Compositions of various streams on the Centrifuge
Component Stream 1

Stream 2

Stream 3

Mass, %

Mass
flowrate,
kg/hr

Mass, %

Mass
Mass, %
flowrate,
kg/hr

Mass
flowrate,
kg/hr

Orange
juice

96.08

1733.80

99.80

1733.80

Orange
pulp

3.92

70.75

100

67.22

0.20

3.54

Total

100

1804.56

100

67.22

100

1737.34

289

DE-AERATOR

O2 removed (2)
1737.34kg/hr
Centrifuge overflow (juice) (1)

feed output without O2 (3)

The de-aerator removes oxygen from the juice to prevent enzymatic browning, modify
flavour and help in the quality of the juice. The juice is assumed to have 0.1 % of O2 in
the feed input rate.
Therefore =

= 1.74 kg/hr of air is removed

Since the temperature of the de-aerator is higher than the juice temperature, the juice is
assumed to lose 0.5 % of water.

= 8.68 kg/hr of H2O vapour

Therefore the feed output rate = (1735.60 8.68) kg/hr
= 1726.92 kg/hr

290

Compositions of various streams on the De-aerator.

Component Stream 1

Stream 2

Stream 3

Mass, %

Mass
flowrate,
kg/hr

Mass, %

Mass
Mass, %
flowrate,
kg/hr

Mass
flowrate,
kg/hr

Orange
juice

99.9

1735.60

100

1726.92

O2

0.1

1.74

16.70

1.74

Water
vapour

83.30

8.68

Total

100

1737.34

100

10.42

100

1726.92

PASTEURIZER
Water lost as vapour (2)

Feed input from de-aerator (1)

1726.92 kg/hr

feed output rate (3)

The Pasteurizer increases the temperature of the juice to destroy organisms and natural
enzymes. Hence the juice is assumed to lose 10 % of water from the feed.
Therefore =

= 172.69 kg/hr
Pasteurizer feed output = (1726.92 172.69) kg/hr
= 1554.23 kg/hr

291

Compositions of various streams on the Pasteurizer

Component Stream 1

Stream 2

Stream 3

Mass, %

Mass
flowrate,
kg/hr

Mass, %

Mass
Mass, %
flowrate,
kg/hr

Mass
flowrate,
kg/hr

Orange
juice

100

1726.92

100

1554.23

Water
vapour

100

172.69

Total

100

1726.92

100

172.69

100

1554.23

HOMOGENIZER
Feed input from pasteurizer (1)
1554.23 kg/hr

feed output with even distribution

of components (2)

Homogenizers mix the juice to ensure even distribution of colour, aroma and taste
flavours. The homogenizer is assumed to be 99.9 % efficient, hence 0.1 % lost of feed.
Amount of juice lost =

= 1.55 kg/hr
Therefore the feed output = (1554.23- 1.55) kg/hr
=1552.68 kg/hr
Compositions of various streams on the Homogenizer.
Component Stream 1

Stream 2

Mass, %

Mass
flowrate,
kg/hr

Mass, %

Mass
flowrate,
kg/hr

Orange
juice

100

1554.23

100

1552.68

Total

100

1554.23

100

1552.68

292

EVAPORATOR

Water vapour from feed (2)

Feed input from homogenizer (1)

concentrated orange juice paste (3)

1552.68 kg/hr
Evaporators basically remove water from the juice thereby ensuring concentrated
output. This output usually has less water content. Assuming 75 % of water lost from
the feed.

= 1164.51 kg/hr
Amount of concentrated juice left as paste = (1552.68- 1164.51) kg/hr
= 388.17 kg/hr

Compositions of various streams on the evaporating unit.

Component Stream 1
Mass,
%

Stream 2

Stream 3

Mass flowrate, Mass,

kg/hr
%

Mass flowrate, Mass,

kg/hr
%

Mass flowrate,
kg/hr

Water
/ 80.24
moisture

1245.90

20.97

81.39

juice
19.76
concentrate

306.78

79.03

306.78

Water
vapour

100

1164.51

Total

100

1552.68

100

1164.51

100

388.17

293

DRYER

Moisture from feed (2)

Feed input from evaporator (1)

388.17 kg/hr

powdered orange concentrate (3)

Reference: Amount of water in the edible part of orange = 82.7 - 89.3 % from literature,
Assume 83% of water in orange.
The dryer ensures that the product is in a powdered form by removing the majority of
the water left in the feed. The dryer is assumed to remove 20.5 % of water.

= 79.57 kg/hr
Amount of concentrated citrus powder left = (388.17- 79.57) kg/hr
= 308.6 kg/hr
% Amount of moisture in the product =

= 0.59 %

294

Compositions of various streams on the Dryer.

Component Stream 1
Mass,
%

Stream 2

Stream 3

Mass flowrate, Mass,

kg/hr
%

Mass flowrate, Mass,

kg/hr
%

Mass flowrate,
kg/hr

Water
/ 20.97
moisture

81.39

0.59

1.82

Powdered
79.03
concentrate

306.78

99.41

306.78

Water
vapour

100

79.57

Total

100

388.17

100

79.57

100

308.60

295

APPENDIX B
ENERGY BALANCE CALCULATION
ENERGY BALANCE
The energy balance shows the energy requirements of the plant. The following facts
would be used at various points in the balance.
Pressure of saturated Steam = 3 bar
Reference temperature of all materials (except steam) = 0 o C
Reference temperature of steam = 0.01 o C
Heat capacities of orange is assumed to be the same whether cleaned or uncleaned

SORTING UNIT
Capacity = 3545.18 kg/hr
Length of conveyor belt = 10 m

Unsorted orange fruits (1)

sorted orange fruits (3)

From the general energy balance equation;

296

Thus equation (1) reduces to;

Shaft work is needed to accelerate the orange fruits from rest on the conveyor belt.

Work done by conveyor belt on fruits =

Conveyor efficiency = 90%

Therefore shaft work supplied by conveyor motor =

Component Stream 1
Enthalpy,
kJ/hr
Good
13210.30
Orange
fruits
Crushed,
13.22
spoilt
or
unripe
orange
Total
13223.52
Temperature : 25 oC
Pressure: 101.23 kPa

Stream 2
Stream 3
Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy,
%
kJ/hr
%
kJ/hr
%
99.90
0.00
0.00
13210.30 100.00

0.10

13.22

100.00

0.00

0.00

100.00

13.22

100.00

13210.30

100.00

WASHING UNIT
Wash water (2)

Unclean orange fruits (1)

washed orange fruits (3)

297

From the general energy balance equation;

Thus equation (2) reduces to

Input enthalpy =
Output enthalpy =
Hinput =
Cpmix =

Hinput =
=
=
For
=
=

Houtput =
298

=
=
But Hinput = Houtput

H =
= 354.7425 kJ/hr
Component Stream 1

Stream 2

Stream 3

Stream 4

Enthalpy,
kJ/hr

Enthalpy, Enthalpy,
%
kJ/hr

Enthalpy, Enthalpy,
%
kJ/hr

Enthalpy, Enthalpy,
%
kJ/hr

Water

0.00

0.00

740200.67 100.00

329926.89 100.00

740200.31 0.06

Dirt

407.00

0.12

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

407.39

99.94

Orange
fruits

329926.74 99.88

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

Total

330333.74 100.00

740200.67 100.00

329926.89 100.00

740607.70 100.00

Temperature : 25 o C
Pressure : 101.23 kPa

PEELING UNIT

Unpeeled orange fruits (1)

Peeled orange fruits (3)

Orange Peels (2)

299

Enthalpy,
%

From the general energy balance equation;

=
= 329926.8925

=
Assuming heat capacity of orange peels = 3.77 kJ/kg.oC (Charm, 1971)
Houtput =
=
= 330281.635 kJ
Component Stream 1

Stream 2

Stream 3

Enthalpy,
kJ/hr

Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy,

%
kJ/hr
%
kJ/hr

Enthalpy,
%

Orange
fruits

329926.89

100

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

Orange
peels

0.00

0.00

33346.59

0.00

0.00

0.00

Peeled
orange
fruits

0.00

0.00

0.00

Total

329926.89

100.00

33346.59

Temperature : 25 oC
Pressure : 101.23 kPa

300

296935.04 100.00

0.00

296935.04 100

EXTRACTOR

Peeled orange fruits (1)

orange juice (3)

Chuff (pulp) with entrained juice (2)

From the energy balance equation

=
=

Cp for stream 2 =
=
Cp for stream 3 =
=
Houtput =
=
=

301

=
Component Stream 1

Stream 2

Stream 3

Enthalpy,
kJ/hr

Enthalpy, Enthalpy,
%
kJ/hr

Enthalpy, Enthalpy,
%
kJ/hr

Orange
juice

296934.11

100.00

3294.57

2.56

Orange
pulp

0.00

0.00

125399.64 97.44

6664.35

Total

296934.11

100.00

128694.21

170009.04 100.00

163344.69 96.08

Temperature : 25 oC
Pressure : 101.23 kPa

CENTRIFUGE

Juice from extractor (1)

Overflow (juice) (3)

Underflow (pulp) (2)

From

the

general

energy balance

equation,

Thus equation () becomes

The kinetic energy for torque motion of the centrifuge can be calculated as;
;
302

Enthalpy,
%

3.92

For an cylindrical centrifuge of mass 30 kg and radius 0.75 m rotating at 200 rpm the
moment of inertia can be calculated as

Therefore kinetic energy =

Assuming a centrifuge of 65% efficiency, shaft work supplied by motor;

Component Stream 1

Stream 2

Stream 3

Enthalpy,
kJ/hr

Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy,

%
kJ/hr
%
kJ/hr

Enthalpy,
%

Orange
juice

163412.65

96.08

0.00

0.00

163416.81 99.80

Orange
pulp

6667.13

3.92

6268.27

100.00

327.49

Total

170079.78

100.00

6268.27

100.00

163744.30 100.00

0.20

Temperature : 25 oC
Pressure : 101.23 kPa

DE-AERATOR

O2 removed (2)
Centrifuge overflow (juice) (1)

feed output without O2 (3)

303

=
=

This heat is supplied by latent heat of vapourisation of steam

Where x is steam quality = 0.95

=
304

= 79.13 kg/hr
Assuming losses due to lagging is 10%

= 87.92 kg/hr
Component Stream 1

Stream 2

Stream 3

Enthalpy,
kJ/hr

Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy,

%
kJ/hr
%
kJ/hr

Orange
juice

163580.56

99.90

0.00

0.00

325524.42 100.00

O2

163.74

0.10

80.27

0.04

0.00

0.00

Water
vapour

0.00

0.00

20676.63

99.96

0.00

0.00

Total

163744.30

100.00

20756.90

100.00

325524.42 100.00

Temperature : 50 o C
Pressure :

PASTEURISER
From the energy balance equation,

Water lost as vapour (2)

Feed input from de-aerator (1)

feed output rate (3)

305

Enthalpy,
%

=
=

This change is effected by latent heat of vapourization of steam at 3bar.

Steam quality,

Assuming 10% heat losses in the pasteuriser, then

306

Component Stream 1

Stream 2

Stream 3

Enthalpy,
kJ/hr

Enthalpy, Enthalpy,
%
kJ/hr

Enthalpy, Enthalpy,
%
kJ/hr

Orange
juice

325524.42

100.00

0.00

0.00

Water
vapour

0.00

0.00

405078.93 100.00

0.00

Total

325524.42

100.00

405078.93 100.00

380864.06 100.00

Enthalpy,
%

380864.06 100
0.00

Temperature : 65 oC
Pressure : 101.23 kPa

MIXER
Feed input from pasteurizer (1)

From

the

general

energy balance

feed output with even distribution (2)

equation,

Thus the equation becomes

The kinetic energy for torque motion of the agitator blades can be calculated as;
;
For an agitator of 3 blades, each of mass 2 kg and length 0.6 m rotating at 200 rpm the
moment of inertia can be calculated as

307

Therefore kinetic energy =

Assuming a centrifuge of 65% efficiency, shaft work supplied by motor;

Enthalpy of input stream =

Enthalpy of output stream
1.5 kJ/hr is accumulated in the mixer.
Component Stream 1

Stream 2

Enthalpy,
kJ/hr

Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy,

%
kJ/hr
%

Orange
juice

5859.48

100

5853.60

100

Total

5859.48

100

5853.60

100

EVAPORATOR

Water vapour from feed (2)

Feed input from homogenizer (1)

concentrated orange juice paste (3)

308

=
=

This is supplied by steam at 3 bar.

309

Assuming 10% heat losses in the evaporator

Component Stream 1

Stream 2

Enthalpy,
kJ/hr

Enthalpy, Enthalpy,
%
kJ/hr

Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy,

%
kJ/hr
%

Water/
moisture

140907.95

80.24

Water
vapour

Juice
34700.16
concentrate
Total

175608.11

Stream 3

12275.01

20.97

195055.43 100

0.00

0.00

19.76

46261.03

79.03

100.00

195055.43 0

58536.04

100

Temperature : 40 oC
Pressure : 101.23 kPa

DRYER

Moisture from feed (2)

Feed input from evaporator (1)

powdered orange concentrate (3)

310

Thus equation becomes

Amount of water removed during drying = 79.57 kg/hr
The water is vapourised from the energy of hot air at 100 o C and 10% relative humidity.
Enthalpy of air at this state = 290 kJ/kg dry air ( Psychrometric chart).
Temperature of vapourised water = temperature of exhaust air = 58 o C
Enthalpy of vapourization at this temperature = 2357.9 kJ/kg
Amount of energy required for vapouriztion of moisture =

This is supplied by the hot air coming into the drier;

Therefore the amount of hot air required for drying

Enthalpy of stream 1 =

311

Component

Stream 1

Stream 2

Stream 2

Stream 3

Enthalpy,
kJ/hr

Enthalpy,
%

Enthalpy,
kJ/hr

Enthalpy,
%

Enthalpy,
kJ/hr

Enthalpy,
%

Enthalpy,
kJ/hr

Enthalpy,
%

Powdered
concentrate

12275.01

20.97

0.00

0.00

28913.96

99.41

Water
(moisture)

46261.03

79.03

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

171.60

0.59

Water
vapour

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

187618.1
0

100.00

0.00

0.00

187618.1
0

100.00

187618.1
0

100.00

187618.1
0

100

29085.56

100.00

Hot air
Total

58536.04

100

Temperature : 65 oC
Pressure : 101.23 kPa

312

TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................. 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1
1.1 OBJECTIVES ......................................................................................................... 2
1.1.1 Main Objective ................................................................................................. 2
1.1.2 Specific Objectives ........................................................................................... 2
CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................ 3
2.1 BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION OF CITRUS .......................................................... 3
2.2 TYPES OF CITRUS FRUITS ................................................................................. 4
2.3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CITRUS TREE ..................................................... 6
2.3.1 Size.................................................................................................................... 6
2.3.2 Flowering .......................................................................................................... 8
2.3.3 Leaves and branches ......................................................................................... 8
2.3.4 Seeds ................................................................................................................. 8
2.3.5 Rooting habit..................................................................................................... 8
2.4

ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES AND TOLERANCES ........................ 9

2.4.1

Climate ........................................................................................................ 9

2.4.2

Elevation ..................................................................................................... 9

2.4.3

Mean annual rainfall ................................................................................... 9

2.4.4 Temperature ...................................................................................................... 9

2.4.5 Soils ................................................................................................................ 10
2.4.6 Drought ........................................................................................................... 10
2.4.7 Shading ........................................................................................................... 11
2.4.8 Fire .................................................................................................................. 11
2.4.9 Frost ................................................................................................................ 11
2.4.10 Water logging ............................................................................................... 11
2.4.11Salt ................................................................................................................. 12
2.4.12Wind............................................................................................................... 12
2.5 THE CITRUS FRUIT CHOSEN FOR THIS PROJECT: ORANGE ................... 12
2.5.1 Description ...................................................................................................... 12
2.5.2

Reasons for Choosing Orange over other Citrus Fruits ............................ 13

2.6 VARIETIES OF ORANGES ................................................................................ 13

2.6.1

Persian (sweet) orange .............................................................................. 13

2.6.2 Navel orange ................................................................................................... 14

i

2.6.3

Dream Navel ............................................................................................. 14

2.6.4

Valencia orange ......................................................................................... 14

2.6.5 Blood orange ................................................................................................... 15

2.6.6 Cara cara ........................................................................................................ 15
2.6.7

Hamlin ....................................................................................................... 15

2.6.8 Jaffa................................................................................................................. 15
2.6.9 Moro................................................................................................................ 16
2.6.10

Moro Tarocco ............................................................................................ 16

2.7 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF SWEET ORANGE ............................... 16

2.7.1 Growth rate ..................................................................................................... 17
2.7.2 Flowering ........................................................................................................ 17
2.7.3 Reaction to competition .................................................................................. 17
2.8 COMPOSITION OF ORANGE ............................................................................ 18
2.9 PROPAGATION ................................................................................................... 19
2.9.1 Vegetative propagation known as T-budding ............................................. 20
2.9.2 Propagation area ............................................................................................. 20
2.9.3 Early growth ................................................................................................... 20
2.10 PESTS AND PATHOGENS ............................................................................... 20
2.10.1 Mites ............................................................................................................. 20
2.10.2 Scales, mealybugs, and whitefies ................................................................. 21
2.10.3 Aphids, psyllids, and sharpshooters .............................................................. 21
2.10.4 Fruit flies ....................................................................................................... 21
2.11 DISEASES AND DISORDERS ......................................................................... 22
2.11.1 Fruit splitting................................................................................................. 22
2.11.2

Root rot ..................................................................................................... 22

2.11.3

Nutrient deficiencies ................................................................................. 22

2.11.4 Root rot and Phytophthora gummosis .......................................................... 22

2.11.5

Melanose ................................................................................................... 23

2.11.6 Greasy spot ................................................................................................... 23

2.11.7 Scab ............................................................................................................... 23
2.11.8

Black spot .................................................................................................. 23

2.11.9

Greening .................................................................................................... 24

2.11.10 Tristeza........................................................................................................ 24
2.12 PROCESS DESCRIPTION FOR PRODUCTION OF POWDERED ORANGE
CONCENTRATE ........................................................................................................ 25
ii

2.12.1 Transportation and Unloading ...................................................................... 25

2.12.2 Storage .......................................................................................................... 28
2.12.3 Sorting........................................................................................................... 30
2.12.4 Washing ........................................................................................................ 31
2.12.5 Extraction ...................................................................................................... 33
2.12.6 Separation of Pulp from citrus ...................................................................... 35
2.12.7 Preservation Methods ................................................................................... 38
2.12.8 Homogenisation ............................................................................................ 42
2.12.9 Food concentration ....................................................................................... 44
2.12.10 Drying ......................................................................................................... 47
3.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION AND SELECTION .................................................. 51
3.1 Unloading via Dry System .................................................................................... 51
3.2 Storage ................................................................................................................... 51
3.3 Sorting ................................................................................................................... 51
3.4 Washing ................................................................................................................. 52
3.5 Centrifugal Juice Extraction .................................................................................. 52
3.6 Centrifugation or Cyclonic Separation .................................................................. 53
3.7 Tray-type De-aeration ........................................................................................... 53
3.8 Continuous Holding Pasteurisation ....................................................................... 54
3.9 Homogenisation..................................................................................................... 54
3.10 Multiple-stage Evaporation ................................................................................. 54
3.11 Spray Drying ....................................................................................................... 55
3.12 Packaging ............................................................................................................ 55
CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................... 56
4.0 MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE ............................................................ 56
4.1 Material Balance .................................................................................................... 56
4.1.1 Sorting Unit..................................................................................................... 56
4.1.2 Washing Unit .................................................................................................. 57
4.1.3 Peeling Unit .................................................................................................... 57
4.1.4 Extraction Unit................................................................................................ 58
4.1.5 Centrifuge ....................................................................................................... 59
4.1.6 De-aerator ....................................................................................................... 60
4.1.7 Pasteuriser ....................................................................................................... 61
4.1.8 Homogenisation .............................................................................................. 62
iii

4.1.9 Evaporator ....................................................................................................... 63

4.1.10 Drying Unit ................................................................................................... 63
4.2 ENERGY BALANCE ........................................................................................... 64
4.2.1 Sorting Unit..................................................................................................... 64
4.2.2 Washing Unit .............................................................................................................. 65
4.2.3 Peeling Unit ................................................................................................................ 66
4.2.4 Extractor ..................................................................................................................... 67
4.2.5 Centrifuge .................................................................................................................. 68
4.2.6 De-aerator .................................................................................................................. 69
4.2.7 Pasteuriser ................................................................................................................. 70
4.2.8 Mixer .......................................................................................................................... 71
4.2.9 Evaporator.................................................................................................................. 72
4.2.10 Dryer ........................................................................................................................ 72

CHAPTER FIVE ....................................................................................... 74

5.1 PUMP SPECIFICATION AND PIPE SCHEDULING ................................................................. 74
5.2 PIPELINE SPECIFICATIONS ................................................................................................. 74
5.2.1 Sample Calculation for Pipe Specification.................................................................. 74
5.3 PUMP SELECTION .............................................................................................................. 78
5.3.1 Pump Specification .................................................................................................... 79
5.3.2 Power Requirement ................................................................................................... 79
6.0 THE DESIGN OF A FRUIT WASHER FOR THE WASHING OF ORANGE FRUITS .................... 84
6.1 DESIGN PROBLEM STATEMENT ........................................................................................ 84
6.2 JUSTIFICATION .................................................................................................................. 84
6.3 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 84
6.4.1 Equipment Description .................................................................................................. 86
6.4.2 Nozzle ............................................................................................................................. 86
6.4.3 Process Description ........................................................................................................ 87
6.5 MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION ......................................................................................... 88
6.6 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS ........................................................................ 88
6.6.1 Calculation of Pump discharge nozzle velocity, Vout .................................................... 88
6.6.2 Exit velocity of Water Jet ............................................................................................... 89
6.6.3 Total horse power supplied ........................................................................................... 90
6.6.4 Velocity of the brush rollers........................................................................................... 93
6.6.5 Residence time ............................................................................................................... 94
6.6.6 Water basin nozzle exit velocity .................................................................................... 94
iv

6.6.7 Summary of chemical engineering calculations ............................................................ 95

6.7 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING CALCUATIONS ..................................................................... 95
6.7.1 Design of the conveyer rollers ....................................................................................... 95
6.7.2 Torque on brush roller conveyer ................................................................................... 96
6.7.3 Total weight of brush rollers conveyer .......................................................................... 96
6.7.4 Design of water basin..................................................................................................... 97
6.7.5 Length of water basin nozzle ......................................................................................... 97
6.7.6 Design of supports ......................................................................................................... 98
6.7.7 Normal Stress on the Support........................................................................................ 99
6.7.9 Bending Stress .............................................................................................................. 100
6.7.7 Summary of mechanical engineering calculations ...................................................... 102

CHAPTER SEVEN ................................................................................. 103

7.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 103
7.1 OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................................................... 104
7.1.1 Main Objective ......................................................................................................... 104
7.1.2 Specific Objectives ................................................................................................... 104
7.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT .................................................................................................... 104
7.3 EQUIPMENT SELECTION .................................................................................................. 104
7.4 JUSTIFICATION ................................................................................................................ 105
7.5 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN................................................................................... 109
7.5.1 Average Density ....................................................................................................... 110
7.5.2 Average Viscosity ..................................................................................................... 110
7.5.3 Rotational Velocity ................................................................................................... 111
7.5.4 Settling velocity of the pulp ..................................................................................... 111
7.5.5 Height of the Basket................................................................................................. 112
7.5.6 Linear Velocity of the Juice ...................................................................................... 112
7.5.7 Retention time ......................................................................................................... 113
7.6 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN.............................................................................. 116
7.6.2 Volume of the Basket ............................................................................................... 116
7.6.3 Reaction at 60 pipe elbow ...................................................................................... 116
7.6.4 Pressure and Stress Analysis .................................................................................... 118
7.6.5 Weight of the Centrifuge ......................................................................................... 119
7.6.6 Torque on rotor........................................................................................................ 121
7.6.7 Support for the Centrifuge ....................................................................................... 121
8.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 126
v

8.1 OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................................................... 126

8.1.1 Main Objective ......................................................................................................... 126
8.1.2 Specific Objectives ................................................................................................... 126
8.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT .................................................................................................... 127
8.3 JUSTIFICATION ................................................................................................................ 127
8.4 DE-AERATOR ................................................................................................................... 127
8.4.1 De-aeration Principle ............................................................................................... 128
8.4.2 Tray-type De-aerator ............................................................................................... 129
8.4.2.1 Equipment Description ......................................................................................... 129
8.4.2.2 Mode of Operation of De-aerator ........................................................................ 129
8.4.2.3 Advantages of Tray-type De-aerator .................................................................... 130
8.4.3 Features of De-aerator............................................................................................. 131
8.5 MATERIAL FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF DE-AERATOR................................................... 131
8.6 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN OF DE-AERATOR ....................................................... 132
8.6.1 Chemical Engineering Calculations .......................................................................... 132
8.7 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN OF DE-AERATOR .................................................. 139
8.7.1 Support for Equipment ............................................................................................ 139
8.7.2 Choice of Support ..................................................................................................... 140
8.7.3 Thickness of Equipment ........................................................................................... 140
8.8 Dead Weight of Equipment ............................................................................................. 141
8.9 Determination of bending stresses in vessel wall........................................................... 143
8.10 Determination of longitudinal stress due to internal ................................................... 144
8.11 Determination of circumferential stress due to internal pressure ............................... 144
8.12 Determination of dead weight stress ........................................................................... 145
8.13 Determination of stresses and saddle location ............................................................ 145

CHAPTER NINE .................................................................................... 149

9.0 PROBLEM STATEMENT .............................................................. 149
9.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 149
9.2 IMPORTANCE OF PASTEURIZATION ..................................... 150
9.3 TYPES OF PASTEURIZATION .................................................... 150
9.3.1 In-bottle Process .......................................................................................................... 151
9.3.2 Continuous Holding Process ........................................................................................ 151
9.3.3 In-Bottle Process .......................................................................................................... 151
9.3.4 Flash Process ................................................................................................................ 152
vi

9.3.5 High Temperature, Short Time .................................................................................... 152

9.3.6 Ultra-high Temperature ............................................................................................... 152

9.4 EQUIPMENT SELECTION............................................................ 152

9.5 JUSTIFICATION ............................................................................. 153
9.6 EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION ....................................................... 153
9.7 MECHANISM OF THE HIGH TEMPERATURE SHORT TIME
PASTEURIZATION USING THE PLATE HEAT EXCHANGER . 154
9.8 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN ........................................ 155
9.8.1 Fluid properties ........................................................................................................ 156
9.8.2 Logarithmic Mean Temperature difference ................................................................ 156
9.8.3 Logarithmic Mean Temperature difference correction factor .................................... 157
9.8.4 Heat Transfer area ....................................................................................................... 158
9.8.5 Number of Plates ......................................................................................................... 158
9.8.6 Flow arrangement and number of pass ....................................................................... 159
9.8.7 Residence Time ............................................................................................................ 159
9.8.8 Adjusted number of plates .......................................................................................... 160
9.8.9 Adjusted number of channels per pass ....................................................................... 160
9.8.10 Adjusted total heat transfer area, A .......................................................................... 160
9.8.11 Plate heat transfer co-efficient .................................................................................. 160
9.8.12 Juice side co-efficient ................................................................................................. 161
9.8.13 Steam side co-efficient............................................................................................... 162
9.8.14 Overall heat transfer co-efficient............................................................................... 163
9.8.15 Summary of Chemical Engineering Calculations........................................................ 165
9.9 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN.............................................................................. 165
9.9.1 Basis of Analysis ........................................................................................................... 165
9.9.2 Design Pressure ........................................................................................................ 166
9.9.3Dead Weight ............................................................................................................. 167
9.9.5 Support......................................................................................................................... 168
9.9.5.1 Normal Stress on Carrying bar .............................................................................. 169
9.9.5.2Wind Loading ......................................................................................................... 169
9.9.5.3 Bending Stress ....................................................................................................... 170
9.9.6 Summary of Mechanical Engineering Design............................................................... 171

CHAPTER TEN ...................................................................................... 172

10.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 172
vii

10.1 OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................................... 173

10.1.1 Main Objectives ..................................................................................................... 173
10.1.2 Specific Objectives ................................................................................................. 173
10.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM ............................................................................................ 173
10.3 JUSTIFICATION OF CHOICE OF EVAPORATOR ............................................................... 173
10.4 EQUIPMENT AND PROCESS DESCRIPTION .................................................................... 174
10.4.1 Mode of Operation of a Triple Effect Falling Film Evaporator ............................... 174
10.5 OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS AND DESIGN CONSIDERATION ....................................... 175
10.5.1 Heat Transfer Co-efficient ...................................................................................... 175
10.5.2 Entrainment (Vapour-Liquid separation) ............................................................... 176
10.5.3 Steam Economy ..................................................................................................... 176
10.5.4 Corrosion ................................................................................................................ 177
10.5.5 Product Quality ...................................................................................................... 177
10.5.6 Scaling, Salting and Fouling .................................................................................... 177
10.5.7 Wetting Surfaces .................................................................................................... 178
10.6 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS .................................................................... 178
10.6.2 Energy Balance on Evaporator ............................................................................... 184
10.6.3 Steam Economy: .................................................................................................... 188
10.6.4 Heat Energy Input: ................................................................................................. 188
10.6.6 Tube Side Pressure Drop ........................................................................................ 189
10.6.7 Number of Tubes in each Effect............................................................................. 190
10.6.8 Residence Time ...................................................................................................... 193
10.6.9 Shell Side Pressure Drop ........................................................................................ 193
10.7 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATION ................................................................. 196
10.7.1 Bundle Diameter .................................................................................................... 196
10.7.2 Shell Diameter ........................................................................................................ 196
10.7.3 Shell Thickness ....................................................................................................... 197
10.7.4 Design of evaporator Height .................................................................................. 199
10.7.5 Baffles..................................................................................................................... 200
10.7.6 Shell and Tube Geometry....................................................................................... 201
10.7.6.1 Tube Sheet .......................................................................................................... 201
10.7.7 Design of Shell Nozzle ............................................................................................ 202
10.7.7.1 Thickness of nozzle ............................................................................................. 202
10.7.7.2 Nozzle Height ...................................................................................................... 202
10.7.8 Weight of Evaporator ............................................................................................. 203
viii

10.7.8.1 Total weight of insulation ................................................................................... 204

10.7.8.3 Total Weight of orange juice liquor in Evaporator ............................................. 206
10.7.9 Primary Stress on evaporator ................................................................................ 207
10.7.10 Evaporator Support .............................................................................................. 209
10.8 ANCILLARY EQUIPMENTS .............................................................................................. 212
10.8.1 Pumps .................................................................................................................... 212
10.8.2 Separators .............................................................................................................. 212
10.8.3 Preheaters and Heaters ......................................................................................... 212
10.8.4 Condenser .............................................................................................................. 212
10.8.5 Deaeration/Vacuum Systems ................................................................................ 213
10.8.6 Vents Systems ........................................................................................................ 213

CHAPTER ELEVEN .............................................................................. 214

11.0 OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................................... 214
11.0.1 Main Objective ........................................................................................................... 214
11.0.2 Specific Objectives ................................................................................................. 214
11.1 DESIGN PROBLEM STATEMENT .................................................................................... 214
11.2 SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT .......................................................................................... 214
11.3 JUSTIFICATION .............................................................................................................. 218
11.4 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 219
11.5 MATERIAL FOR CONSTRUCTING A SPRAY DRYER ......................................................... 224
11.6 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN................................................................................. 225
11.7 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS .................................................................... 225
11.8 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATION ................................................................. 231

CHAPTER TWELVE............................................................................. 243

12.0 PLANT LOCATION AND SITING ...................................................................................... 243
12.0.1 Choice of Location.................................................................................................. 243
12.0.2 Availability of Utilities ............................................................................................ 244
12.0.3 Availability of Suitable Land ................................................................................... 245
12.0.4 Marketing Area ...................................................................................................... 245
12.0.5 Environmental Impact and Waste Disposal ........................................................... 245
12.1 PLANT LAYOUT .............................................................................................................. 246

CHAPTER THIRTEEN ......................................................................... 247

13.0 SAFETY AND POLLUTION CONTROL .............................................................................. 247
13.0.1 Electrical Hazard..................................................................................................... 247
13.0.2 Mechanical Hazard................................................................................................. 248
ix

13.0.3 Fire Hazard ............................................................................................................. 248

13.1 POLLUTION .................................................................................................................... 249
13.1.1 Solid Waste ............................................................................................................ 249
13.1.2 Liquid Waste .......................................................................................................... 250
13.1.3 Emission to Air ....................................................................................................... 250

CHAPTER FOURTEEN ........................................................................ 251

14.0 PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION .............................................................. 251
14.0.1 Instrumentation and Control Objectives ............................................................... 251
14.0.2 Automatic-control schemes ................................................................................... 252
14.0.3 Consistency Control System ................................................................................... 253
14.0.4 Flowrate Control .................................................................................................... 253
14.0.5 Temperature Control ............................................................................................. 254
14.0.6 Pressure Control..................................................................................................... 254
14.0.7 Alarms, Safety trips and Interlocks ........................................................................ 254
14.0.8 Computers and Microprocessors in Process Control ............................................. 256

CHAPTER FIFTEEN ............................................................................. 257

15.1 Total capital investment ............................................................................................... 257
15.2.1 Fixed capital investment ............................................................................................ 258
15.2.2 Equipment Cost Estimation.................................................................................... 258
15.3 ESTIMATION OF TOTAL PRODUCTION COST................................................................. 260
15.3.1 MANUFACTURING COST ........................................................................................ 261
15.3.2 Fixed Charges ......................................................................................................... 265
15.3.3 Plant overhead ....................................................................................................... 267
15.3.4 GENERAL EXPENSES ............................................................................................... 268
15.4 PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS .............................................................................................. 269
15.4.1 Cash flow analysis .................................................................................................. 270
15.4.2 Break Even Point .................................................................................................... 271
15.4.3 Turn Over Ratio ...................................................................................................... 272
15.4.4 Return on Investment ............................................................................................ 273
15.4.5 Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return (DCFRR) ..................................................... 273
15.4.6 Pay Back Period ...................................................................................................... 274

APPENDIX .............................................................................................. 283