DIGESTION

DEFINITION:- Digestion is the breaking down of complex constituents of food by

enzymes into simpler soluble forms that can be absorbed and utilised by the cells of the
body .
HOLOZOIC NUTRITION
There are Five Major Steps in Animal Nutrition (Holozoic nutrition). The food we take
contains highly complex substances like protein, carbohydrates and fats. These
substances cannot be utilized as such by our body . These have to be broken down into
simipler and smaller molecules before they can enter into the cells. Proteins must be
broken down into amino acids, carbohydrates into glucose, fats into fatty acids and
glycerol. Amino acids, glucose, fatty acids and glycerol are simpler substances, and can
be utilised by our body . This breakdown of complex food constituents and their
absorption is accomplished by the digestive system. The processes involved in nutrition
are :
(I) INGESTION : Taking in of the food, its chewing or sucking and swallowing.
(II) DIGESTION: Conversion of complex food into simpler absorbable form.
(III) ABSORPTION: Absorbing digested food from the gut to reach the body tissues.
(IV) ASSIMILATION: Utilization of digested food nutrients by the body tissues.
(V) EGESTION: Removal of undigested and unabsorbed food from the body .
TWO TYPES OF DIGESTION
Generally two types of digestion are seen in heterotrophs :
(a) Intracellular (b) Extracellular
INTRACELLULAR DIGESTION (INTRA = INSIDE)
All the five steps of nutrition occur inside the cell itself, as in Amoeba, Paramecium and
other unicellular organisms.
INGESTION:- Food particles such as minute bacteria are enclosed (caught) by
pseudopodia(pseudo = false, podia = feet) to form a food vacuole.
DIGESTION:- Enzymes from cytoplasm are secreted into the food vacuole to break
down complex food.
ABSORPTION:- Digested food is absorbed into the cytoplasm.
ASSIMILATION:- The absorbed food is used up wherever required in the cell.
EGESTION:- The undigested unabsorbed food is expelled out, when the food vacuole
comes up on the cell surface and bursts open.
Food vacuoles are temporary structures and every time the Amoeba feeds, a new food
vacuole is produced. All free-living unicellular microorganisms carry out intracellular
digestion.
EXTRACELLULAR DIGESTION (EXTRA = OUTSIDE)

Digestion occurs outside the cell. All animals (excluding sponges) carry out extracellular
digestion. They have either a cavity , a tube, or a food canal which receives the ingested
food. Digestive enzymes are poured over the food, and the products of digestion are
absorbed back into the cells. The undigested, unabsorbed food is thrown out of the
digestive cavity .
JOINT INTRACELLULAR AND EXTRACELLULAR DIGESTION
In Hydra and other Cnidarians, the food (tiny prey) is caught by the tentacles and
ingested through the mouth into the single large digestive cavity , the gastro-vascular
cavity. Enzymes are secreted from the cells bordering this cavity and poured on the food
for extracellular digestion. Small particles of the partially digested food are engulfed into
the vacuoles of the digestive cells for intracellular digestion. Any undigested and
unabsorbed food is finally thrown out of the mouth.
THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive system in human consists of an alimentary canal and associated digestive
glands. The human alimentary canal (aliment: nourish) is a continuous muscular
digestive tube that runs through the body. It digests the food, breaks it down into smaller
substances, and absorbs the digested food.
ALIMENTARY CANAL

The alimentary canal begins with an anterior opening the mouth, and it opens out
posteriorly through the anus. The alimentary canal has the following parts:1. Mouth and associated organs (teeth, tongue):- The mouth leads to the buccal cavity or
oral cavity. The oral cavity has a number of teeth and a muscular tongue. Each tooth is
embedded in a socket of jaw bone . This type of attachment is called thecodont. Majority
of mammals including human being forms two sets of teeth during their life, a set of
temporary milk or deciduous teeth replaced by a set of permanent or adult teeth. This
type of dentition is called diphyodont. An adult human has 32 permanent teeth which are
of four different types (Heterodont dentition), namely, incisors (I), canine (C), premolars
(PM) and molars (M). Arrangement of teeth in each half of the upper and lower jaw in the
order I, C, PM, M is represented by a dental formula which in human is 2123/2123. The
hard chewing surface of the teeth, made up of enamel, helps in the mastication of food.
The tongue is a freely movable muscular organ attached to the floor of the oral cavity by
the frenulum. The upper surface of the tongue has small projections called papillae, some
of which bear taste buds.
2. Pharynx (or throat): The oral cavity leads into a short pharynx which serves as a
common passage for food and air. The oesophagus and the trachea (wind pipe) open into
the pharynx. A cartilaginous flap called epiglottis prevents the entry of food into the
glottis opening of the wind pipe during swallowing.
3. Oesophagus : A narrow tube arising from pharynx, continuing through the thorax
and ending in the stomach. A muscular sphincter (gastro-oesophageal) regulates the
opening of oesophagus into the stomach.
4. Stomach : An elastic bag with highly muscular walls, located below the diaphragm.
The stomach, located in the upper left portion of the abdominal cavity, has three major
parts a cardiac portion into which the oesophagus opens, a fundic region and a pyloric
portion which opens into the first part of small intestine
5. Small intestine : A tube about 7 meters long and about 2.5 cm wide. Much coiled
and folded, it is contained in the abdomen. Its three subdivisions are:
(i) DuodenumShort upper part, next to stomach. The opening of the stomach into the
duodenum is guarded by the pyloric sphincter.
(ii) JejunumSlightly longer part, about 2 meters long.
(iii) IleumLongest, about 4 meters long, coiled and twisted. Ileum opens into the large
intestine.
6. Large Intestine: About 15 meters long and has three parts.
(i) CaecumSmall blind pouch at the junction of small and large intestine. A narrow
worm-shaped tube (vermiform appendix) projects from the caecum. Caecum is a small
blind sac which hosts some symbiotic micro-organisms. A narrow finger-like tubular
projection, the vermiform appendix which is a vestigial organ, arises from the caecum.
The caecum opens into the colon.
(ii) Colon : A little over 1 meter long, it has three parts termed ascending, transverse
and descending limbs. The descending part opens into the rectum
(iii) Rectum : Last part, about 15 cm. long. It has two parts, the rectum proper and anal
canal. Anus is the external opening surrounded by circular muscles (sphincters).

The vermiform appendix is a vestigial (functionless) organ in humans, but is large and
functional in herbivorous mammals.
The wall of alimentary canal from oesophagus to rectum possesses four layers namely
serosa, muscularis, sub-mucosa and mucosa. Serosa is the outermost layer and is made
up of a thin mesothelium (epithelium of visceral organs) with some connective tissues.
Muscularis is formed by smooth muscles usually arranged into an inner circular and an
outer longitudinal layer. An oblique muscle layer may be present in some regions. The
submucosal layer is formed of loose connective tissues containing nerves, blood and
lymph vessels. In duodenum, glands are also present in sub-mucosa. The innermost layer
lining the lumen of the alimentary canal is the mucosa. This layer forms irregular folds
(rugae) in the stomach and small finger-like foldings called villiin the small intestine. The
cells lining the villi produce numerous microscopic projections called microvilli giving a
brush border appearance. These modifications increase the surface area enormously. Villi
are supplied with a network of capillaries and a large lymph vessel called the lacteal.
Mucosal epithelium has goblet cells which secrete mucus that help in lubrication. Mucosa
also forms glands in the stomach (gastric glands) and crypts in between the bases of villi
in the intestine (crypts of Lieberkuhn). All the four layers show modifications in different
parts of the alimentary canal.
DIGESTIVE GLANDS (SOURCES OF DIGESTIVE ENZYMES)
There are two sources of digestive enzymes :
1. The glandular cells of the gut epithelium of stomach and intestine, which directly pour
their secretion into the lumen of the gut.
2. Special glands such as the salivary glands, the liver and the pancreas which pour their
secretions into the gut through their ducts. Our mouth is always moist, even on a hot
summer day. This happens because there is a watery fluid called saliva which is secreted
by salivary glands into the mouth cavity . It is this saliva, that keeps the mouth moist all
the time.
1). Salivary Glands
There are three pairs of Salivary glands in our mouth cavity(BUCCAL CAVITY)
1. Parotid glands located in front of and below each ear , produces watery saliva rich in
amylase.
2. Sub-maxillary glands close to inner side of lower jaw , produce water and mucus.
3. Sublingual glands below the tongue, produce water and mucus.
These glands continuously pour saliva into the mouth cavity . the amount of saliva
secreted is about 1000 to 1200 ml per day .
FUNCTIONS OF SALIVA
1. It cleans the mouth cavity and tends to destroy germs that cause teeth decay . It
contains lysozymes which help in destroying the bacteria.
2. It moistens and lubricates food which again helps in swallowing.
3. It acts as solvent, dissolving some food particles to stimulate taste buds of the tongue.

4. Saliva helps in the digestion of food as it contains an enzyme salivary amylase which
digests the starch.
2). LIVER
Liver is the largest gland about 1.2 to 1.5 kg in an adult human, located in the upper right
side of the abdomen below the diaphragm. IT has two lobes. The hepatic lobules are the
structural and functional units of liver containing hepatic cells arranged in the form of
cords. Each lobule is covered by a thin connective tissue sheath called the Glissons
capsule. The bile secreted by the hepatic cells passes through the hepatic ducts and is
stored and concentrated in a thin muscular sac called the gall bladder. The duct of gall
bladder (cystic duct) along with the hepatic duct from the liver forms the common bile
The bile duct and the pancreatic duct open together into the duodenum as the common
hepato-pancreatic duct which is guarded by a sphincter called the sphincter of Oddi.
Function:3). PANCREAS
Pancreas is a reddish brown gland compound (both exocrine and endocrine) elongated
organ situated between the limbs of the U shaped duodenum. Its digestive secretion
(pancreatic juice) is poured into the duodenum by the pancreatic duct. The pancreas is a
The exocrine portion secretes an alkaline pancreatic juice containing enzymes and the
endocrine portion secretes hormones, insulin and glucagon.
THE DIGESTIVE PROCESS
Digestion involves two kinds of processes :
(a) Mechanical process that includes cutting, grinding and swallowing the food thus
broken into small particles and then pushing the food along the food canal. Smaller
particles expose greater surface area for action by enzymes.
(b) Chemical process which includes the enzymatic breakdown of complex food into
simpler absorbable form. Digestion involves hydrolysis, i.e. spliting by addition of water
(H+ and OHions) to a molecule resulting in its break down into two or more simpler
molecules. The enzymes only act as catalysts to accelerate the reaction.

(A) MECHANICAL PROCESS IN DIGESTION

The lips hold the food within mouth and help in sucking and sipping of liquids. The teeth
cut, tear and grind the food. The tongue manipulates food while chewing, mixes saliva in
it, rolls it into a ball termed bolus and helps in swallowing (deglutition). The oesophagus
conducts the food (bolus) down into the stomach by a wave of constriction of the circular
muscles . This wave of constriction is called peristalsis. During swallowing, the epiglottis
closes the opening of the trachea, momentary stoppage of breathing, and the food is
pushed down the oesophagus. Peristalsis is a wave of contraction of muscles of
alimentary canal which pushes food down through the alimentary canal. The stomach
churns the food mixing it with gastric juice and thus produces a creamy chime (partially
digested food). The peristaltic movements keep pushing the food from stomach to the
intestine and finally upto the rectum.

(B) CHEMICAL PROCESSES IN DIGESTION

1.

In

Mouth:- The saliva secreted into the oral cavity contains electrolytes

and enzymes, salivary amylase and lysozyme. only a single enzyme

Amylase (old name Ptyalin) which acts on starch in two ways :

About 30 per cent of starch is hydrolysed here by this enzyme (optimum pH 6.8) into a
disaccharide maltose. Lysozyme present in saliva acts as an antibacterial agent that
prevents infections.
2. In Oesophagus:- Food as bolus moves into the stomach through peristalsis. Salivary
amylase continues digesting starch.
3. In Stomach:- Initial digestion of starch by salivary amylase continues till the contents
of stomach becomes acidic. The gastric juice produced from the epithelial lining of the
stomach is a colourless highly acidic liquid (pH 1-2). It contains Water(98%), some salts
hydrochloric acid(0.5%), the lubricant mucin and two enzymes pepsin and lipase.
Hydrochloric acid is secreted by Oxyntic (parietal)cells in the stomach wall. It performs
following function :
(i) kills bacteria entering along with food,
(ii) loosens fibrous material in food,
(iii) activates the inactive pepsinogen to its active form pepsin,
(iv) maintains acidic medium for action by pepsin,
(v) curdles milk so that it does not flow out and stays for action by pepsin. Pepsinis
secreted in its inactive form or the proenzyme called pepsinogen secreted from the chief
cells of the stomach wall. In the presence of HCl it turns into the active pepsin which acts
on proteins and breaks them down into proteoses and peptones.

The mucosa of stomach has gastric glands. Gastric glands have three major types of cells
namely
(i) mucus neck cells which secrete mucus;
(ii) peptic or chief cells which secrete the proenzyme pepsinogen; and
(iii) parietal or oxyntic cells which secrete HCl and intrinsic factor (factor essential for
absorption of vitamin B).
The stomach stores the food for 4-5 hours. The food mixes thoroughly with the acidic
gastric juice of the stomach by the churning movements of its muscular wall and is called
the chyme. The proenzyme pepsinogen, on exposure to hydrochloric acid gets converted

into the active enzyme pepsin, the proteolytic enzyme of the stomach. Pepsin converts
proteins into proteoses and peptones (peptides). The mucus and bicarbonates present in
the gastric juice play an important role in lubrication and protection of the mucosal
epithelium from excoriation by the highly concentrated hydrochloric acid. HCl provides
the acidic pH (pH 1.8) optimal for pepsins. Rennin is a proteolytic enzyme found in gastric
juice of infants which helps in the digestion of milk proteins. Small amounts of lipases are
also secreted by gastric glands.
4. Small Intestine:- In the small intestine the food which is partially digested in the
stomach and called Chime is acted upon by three main digestive juices.
(i) Bile juice from the liver
(ii) Pancreatic juice from the pancreas
(iii) Intestinal juice secreted from special cells in the intestinal epithelium at the base of
intestinal villi. The bile juice and pancreatic juice are poured into the duodenum by their
respective ducts which join together to form a common hepato-pancreatic duct. The
intestinal juice directly mixes with the food.
(I) BILE JUICE
Bile is a yellowish, green, alkaline liquid (pH about 8). It consists of

Water (98%)
sodium carbonate in large quantity which neutralizes the acid of the chaime (semi
digested food) received from stomach; makes it alkaline, anD
bile salts(sodium glycocholate and sodium taurocholate) which emulsify fats.
Emulsification is the breaking up of large lipid (fat) droplets into small droplets, which
provides greater surface for enzyme action. The yellowish green colour of the bile is due
to the pigments biliverdin and bilirubin produced by the breakdown of the dead and
worn out RBCs (Red Blood corpuscles). These pigments are excreted in faeces. (solid or
semi-solid waste and undigested food). Bile has no digestive enzymes. It simply
emulsifies fats.
(II) PANCREATIC JUICE
The pancreatic juice contains six major categories of enzymes, which act in an alkaline
medium.
(a) Amylase completes conversion of starch into maltose.
(b) Lipase also called steapsin. Acts on emulsified fats to produce
glycerol.

fatty acids and

(c) Nucleases digest nucleic acids, i.e. DNA and RNA content of the food.
(d) Trypsinogen the inactive precursor (proenzyme) of trypsin. It is activated into
trypsin by the enzyme enterokinase secreted by the lining of duodenum. Trypsin acts on
remaining proteins (not digested by pepsin) and the proteoses and peptones to produce
peptides and amino acids.
(e) Chymotrypsin acts on milk protein casein to produce paracasein (curd), and also
converts other proteins into peptides.
(f) Carboxypeptidases act on peptides to produce small peptides and amino acids.

(III) INTESTINAL JUICE OR SUCCUS ENTERICUS

It contains the following categories of enzymes :
i)

Glycosidases (including maltase, sucrase and lactase). These hydrolyse the disaccharide
maltose (malt sugar), sucrose (cane sugar) and lactose (milk sugar) into the simpler
absorbable monosaccharides (glucose, fructose and galactose

(ii) Lipase completes the digestion of any lipid (fat) not digested by pancreatic juice.
(ii) Peptidases(aminopeptidase and dipeptidase) act on peptides and dipeptides to
produce smaller peptides and amino acids.
(iii) Nucleases breakdown nucleotides into phosphate, sugar and different nitrogenous
bases.
Summary of digestion in various parts of human alimentary canal is shown in table

ABSORPTION OF NUTRIENTS
Some absorption occurs in the mouth itself, some in the stomach but most absorption
occurs in the intestine.

1. IN MOUTH
Minute quantities of water, water-soluble vitamins and simple sugars like glucose (as in
honey) are absorbed in the mouth.
2. IN STOMACH
Water, glucose, ethanol (alcohol), certain minerals, vitamins and certain drugs may be
absorbed into the cells lining the stomach. This absorption occurs by osmosis, diffusion
(down the concentration gradient) and active transport (against concentration gradient).
3. SMALL INTESTINE
Most absorption of digested food occurs in small intestine. For this, the small intestine is
adapted in many ways :
(i) It is very long and therefore provides more surface area for absorption.
(ii) Many folds in its wall called villi (sing villus) further increase the surface area of
absorption.
(iii) Single cell eptithelial lining reducing the distance between the food and underlying
blood vessels.
(iv) The epithelial cells have microvilli which are projections of plasma membrane to
further increase the absorptive surface.
(v) It is narrow for slow movement of nutrients allowing absorption.

Products absorbed
into the blood capillariesof the villi are amino acids and
monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose).
Products absorbed into the lacteals (lymph vessels) of the villi are fatty acids and
glycerol.
Nutrients absorbed into the blood is carried by veins into the liver, and the Nutrients
absorbed by the lacteals(small lymph vessels) enters the lymphatic system.
4. LARGE INESTINE
Most of the water present in the food is absorbed in the colon by diffusion. Some mineral
ions are absorbed by the colon through active transport.

ASSIMILA TION
The final conversion of the absorbed nutrients into the living substance, i.e. their
utilization by the cells is called assimilation. After absorption from the food canal the
digested food is assimilated by the body in the following ways.
(i) Fatty acids and glycerol are again converted into fats, that may be used or stored (in
adipose tissue).
(ii) Simple sugars (monosaccharides) which are in excess are converted into complex
polysaccharides (glycogen) in liver .
(iii) Amino acids are utilized in the synthesis of proteins for building up the body tissues
and enzymes.
(iv) Excess amino acids are deaminated (removal of nitrogenous part) to produce simple
sugar . (Amino acids cannot be stored).
EGESTION (DEFAECA TION)
The undigested part (plant fibers etc.) and the unabsorbed digested substances pass into
the rectum. Such food remnants are temporarily stored in rectum. More water is
absorbed and the remnants become semisolid to form faeces. A special reflex called
defaecation reflex causes emptying of the rectum and the faeces are passed out via the
anal canal by the relaxation of sphincter muscle (A ring shaped muscle around tubular
organ which contract, can narrow or close the passage of the organ).

NEURAL AND HORMONAL CONTROL OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Do digestive juices flow into the alimentary canal all the time? If it were so, it would
mean terrible wastage of enzymes when there is no food in the alimentary canal. So,
everything must be so timed that there is neither wastage not shortage. How is it
possible? Let us see how it happens.
Think of the following situations:
1. When we see or smell good food or even think or talk about it, our mouth begins to
water (salivation). This happens through stimulation by nerves coming from the brain.
The secretion of thicker saliva is stimulated by chewing action (even if you chew wax
instead of food, you will salivate).
2. On reaching the stomach, the presence of food stimulates the stomach lining to
secrete gastric juice. Secondly , the mechanical stimulation of stomach wall produces a
hormone, gastrin which again stimulates the secretion of gastric juice.
3. As the food enters duodenum, the duodenal epithelium secretes four hormones
Secretin, Pancreozymin, Cholecystokinin, Enterogastrone.
(i) Secretin stimulates the flow of pancreatic juice, which is rich in bicarbonates (to
neutralize acid).
(ii) Pancreozymin helps in the flow of pancreatic enzymes.
(iii) Cholecystokinin stimulates flow of bile from gall bladder .

(i) Enterogastrone stops secretion of gastric juice, because stomach becomes empty as food
now posses from stomach to duodenum. Several nerves (from sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous system, supply the gut to
ROLE OF LIVER IN METABOLISM
Liver is the largest gland associated with the alimentary canal. It is reddish brown in
colour and is located on the upper side of the abdomen just below the diaphragm. Its
numerous functions can be grouped under five major categories :
BLOOD RELATED FUNCTIONS :
(i) Produces red blood cells in the embryo. (In adults, RBCs are produced in bone
marrow).
(ii) Produces prothrombin and fibrinogen required for blood clotting.
(iii) Produces heparin which prevents unnecessary coagulation of blood.
(iv) Destruction of dead and worn out red blood cells.
(v) Removal of toxic and metallic poisons from the blood (protective function).
STORAGE FUNCTIONS :
(i) Storage of iron and some other metallic ions.
(ii) Storage of vitamins A, D and B
(iii) Converts extra blood glucose into glycogen and stores it.
METABOLIC FUNCTIONS
(i) Regulation of blood sugar level by retaining excess glucose received as products of
carbohydrate digestion from the intestines, and storing it as insoluble glycogen to release
it again as soluble glucose when the blood sugar level falls.
(ii) Breaking down of excess amino acids Amino acids are the end products of protein
digestion. Liver breaks down excess amino acids into urea and sugar . Urea is excreted
out in urine and sugar is stored for use.
(ii) Synthesizes fatty acids from carbohydrates, which can be used or stored as fat.
DISORDERS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The inflammation of the intestinal tract is the most common ailment due to bacterial or
viral infections. The infections are also caused by the parasites of the intestine like
tapeworm, roundworm, threadworm,
hookworm, pin worm, etc.
JAUNDICE: The liver is affected, skin and eyes turn yellow due to the deposit of bile
pigments.
VOMITING: It is the ejection of stomach contents through the mouth. This reflex action is
controlled by the vomit centre in the medulla. A feeling of nausea precedes vomiting.
DIARRHOEA: The abnormal frequency of bowel movement and increased liquidity of the
faecal discharge is known as diarrhoea. It reduces the absorption of food.
CONSTIPATION: In constipation, the faeces are retained within the rectum as the bowel
movements occur irregularly.

INDIGESTION: In this condition, the food is not properly digested leading to a feeling of
fullness. The causes of indigestion are inadequate enzyme secretion, anxiety, food
poisoning, over eating, and spicy food.

Notes:The intestinal mucosal epithelium has goblet cells which secrete mucus.
PLANTS
MODE OF NUTRITION IN PLANTS
Plants are the only organisms that can prepare food for themselves by using water,
carbon dioxide and minerals. The raw materials are present in their surroundings.
Therefore, plants are called autotrophs.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS FOOD:- MAKING PROCESS IN PLANTS
Leaves are the food factories of plants. The synthesis of food in plants occurs in l
eaves. Therefore, al l the raw materials must reach there. Water and minerals present
in the soil are absorbed by the roots and transport ed to t he leaves. Carbon dioxide
from air is taken in through the tiny pores present on the surface of the leaves. These
pores are surrounded by are called stomata. Water and minerals are transported to the
leaves by the vessels which run like pipes throughout the root, the stem, the branches
and the leaves. They form a continuous path or passage for the nutrients to reach the
leaf. The leaves have a green pigment called chlorophyll. It helps leaves to capture
the energy of the sunlight. This energy is used to synthesise (prepare) food from
carbon dioxi de and water. Since the synthesis of food occurs in the presence of
sunlight , it is called photosynthesis(Photo: light; synthesis : to combine). So we find
that chlorophyll, sunlight, carbon dioxide and water are necessary to carry out the
process of photosynthesis. It is a unique process on t he earth. The solar energy i
s captured by the leaves and stored in the plant in the form of food. Thus, sun is the
ultimate source of energy for all living organisms.
During photosynthesis, chlorophyll containing cells of leaves , in the presence of
sunlight, use carbon dioxide and water t o synthesise carbohydrates. Duri ng the
process oxygen is released. The carbohydrates ultimately get converted into starch.
The presence of starch in l eaves indicates t he occurrence of photosynthesi s. The
starch is also a carbohydrate.
Synthesis of plant food other than carbohydrates;- plants absorb nitrogen along
with water from the soil by roots.
OTHER MODES OF NUTRITION IN PLANTS:-

A plant like cascuta (amarbell) does not have chlorophyll. It takes readymade food from the plant on which it is
climbing. The plant on which it climbs is called a host. Since it deprives the host of valuable nutrients. It is called
a parasite.

Insectivorous plants:- these are insect eating plants. The insects is digested by the digestive juices
secreted in the pitcher, the pitcher like structure is the modified part of the leaf.

Fungi have a different mode of nutrition. They secrete digestive juices on the dead conVert it into a
solution. Then they absorb the nutrient from it. This mode is called saprotrophic nutrition. Plants which
use saprotrophic mode of nutrition are called saprotrophs. Eg: A mushroom as a saprotrophs.

Some organisms live together and share shelter and nutrients. This is called symbiotic
relationship. Organism like algae and fungus live together. The fungus provides shelter. Water and
minerals to the algae and in return the algae provides food which is prepared by photosynthesis. certain
fungi live in the roots of trees. The tree provides nutrients to the fungus and, in return, receives help
from it to take up water and nutrients from the soil. This association is very important for the tree. In
organisms called lichens, a chlorophyll-containing partner, which is an alga, and a fungus live together.
The f ungus provi des shel ter, water and minerals to the alga and, in return, the alga provides food
which it prepares by photosynthesis.

Rhizobium cannot make its own food. So it lives in the roots of gram, peas, moong beans and other
legumes and provides them nitrogen in return , the plants provide food and shelter to the bacteria, they
have a symbiotic relationship.
NOTES:-

Besides leaves, photosynthesis also takes place in green stems and green branches. Desert
plants have green stems which carry out photosynthesis.
Algae are nitrogenous substance which contains nitrogen.
The fungal spores are generally present in the air. When they land on wet and warm things they
germinate and grow.