System and Design 3

System Analysis and Design
Unit 8
Unit 8
System Analysis I
Structure:
8.1
Introduction
Objectives
8.2
System Analysis
8.3
Problem Definition
8.4
Information Requirements
Information gathering tools
8.5
Tools of Structured Analysis
8.6
Data Flow Diagrams
Symbols used in DFDs
Naming conventions in DFD
Developing a DFD
8.7
Data Dictionary
Rules to draw data dictionaries
Advantages of data dictionary
Types of data dictionaries
8.8
Decision Tree
8.9
Decision Tables
8.10 Structured English
8.11 Summary
8.12 Glossary
8.13 Terminal Questions
8.14 Answers
8.15 References
8.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, you studied the various system development
methodologies like structured development methodologies, rapid application
development methodologies, and agile development methodologies. Also,
you learned how to select the appropriate development methodology.
In this unit, we will study the concept of system analysis including problem
definition and information requirements. You will recognise various
information gathering tools such as online observations, interview, etc., and
Sikkim Manipal University
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tools of structured analysis such as data flow diagram, data dictionary,

decision tree, decision tables and structured English.
The very first step in a system development project is to understand the
requirements, the framework of the organisation's objectives and the
environment in which that system is going to be installed. Consideration is
provided to the user's resources as well as to finances. Failure to specify
system requirement before the final selection almost always results in a
faulty execution of the development project.
The specifications should define the requirements of the user. They must
expose the real applications to be managed by the system comprising
system objectives, flow charts, input-output requirements, file structure,
cost, etc.
Objectives:
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
discuss the concept of system analysis.
recognise the theory of problem definition and information requirements.
identify information gathering tools like interviews, questionnaire, etc.
explain the tools of structured analysis like data flow diagrams, data
dictionary, etc.
8.2 System Analysis

System analysis is considered as the first phase of system development life
cycle. The focus here is to characterise the system that is supposed to
evolve through the subsequent development phases. The problem space is
identified and modelled using various tools and the same is recorded in a
document.
Systems analysis is the rundown of a system into its ingredient pieces to
analyse how those component pieces work and interact.
We do a systems analysis to perform a systems production afterwards.
Systems production is the re-assembly of a system's components back into
a whole improved system.
One feature of analysis is defining the boundaries of the system and
discovering whether a candidate system should consider other related
systems or not. Throughout analysis, data are accumulated on the available
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files, decision points and transactions managed by the existing system.

Tools and logical models of the developed system are used.
After completing the analysis, the analyst can easily recognise what has to
be done. Then analyst makes a decision on how the problem might be
solved. Therefore, we move from logical to the physical facet of the life cycle
in system design.
An analysis phase is subdivided into a number of sub-phases accomplishing
sub-tasks of the analysis. The various tasks in analysis phase are discussed
in the sections below.
Self Assessment Questions
1. It is not necessary for an analyst to study the different operations
carried out by a system thoroughly. (True/False)
2. ____________ makes a decision on how the problem might be solved.
8.3 Problem Definition

The only purpose of a system is to solve a problem. Before starting on a
system development, therefore, it is extremely important that the problem
itself is understood clearly and unambiguously.
Problem definition is a clear, brief and unambiguous statement of the
problem. It is often not easy to arrive at a problem definition for the following
reasons:
1. Users are (mostly) non-technical staff members, whereas developers
are (mostly) technical people. This causes a communication gap
between what is said and what is understood.
2. Immediate validation of requirements is not possible at this stage;
therefore, the developers' view of the system deviates significantly from
that of the users'.
3. Development efforts are often carried out under some time and resource
constraints, limiting the duration and extent of interaction between the
developer and the user.
Due to the above cited reasons a system analyst's job becomes very
challenging. He acts as an intermediate between the two parties. In this very
first stage of the development, a problem definition is evolved and agreed
upon by the two concerned parties.
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3. Problem definition is defined as a lengthy and uncertain statement of
the problem. (True/False)
4. Analyst acts as an _______________ between the two parties.
8.4 Information Requirements

The aim of the requirement analysis is to identify and attain approval for the
requirements specification. This is done to ensure rapid and timely project
completion.
In requirements analysis, a document is prepared that serves as a
foundation for hardware, software and database engineering. It illustrates
the functions of a system and the restrictions that will manage its
development.
This produces a specification that states the project goal. It bounds each
allocated system analyst with an indication of the role of software within the
context of the computer-based system and the various sub-systems
described in the data flow diagrams. The system specification also
describes the information that is to input and to output from the system.
8.4.1 Information gathering tools
Information gathering is a very important part of the analysis process. There
is no standard procedure defined for gathering information. However,
information must be acquired accurately and methodically, and with
minimum interruptions to the individual from whom the information sought.
Fact-finding signifies as much learning as possible about the current
system. It is also called information gathering or data collections. Factfinding skills must be studied and practiced.
There is great possibility of fact-finding during the system development life
cycle. However, fact-finding is most essential to the system planning and
system analysis phases.
Analysts can also use fact-finding in the system design and support phases,
but to a smaller degree. In system support phase, fact-finding is significant
to discover whether a system has deteriorated to a point where the system
is required to be re-developed.
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Two projects are never the same. This signifies that the analyst must wisely
choose the information gathering tool to be used and also decides how to
use it. Even though there are no standard rules for stating their use, a
significant rule is that information must be obtained correctly, systematically,
under the correct conditions, and with minimum disruption to user
personnel.
For example, if only information available in the current manuals is required
by the analyst, then interviewing is needless. Interviewing is essential where
the manual is not up-to-date. If additional information is needed, on-site
observation or questionnaire may be considered. Thus, you are required to
understand the meaning and purpose of various information gathering tools.
Each tool has a unique function, based on the requirements of information.
The various information gathering tools are:
Reviews of Literature, Procedures and Forms: There are very less
system problems that are considered to be unique. The growing number of
software packages recommends that problem solutions are turning out to be
standardised. Thus, as a first step, a search of the literature through
professional reference and procedures manuals, textbooks, company
studies, government publications, or consultant studies, may prove
invaluable. The primary drawback of the search is time. Often it is difficult to
get certain reports, publications may be expensive, and the information
might be outdated due to a time lag in publication.
Procedure manuals and forms are valuable sources for the analyst. They
demonstrate the format and functions of the current system. System
requirements that assist in determining how well the different objectives are
met are included in most of the manuals. Information gathering time is
saved by means of up-to-date manuals. Unluckily, manuals are generally
outdated or do not exist.
The study of existing forms is included in the study of procedures and forms.
Printed forms are extensively used for capturing and offering information.
The goal is to recognise how forms are to be used. The following questions
may be of use:
Who uses the forms? How significant are they to the user?
Do the forms comprise all the essential information? What item should
be added or removed?
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How do departments obtain the current forms and why?

How readable and easy to follow is the form?
How does the information in the form assist other users to make better
decisions? What other uses does the form provide to the user?
On-site Observation: On-site observation is another information gathering

tool which is defined as the process of identifying and observing people,
objects and incidences to get information.
Figure 8.1: Example of an On-site Observation
Interviews: The interview is defined as an interpersonal role situation

performed face-to-face in which a person (known as interviewer) asks
questions to a person being interviewed (known as interviewee). The
questions are designed in such a way so that the interviewer can obtain
information regarding a problem area.
Figure 8.2: Example of an Interview
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Questionnaires: The questionnaire is another information gathering tool

which is a format or series of several questions to which individuals reply.
These questions prompt the extraction of information from the individuals
(here known as respondents). It is usually related with self-managed tools
with items of the closed or fixed alternative type.
We have discussed these information gathering tools in detail in unit 5.
Difference between Interview and Questionnaire
Questionnaire
Interview
1.
Economical
1.
Less Economical
2.
Can be completed by many people at

the same time
2.
Can be administered to ONLY ONE

person at a time
3.
Chances of error or omissions are

fewer
3.
It could be error prone since it depends

upon the skill of the interviewer to
gauge the questions and interpret the
responses.
4.
Anonymity can be maintained. Hence

user is not prevented from giving his
candid opinion about an issue
4.
Anonymity is not maintained. Hence

the user might feel forced to conceal
his candid opinion on an issue.
5.
Gives time to the respondents. Hence

they can think and give their regarded
opinions on an issue
5.
It may not give time to the

respondents. Hence they may not get
enough time to think and give their
opinion on an issue
Some other ways of information search;

Systems used in other similar organisation
Observe workflow in workplace
Repository of systems developed for similar organisations available
Self assessment questions
5. The information that is to input and to output from the system is
described by system specification. (True/False)
6. _________________ forms are extensively used for capturing and
offering information.
Activity 1:
Develop a sample questionnaire for information gathering on any topic
of your choice. The questionnaire should be of at least 10 questions.
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8.5 Tools of Structured Analysis

Various tools have been developed to make easy the process of structured
analysis. These tools permit the analyst to represent and examine the
problem at hand in a methodical and logical way. Earlier, system analysis
was highly based on the skill base of the analyst. As a consequence,
analysts employed ad hoc tools suited to their individual tests and therefore,
no standard were followed. With the development of the analysis tools that
you will study in this section, analysis and modelling of the system have
been not only standardised but also greatly simplified. Some of the
frequently employed analysis tools are:
1. Data Flow Diagrams(DFD)
2. Data Dictionary
3. Decision Tree
4. Decision Tables
5. Structured English
We will discuss these tools of structured analysis in the following sections.
7. The tools of _______________ permit the analyst to represent and
examine the problem at hand in a methodical and logical way.
8. No standards were followed in system analysis as analysts employed
ad hoc tools suited to their individual tests. (True/False)
8.6 Data Flow Diagrams

A Data Flow Diagram (DFD) is defined as a "bubble chart" which fulfils the
purpose of specifying the requirements of a system and recognising main
transformations that will turn out to be programs in system design. Thus,
DFD is considered as the beginning point of the design phase that
functionally decomposes the specifications of the requirements down to the
lowest level of detail.
The DFD is a representation of numerous processes and the input and
output in every process. DFD also represents the different data stores.
A DFD contains a sequence of bubbles connected by lines. The bubbles
and the lines represent data transformations and data flows in the system
respectively. We have shown a basic DFD format in figure 8.3.
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Figure 8.3: Sample DFD
Thus, we can define data flow diagram (DFD) as a graphical depiction of a

system's data and transformation of the data by the processes.
In contrast to flow charts, DFDs do not provide complete explanations of
modules. DFDs graphically demonstrate a system's data and how the data
interrelate with the system.
8.6.1 Symbols used in DFDs
Various notations or symbols have been recommended by different
people.The most important are the notations recommended by Yourdon
(Yourdon Systems Method, byYourdon Inc.) and by Chris Gane and Trish
Sarson (Structured Systems Analysis: Tools and Techniques). The symbols
used are given in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1: Symbols given by Yourdon and Gane &Sarson
Symbol
Meaning
1.
Data flow
An arrow recognises data flow.

It is a channel through which
information flows.
2.
Process
A circle symbolises a process

where an incoming data flow is
converted into an outgoing data
flow.
3.
Source or
Destination
A square identifies a source or a

destination of system data.
4.
Data Store
An open rectangle is a data

store or a momentary storage
area of data.
Yourdon
Gane &Sarson
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8.6.2 Naming conventions in DFD

In a data flow diagram, a descriptive name is provided to all the
components. Further, a number identifies process names and this number
will be used for identification. The number allocated to a particular process
does not signify the sequence of processes. It is strictly for identification and
will take on added value when we study the components that make up a
specific process.
Data stores, sources and destination are named in capital letters. The first
letter of all processes and data flow names is written in capital letter.
The names of the processes must clearly explain the actual task being
performed in the process.
8.6.3 Developing a DFD
To be useful and informative, DFD must be drawn properly. This section
shows, how to draw them, where to start, how to add details to description,
how to be consistent in naming items included in the diagrams.
Development Process: System analysts must first study the existing
systems, that is, the actual activities and processes that occur. This is the
concept of physical system in terms of structured analysis. The physical
system is converted into logical descriptions that mainly concentrate on data
and processes.
The examples of physical system details are:
Department
Copy room or building location
Person
Step number
File
Procedure
Throughout data flow analysis, these details are assessed in terms of the
logical constituents of data flows, processes, data stores, origins and
destinations.
System requirements are converted into logical design details, during the
design stages that follow actual construction, such as the programming of
computer software, translates logical specifications into physical features
and a working information system.
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Context Diagram: The top level DFD is considered as the context diagram.
Context diagram symbolises a system as a single process with only major
inputs and outputs to the system. These inputs and outputs are represented
as data flows. The source and destination of the data as external entities are
also represented. Figure 8.4 represents a context diagram. It shows a level
O DFD for an accounts payable system.
Observe that only a single process is represented in the figure. Here, the
vendor is shown as both the source and the destination of data.
A cc o u n ts
p a ya b l e
Balanc e
Ve n d o r
i n vo i ce
Ve n d o r
A cc o u n ts
C h e ck
p a ya b l e
Vendo r
D a ta
Figure 8.4: Context Diagram for Accounts Payable System
The rules of thumb used in drawing DFDs are as follows:

1. Naming and numbering should be provided to a process for easy
reference. Every name should be representative of the process.
2. The direction of flow is considered from top to bottom and from left to
right. Data usually flows from the source to the destination, even though
they may flow back to a source.
3. On segregating the process into lower level details, they are numbered.
The sub-levels are numbered according to their parent process number.
4. Data stores, sources, destinations must be named in capital letters
whereas the names of processes and data flows must begin with a
capital letter.
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We have shown a sample DFD in figure 8.5. Here we have represented the
enlarged view of context diagram shown in figure 8.4.
V e r i fie d
A cco u n ts
in vo ic e
Vend o r
Vendo r
In vo ic e
p a ya b l e
In v o i ce
U p d a te a cco u n ts
A c co u n ts
A cc o u n ts
ve r if ic a ti o n
p a ya b l e
p a ya b l e r e co r d
b a l a n ce
C h e ck
Vend or
p r e p a r a ti o n
C h e ck
Vend or
a d dr e s s
V e n d o r da t a
Figure 8.5: DFD for Accounts Payable System

9. DFD does not decompose the specifications of the requirements down
to the lowest level of detail. (True/False)
10. On segregating the context diagram and dividing the single process
into a number of detailed processes, a _______________ is created.
8.7 Data Dictionary

A catalogue comprising all data elements, data structures and processes
depicted in logical DFDs is known as a data dictionary. Following are some
of the terminologies used in DFD:
Data Element: Data element is defined as the smallest unit of data

having some meaning. For example, part code, part name, etc., are data
elements.
Data Structure: A set of data elements that illustrate a unit in the

system is known as a data structure. For example, Part Details is a data
structure comprising part code, part name, etc., data elements.
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Data Store: A data structure used for gathering data input throughout
processing is known as data store. For example, Part Register is a data
store.
Data Flow: A data structure that represents a unit of data in motion is

known as data flow. For example, a data flow, New Part Details moves
from an external entity to a process.
Every term encountered throughout the analysis and design of a new

system is defined by data dictionary. Files, data flows, or processes can be
depicted by data elements.
This definition turns out to be a part of the data dictionary that eventually will
list all key terms utilised to depict different data flows and files.
The major symbols used in a data dictionary are as follows:
Equivalent to
And
[]
Either/or
()
Optional entry
8.7.1 Rules to draw data dictionariesThere are four rules used in the
construction of data dictionary entries:
1. Words should be defined to represent their meanings. They should not
represent the variable names by which they may be explained in the
program: use CUSTOMER_NAME not ABCPQ or CODE06.
*Words capitalisation makes them noticeable and may be of help.
2. Each word must be exclusive; same customer name cannot have two
definitions.
3. When two or more entries represent the similar meaning, aliases, or
synonyms are permitted; a vendor number may also be known as a
customer number. Remember that aliases should be utilised only when
extremely required.
4. Self-defining words should not be decomposed.
8.7.2 Advantages of data dictionary
The various advantages of data dictionary are as follows:
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Data dictionary is considered as a valuable tool used for designing the

system. It is used to construct the database and write programs
throughout design phase.
It helps in identifying meanings of different elements, terms and

procedures.
It makes easy for analysis in finding out the additions and changes in the
system.
It assists the analyst to keep the details of each element and data
structure.
It is utilised to find errors in the system depiction.
Throughout implementation of the system, data dictionary is also a

valuable reference document.
8.7.3 Types of data dictionaries

There are two types of data dictionaries:
(i) Integrated and
(ii) Stand-alone
The integrated data dictionary is associated to one database management
system. The stand-alone data dictionary is not associated to any one
DBMS, even though it may comprise special advantages for one DBMS, like
the IBM DB-DC Data Dictionary, which contain special attributes associated
to the IBM IMS DBMS, but is still a stand-alone type of dictionary.
These types of dictionaries can be recognised by functions. These are
identified as passive, active, or inline. Now you can understand how
passive, active, and in-line dictionaries differ functionally. This is discussed
as below.
Passive Data Dictionaries: Only documentation is carried out by the
passive dictionary. Passive dictionary could be preserved as a manual
instead of a computerised database. From the organisational view, the
documentation function is the most significant dictionary service with the
most possible advantages. Thus, the passive dictionary should not be
considered negative.
Active Data Dictionaries: Apart from supporting documentation to one
extent or another, the active data dictionary supports program and
operations development. This is done by exporting database definitions and
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program data storage definitions for languages like COBOL, etc., for
execution-time performance.
In-line Data Dictionaries: An in-line data dictionary remains active
throughout program execution. In-line Data Dictionary carries out
transaction validation and editing. This type of dictionary would always
comprise some documentation value. However, documentation across the
organisation regarding the organisation functions and processes and all the
organisation data stores is not possible.
11. ________________ defines every term encountered throughout the
analysis and design of a new system.
12. Passive dictionary performs only documentation. (True/False)
8.8 Decision Tree

Decision tree is a diagram that shows the alternative actions that can be
carried out in a process depending upon various set of conditions. The
decision tree looks like a fallen tree, comprising a root and many branches.
The root occurs on the left side and the actions are displayed at the right
side. This tree is very simple to construct as shown in figure 8.6.
Even though, decision tree is an outstanding tool for drawing the logical
conditions in a process, it is not appropriate for difficult conditions because
of a large number of branches.
Figure 8.6: Decision Tree for Request for Issue of a Part
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Decision tables are preferred for difficult conditional statements, following an

action taken by the user, a decision tree assists to display the paths that are
achievable in a design. Figure 8.7 describes this type of tree. If the user
chooses 1, followed my M and A, it displays the algebra menu.
Figure 8.7: Decision Tree showing Paths
Example: Figure 8.8 represents a decision tree based on software system,

X. Here, the software engineering organisation can (1) construct system X
from starting point; (2) use again the current "partial experience"
constituents to build the system; (3) purchase an obtainable software
product and modify it to fulfil local requirements; or (4) contract the software
development to an external seller.
If there is a requirement to construct the system from starting point, there is
a 70% chance of the difficult job. By means of the estimation techniques, the
project planner projects that a complicated development attempt will cost `.
450,000. A "simple" development attempt is expected to cost `. 380,000.
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$380,000
Simple
(0.30)
$450,000
Difficult
(0.70)
Build
$275,000
Minor changes
(0.70)
$310,000
Simple
(0.20)
reuse
System X
Major changes
(0.60)
Buy
Complex
(0.80)
$490,000
Minor changes (0.70
Minor changes (0.30)
$210,000
$400,000
$350,000
Without changes (0.60)
Without changes (0.40)
$500,000
Figure 8.8: A Decision Tree to Support the Make-buy Decision
The predictable value for cost, calculated along any branch of the decision
tree, is:
Expected cost = (path probability)i (estimated path cost)i
Where, i is the decision tree path.
For the build path,
Expected cost build = 0.39($380K) + 0.70($450K)=$429K
The predictable costs for reuse, buy, and contract under different situations,
are also displayed.
The predictable costs for these paths are:
Expected cost reuse
($490K)]=$382K
0.40($275K)
0.60[0.20($310K)
0.80
Expected cost buy = 0.70($210K) + 0.30($400K)] = $267K

Expect cost contract = 0.60($350K) + 0.40 ($ 500K)] = $410K
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Based on the probability and projected costs have been noted in figure 8.8,
the lowest predictable cost is the buy alternative.
Observe that many criteria apart from just cost, must be considered
throughout the decision making procedure.
13. Based on various set of conditions, _______________ shows the
alternative actions that can be carried out in a process.
14. Decision tables are not preferred for difficult conditional statements.
(True/False)
Activity 2
Construct a decision tree of developing a new system or modifying the
existing and take assumptions for various options and the costs
associated with them.
8.9 Decision Tables

A decision table is defined as a chart comprising of four sections stating all
the logical conditions and actions. Also the top section provides space for
title, date, author, system and comment.
All the required tests or conditions are displayed by the condition stub.
These tests need yes or no answers similar to the diamond in a flowchart or
the IF in pseudocode. The condition stub always emerges in the upper lefthand corner of the decision table. Each condition is numbered to permit
simple identification.
Therefore, condition stub is a record of all the required tests in a decision
table. You can discover the action stub in the lower left-hand corner of the
decision table. Here you may note all the processes desired in a specified
module. Actions obtain numbers for identification reasons. Therefore, Action
Stub is a record of all the processes included in a decision table.
The space for the condition entry is offered by the upper right corner.
Condition entry includes all probable permutations of yes and no responses
associated to the condition stub. The yes or no possibilities are assembled
as a vertical column known as rules. Rules are numbered as 1, 2, 3, and so
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on. You can find out the number of rules in a decision table by using the
formula:
Number of rules = 2^N=2N
Where N symbolises the number of conditions and ^ signifies
exponentiation. So, a decision table with four conditions include 16
(2^4=2x2x2x2=16) rules, one with six conditions include 64 rules and one
with eight conditions include 256 rules.
Therefore, condition entry is considered as a record of all yes/no
permutations in a decision table. The action entry is held by the lower right
corner. X's or dots signify whether an action should take place as a result of
the yes/no entries under condition entry. X's indicates action; dots indicate
no action.
So, Action Entry signifies via dot or X whether something should take place
in a decision table.
Table 8.2: Format of a Decision Table
Title:
Date:
Author:
Systems:
Comments:
Condition Stub
Condition Entry
Action Stub
Action Entry
On making the yes or no rules for the condition entry, we must make all
probable patterns of y's and n's. An arrangement that assures thoroughness
is to put two y's in series followed by two n's. In the second row, we put
alternating pairs of y's and n's.
Example: In table 8.3, we have shown decision table for bicycle assembly.
A decision table comprising four conditions (2^4 =16) would have 16
dissimilar sets of y's and n's. This would result in the pattern of yes and no
responses as shown below.
As a result, the first row will have eight y's followed by eight n's. The second
row contains four y's, four y's and four n's.
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Table 8.3: Decision Table for Bicycle Assembly
The whole four condition entry would appear as:
This form makes sure that the analyst comprises of all combinations with
duplication.
On occurrence of the large number of conditions, decision tables can
become lengthy. Analysts must eliminate redundancies to avoid lengthy
decision tables. They should be careful and should not ignore anything.
Occasionally, two or more rules may be united to decrease or remove
redundancy. In tables 8.3 and 8.4, rules 1 and 2 cause the last action to
take place in the action stub.
Thus, we can combine these two rules to remove redundancy. To signify
redundancy, we put a dash (-) in the condition entry to illustrate that this
condition stub is inappropriate and can be overlooked.
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In Table 8.4 the decision table describes the AP cheque module. Even
though this format is quite typical, you will come across various different
types of decision tables in practice. Table 8.4shows an example of limitedentry, as the condition entry comprises yes or no responses for all rules.
Limited-Entry: Limited-Entry is a type of decision table displaying a y or n
response for each condition. We have shown AP cheque decision table in
table 8.4 as below.
Table 8.4: A Limited-Entry Decision Table
Extended-Entry: Extended-Entry is a type of decision table which displays

the values that are to be tested in the condition entry.
We have shown the AP cheque written as an extended-entry decision table
in table 8.5 as below:
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Table 8.5: An Extended-entry Decision Table
Mixed Entry: Mixed entry is a type of decision table which mixes values in
the condition and action entries.
Now, we have shown below the AP cheque written as a mixed-entry
decision table in table 8.6 as below.
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Table 8.6: A Mixed-entry Decision Table
Open-ended: It is a type of decision table that allows accessing another

decision table.
A mixed-entry decision table is used to combine the values yes or no (table
8.6), whereas an open-ended one permits an action entry indicating an
additional decision table (table 8.7).
An Open-ended AP cheque Decision Table is shown in table 8.7 as below.
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Table 8.7: An Open-ended Decision Table
Apart from designing screen layout formats and finding out screen
specification, the design must build up input controls for interactive dialogue
and demonstrate the manner in which screens and menus are connected
together.
Three tools which aid the design team in performing this are dialogue
trees, decision trees, and picture-frame analysis. By means of dialogue
and decision trees, the team is capable of displaying the flow of control in
processing, as well as the actions users can take to stop an input method.
By means of picture-frame analysis, the design team is capable of providing
a walk-through to recognise the appearance of the screen once a design
turns out to be operational.
15. A type of decision table which mixes values in the condition and action
entries is known as a _____________________ .
16. Open-ended decision table does not allow accessing another decision
table. (True/False)
Page No. 192
Unit 8
8.10 Structured English

Structured English is one of the tools of structured analysis that uses
narrative statements to illustrate a procedure. Structured English uses three
basic types of statements that are discussed as below:
(a) Sequence Structures: These comprise a set of instructions that are
carried out in sequence and do not rely on any condition.
(b) Decision Structures: These comprise one or more sets of instructions
that are carried out by relying upon one or more conditions. They usually
utilise the phrase IF THEN ELSE to carry out dissimilar actions.
(c) Iteration Structures: These comprise a set of instructions that are
repeated until a specific condition takes place. They usually utilise the
phrase DO WHILE ...ENDDO to repeat a set of instructions.
The examples of the different three types of statements are demonstrated in
table 8.8.
Table 8.8: Examples of Three Types of Statements
Sequential Structure
Accept employee code
Accept employee name
Accept other details
Store data
Decision Structure
If Basic_Pay<=1000
HRA = 500
else
Ans = Y
Do while Ans = Y
Accept employee code
If Basic_Pay<= 3000
HRA = 1000
else
HRA = 1500
endif
Iteration Structure
Accept employee name

Accept other details
Display Continue (Y/N)?
Accept Ans
enddo
endif

17. __________________ structures usually make use of the phrase IF
THEN ELSE to perform dissimilar actions.
18. Iteration structures uses phrase DO WHILE ...ENDDO to repeat a set
of instructions. (True/False)
Page No. 193
Unit 8
8.11 Summary
Let us recapitulate the important concepts discussed in this unit:
Analysis is considered as a thorough study of the different operations

carried out by a system and their relationships within and outside the
system.
Problem definition is a clear, brief and unambiguous statement of the

problem.
Fact-finding signifies learning as much as possible regarding the current

system.
A Data Flow Diagram (DFD) is defined as a "bubble chart" which fulfils

the purpose of clarifying the requirements of a system and recognising
main transformations that will turn out to be programs in system design.
A catalogue comprising all data elements, data structures and

processes depicted in logical DFDs is known as a data dictionary.
Decision tree is a diagram that shows the alternative actions that can be
carried out in a process depending upon various set of conditions.
The decision table is defined as a chart comprising four sections stating

all the logical conditions and actions.
Structured English is a tool of structured analysis that uses narrative

statements to illustrate a procedure.
8.12 Glossary
Data Dictionary: An organised list of terms and their definitions for all
the data elements and data structures that are pertinent to the system.
Data Flow Diagram (DFD): A graphic tool for describing the movement
of data within or outside the system.
Decision Table: A process description tool used to describe a set of

conditions and actions diagrammatically.
Fact Finding: Learning as much as possible about the present system.
Structured Analysis: Most commonly used development method for

analysis of existing system.
Page No. 194
Unit 8
8.13 Terminal Questions

1. What is fact-finding? Also discuss the tools used for information
gathering.
2. Illustrate the concept of Data Flow Diagram (DFD) and draw a basic
format of DFD. Also discuss the concept of context diagram with
example.
3. What is data dictionary? Discuss the various advantages of data
dictionary.
4. What is a decision table? Make distinction between condition stub and
action stub.
5. Illustrate the use of structured English. Also differentiate between
different types of statements used in structured English.
8.14 Answers
1. False
2. Analyst
3. False
4. Intermediate
5. True
6. Printed
7. Structured analysis
8. True
9. False
10. DFD
11. Data dictionary
12. True
13. Decision tree
Page No. 195
Unit 8
14. False
15. Mixed-entry
16. False
17. Decision
18. True
Terminal Questions
1. The process of learning as much as possible about the current system is
known as fact-finding. Information gathering tools include: Reviews of
Literature, Procedures and Forms; on-site observation, interviews, and
questionnaire. Refer section 8.4.
2. A DFD contains a sequence of bubbles connected by lines. The bubbles
and the lines represent data transformations and data flows in the
system respectively. Context diagram is considered as the top level
DFD. Refer section 8.6.
3. Data dictionary is a catalogue comprising all data elements, data
structures and processes depicted in logical DFDs. It helps in identifying
meanings of different elements, terms and procedures. Refer section
8.7.
4. The decision table is defined as a chart comprising four sections stating
all the logical conditions and actions. Condition stub displays all the
required tests or conditions. Action Stub is a record of all the processes
included in a decision table. Refer section 8.9.
5. Structured English is one of the tools of structured analysis that uses
narrative statements to illustrate a procedure. Refer section 8.10.
8.15 References
Dorothy, J. Tudor; Ian J. Tudor., System Analysis and Design: A

Comparison of Structured Methods, 1995, NCC Blackwell.
Leonard, Fertuck., System Analysis and Design, 1994, McGraw-Hill

Higher Education
John, W. Satzinger, Jackson, Burd., System Analysis & Design, 2006,

Thomson Learning
Page No. 196
Unit 8
E-References
http://www.bcanotes.com/Download/sad/System%20Analysis%20And%
20Design/Tools%20of%20Structured%20Analysis.pdf, 19-03012
http://www.authorstream.com/Presentation/sebastianlawrance-1307989module-2/, 19-03-12
http://books.google.co.in/books?id=koyquCMIoSUC&printsec=frontcover
#v=onepage&q=dfd&f=false
http://www.scribd.com/doc/22278404/SAD
Page No. 197

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System Analysis and Design

Sikkim Manipal University

Page No. 169

System Analysis and Design

tools of structured analysis such as data flow diagram, data dictionary,

8.2 System Analysis

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System Analysis and Design

files, decision points and transactions managed by the existing system.

8.3 Problem Definition

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System Analysis and Design

Self Assessment Questions

8.4 Information Requirements

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System Analysis and Design

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System Analysis and Design

How do departments obtain the current forms and why?

On-site Observation: On-site observation is another information gathering

Figure 8.1: Example of an On-site Observation

Interviews: The interview is defined as an interpersonal role situation

Figure 8.2: Example of an Interview

Sikkim Manipal University

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System Analysis and Design

Questionnaires: The questionnaire is another information gathering tool

Can be completed by many people at

Can be administered to ONLY ONE

Chances of error or omissions are

It could be error prone since it depends

Anonymity can be maintained. Hence

Anonymity is not maintained. Hence

Gives time to the respondents. Hence

It may not give time to the

Some other ways of information search;

Sikkim Manipal University

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System Analysis and Design

8.5 Tools of Structured Analysis

8.6 Data Flow Diagrams

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System Analysis and Design

Figure 8.3: Sample DFD

Thus, we can define data flow diagram (DFD) as a graphical depiction of a

An arrow recognises data flow.

A circle symbolises a process

A square identifies a source or a

An open rectangle is a data

Sikkim Manipal University

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System Analysis and Design

8.6.2 Naming conventions in DFD

Copy room or building location

Sikkim Manipal University

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System Analysis and Design

Figure 8.4: Context Diagram for Accounts Payable System

The rules of thumb used in drawing DFDs are as follows:

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System Analysis and Design

Figure 8.5: DFD for Accounts Payable System

Self Assessment Questions