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    Motors and Generators

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    Jason Zenere
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    Phsios Notas — Motors and Generators 9.3 Motors and Generators CHARGED PARTICLES MOVING IN MAGNETIC FIELDS ‘iscazr the eewt on the magnitnds of the Torce Ona BurTon-caying conductor oF ‘atiatons in cr the strength ofthe magnetic field in which tis located = themagnitude of the curent in the conductor the length ofthe conductor in the extemal magnetic field the angle between the direction ofthe extemal magnetic Field andthe diretion cof the length ofthe conductor Discuss Identify issues and provide pais Jor andlor against “Moving charged partite, for example electrons or alpha particles, produce magnetic fields. The direction ofthe magnetic Feld is found using he right-hand grip rue, ‘which was introduced inthe Preliminary Course. |When moving charged particles enter an extemal magnetic field, the magnetic fel created by the moving charged particles interacts With the exteral magnetic field (Can extemal magnetic fed is one thet already exists or tha: is caused by another source) When the moving charged particles enter the magnetic field a ight angles to the field, they experience a force that sat ight angles othe velocity and to the direction ofthe extemal field. The direction of the fore is determined by using Right Hand Push Rule, Fleming's left hand rate. “The rule is as follows (see Figure 42) ur the thu and first 0 fingers eee ‘of the lft hand metal aright ye) ‘angles, forefinger inthe direction tra — Ofte fied and centre finger in the direction of conventional current ‘low. The ton then points inthe a i direction ofthe force, and hence of - the deflection [Note that, when using it, you poin the Seether arco ‘midale finger in the direction of ‘conventional eurent flow, or ofa steam of positively-charged particles suchas protons Pat Notes Noor “9 y Postve parle | ‘ouing the Hoh u The path followed by @ positive por igure 6 The corkscrewshaped path of a 1atged perticle in om ld Factors affecting the magnitude of the force ‘The magnitude of the force ona steaight conductor in a magnetic field depends onthe following factors: ‘© the strength ofthe extemal magnetic field. The forces proportional tothe magnet Field strength, B ‘+ the magnitude ofthe current inthe conductor The force is proportional to current ‘© the length ofthe condctor in the field, The free is proportional tothe length, i 1+ the angle between the conductor and the extemal magnetic fc, The fre io ata maximum when the conductor i at right angles fo the field, and iti zer0 ‘when the conductor is parallel tothe field. The magnitude ofthe force is ‘proportional to the component ofthe fel that i at right angles to the ‘conductor. 1 is the angle between the field and the conductor, then te force isthe maximum value multiplied by the sine of 6 “These factors ate shown in figure 6.20 on the following page and can be expressed ‘mathematically as F= BI sin0 Inthis iteration between a current-carrying conductor and a magnetic field, the force vector, F, can be calculated by multiplying the magnetic field B, and the current inthe wire, J aera Figure 6.20 A conductor at an angle to « magnetic field Tutorial Problems 4. Determine the direction ofthe forees acting onthe moving charged particles ‘as shown inthe figure below. 2. Inthe fgure shown a current-carrying conductor isin the led ofa Ushaped ‘magnet Determine the direction in which the conductor i forced, Fae Physi Noes ~ Motos: 3. What i the direction of the force acting on each ofthe current-carrying conductors shown below? Use the terms ‘up the page’. down the page’ ino the page’ ‘out ofthe page’, left and righ. Hau ft 44. Determine both the magnitude an direction ofthe forces acting on the lengths ‘of conductors shown, (a S810? N,downthe pe S10" onto the pe) Not Generates: 5. A student wishes to determine the strength ofa magnetic fet inthe region ‘benween the poles ofa horseshoe magnet. He sts up the apparatus shown in the igure Below. 1 Sseetienier ‘The length of wie in the magnetic eld i 2.0 em. When the ammeter reads 110A, the force measured onthe newton meter is 0.25N. (@) What isthe strength ofthe magnetic field? 1251) (8) In this experiment the wire moves tthe right. In what divection isthe current flowing, up or down the page? Papee Physic of ~ Moors and Generators Loudspeakers Loudspeakers used in television sets and sound systems rely onthe forces between ‘magnets and curents in wites. The electcal signals to be converted into sound are set 0a coil of wire that is atacked to the speaker cone. A permanent magnet surrounds the coil of wire so that there i a radial magnetic Field pointing from the centre outwards. Since the magnetic fel and wire are always atrigbt angles, the force produced will be either forwards or rearwards to make the cone move, Current ‘none direction wil eause the speaker to move forwards. When the current is reversed, it will move in the oppesite direction. ‘The force acting on the eol of wires given by F~ BML When yeu tur up the volume ‘of a radio or television, you are increasing the curren (0) sent to he loudspeaker and, hence, the fore exerted on the coil of wire. This larger force makes the cane vibrate ‘with greater amplitude, producing a louder sound Magnetic field \ Permanent Cone magnet Voice coil Ss [\sdatalle 4 N Sooo er Ss ‘Speaker Back panel terminals of receiver (a) (b) Copyright Joba Wiley & Som Application Qualitatively describe the application ofthe motor effet in the Ieudspeaker. Paee Physios Notes — Noors and Generators Ampere’s Law - Force between two parallel current-carrying wires ‘Geseibe qualitatively and quantiaiively the Torce beeen Tong parallel eure carrying conductors: EL ,bh Deseribe Provide Characters and fears two curenteserying wires are placed close to each other, the magnetic field of the fist wil produce a force onthe ‘magnetic field ofthe second. By drawing & diagram of the magnete fields, we ean ‘entity the forces acting on each wire as inthe diagram on the right The direction of the force on wire A may’ be predicted by considering hovr the wine ae uerent in tis Wire reacts to the magnetic field produced by wire B. The right-hand aaa rule an be used to examine the force on Wire A in the Reld of wire B, In this way, it can be seen that the wires will pas ‘experience a force attracting them ae" together. Similarly two wires carying ‘currents in opposite directions experince repulsion, and will move apart. Pane ors and Generators Ampere’s Law x Y Figure 4.7 Ampére's law in action ‘Ampere caried ut his experiment in 1820, In Figure 4.7 two parallel wires X and Y carry currents /; and J; (amps) a distance d metres apart; for simplicity think of X as being infinitely Tong, ¥ as having finite length /(m. Since and fare in the same ection the force Fis one of ataction. Ampere found thee properties ofthis force. | The force between two currents varies as the product of those | currents; ifone current is zero, then so is the force. The force varies inversely as the distance between the wires. The force on a wire is proportional to the length of that wire “These ets an be summarised nthe following formula Fa bbl d Ia constant of proportionality is inserted, then one can write an equation: F2kbbl a ‘This formuta wil probably be given to you withthe fom he other side: Pier’ Physos_ Ns Motors and Generators ‘With /and ain metres, and the currents in amperes, itis found from experiment that, for the force tobe in newton, the constant must have the value 2.)x 10" ‘You will sometimes find the constant writen in the form ® 2m where bo 4.x 10" and sealed the magnetic permeability of space. Example ‘Two parallel wires 12em apart each carry currents of Ain the sae direction. What the force ecting on a 1 metre length of one of the wires? Ej tka. Fo2xit’xsxext oa = 1066.6 X 107 107 104 N towards the other wie Tutorial problems 1. An electrical cord connected toa lamp from a power supply contains to wires spaced 5 mm apart. They carry a direct curren of 9A in opposite alrections. (a) Whax isthe frce per metre between these two wires? (6) Would the force move the wires together or tend to push them apart? 2. Whats the magnitude and direction ofthe force between two pavalel wires 120m long ad 30.0m apart when they both carry o curren of 20.4 inthe same direction? 3. Two wires hang vertically 15 em apart. When a current of 12.0 A lows in one ire, an attractive force of 5x 10° N mis experienced by both wires. (@ What isthe sizeof the current in the second wire? (6) What can you say about the direction ofthe currents? 1 (3210.3 (8) Pash hom apart 2, Bach ie eporonce force of 3.210" W towards he tr wire. 3 ara (8) The erent are raving he same dvecton Peet Physics 25 ~ Motors and Generators Torque define Torque as the Turning moment ofa fore using r-Fd ‘Define State meaning and deny essential qualtos We meet many applications ofthe turning effect ofa force in evernday life .g. when Wwe turn on a tap, or use scissors and spannrs. Applying the same free ta an object, {hati free orotate ean have diferent turing eects, depending en the distance of ‘the arplied force from the turing point. Such a turing effect is called torque. The expression fr the torgue that a force applies to the arm of a cutest swing is as follows Torque applied force perpendicular to pivot sem x its dstane fom the tuning point cory Pate ‘Whencaluiating torque when F and dae not perpendicular the above formula become: ® k= Fasing] where + torque in newton metres (Vm) P= applied force in newtons () <= distance ofthe applied force from the turning i point fn) . {= angle between the force and the line joining the Re Point of application ofthe force and the pivot ais, Pan Physics Noles - Motors and Ganerators The Motor Effect Tenify thatthe motor effet Ts due fo the foro acting ona ouren-canying conductor in amagnetic field Taentiy Recognise and name The motion produced by the Force ating ona current-carrying wir in a magnetic fields called the motor effet andthe fore is called the eatapulting foree. ‘We can change the forgue on an arm that is fee to move around a-uring point by ‘changing the force orth distance tothe turing axis 6.16 Changing th “The current swing shown in fgute 6,16 can be modified to become a simple electic smotorby: ‘© making it into a Joop with an axle through its centre placing it ina magnet field connecting it to an extemal power source + changing its orientation, “These steps are show in igures 6.17 and 6.18 on the next page Paget Physics Notes Motos and Generators Torque experienced by a current loop in a magnetic field “dserbo to foees experienced by a currencearrying loqp ina magnetic Held and teserbe the net result of the forces Desoribe Provide characteristics and fearres The bas of he motor eect ismost on psi Toop af wie Figure ppt reese — {dng rectangular loop of wre BC. Dich oped ne uniform magnetic _ - fe The loo bl toto the Xivan AB“CD=1, whe BC DA = Nath wie Scoring cent ; ing = Letus consider the magnetic forces which act on the sides ofthe loop coe es ‘+ AB: F = Bil directed into the page 4. fea + BC:F=Oasthecurent is le parallel tothe magnetic field B S + CD:F= Bit directed out of the age N SS s + DA: #=0as the current Fis, = parallel tothe magnetic field B. i ‘When a force is applied at right angles toa ‘body we say that a torque is turning the body about a given axis, In our ease, both sides AB and CD experience a elockwise torque about the axis so tha the Toop will, rotate about XY ina clockwise direction, The magnitude of this torque willbe the sum ofthe to torques on AB and CD. The torque fora “oree Fata perpendicular distanced fom an axis is piven by: <= Fd there isan angle 0 between the magnetic feld and the sane ofthe coil, then the ‘component of the force perpendicular the col s Feas@ Thus the torque becomes: t= (Feosé)d= Fdeos ‘When the plane of the coll is parallel to the magnetic fel, 0~ 0 and the torque i ata ‘maximum (cos0" ~ 1). Now the distance between AB ani the axis XY is 2, ad the distance between CD and the axis XY is also 2. “Thus the maximum torque experienced bythe col is = Blld + Bild = Blld mea Since x dis the area 4 ofthe col, t= BA a Physics Noles ~ Moors and Generators Iwe use a coll of» tums, each tum ofthe eo wil experience the torque. Hence the total maximum torque is <= BAln : ‘When the angle between the magnetic field andthe plane of yy Ae coli 6, the torque i given by <= BdlncosO ‘is torque measured in newton metres : ‘Bis the magnetic field strength in teslas isthe area of the colin square metres, F nis the numberof turns isthe angle between the plane ofthe coil and the magnetic field Tutorial problems 1 Look at the current-carrying coll of wire in z ‘the magnetic field shown in Figure 1 "Se ‘a Prediet the direction in which the forces will \ ‘et on the wire 2 Predict the direction in which the col will ; Identify the location a which the col will . ‘experience maximum forgue 4 Ideniy the location at which the col will ‘xporence minim tongs Fig 2 For the loop of wire shown in Figure 2 «Predict the direction ofeurren needed make Utrotateclocvise 1 Predict the effect of adding exra cols. c ldentfy the location of least torque ds there aTocation of greatest torque? Explain ‘your answer Fig? 3 Cateulate she maximum torgue exerted when a rectangular coi of 175.0 ams and ‘dimensions 3.0 2m by 40 em is placed ina magnetic field of 08 T when carrying @ current of 1.34, (0.25 Nm) 4A coil of wire such as that shown in Figure 1 is 9. Oem wide ant is 12.0. deep (into page), Irearris a current of 25.4 ina magnetic fld of 0.27 ‘Caleulate the fore on each wire when the coil is horizontal. (0.15 N) 'Catewate the force on each wire when the coils vertical. 0.1! N but does not contribute) € Calenlate the maximus torque (1.38410 Nn) Pape Physics Noes Moors and Genertors 5 The intruetions fr rctighening the nus on an automobile wheel say the Bolts ned tobe tightened toa torque of 100.0 Nim. Ifthe wrench used 1625.0 cm long, how ‘much force must be applied ina direction perpendicular tothe wrench to achieve ‘his? (400 N) 6 Caleulate the maximum and minimum torques exerted when rectangular coll of 225.0 turns and dimensions 4.0 em by 5.0 emis placed ina magnetic field of 0.9 T when carrying a current of 1.94, (0.77 Nm) 7 Determine the maximum and minimum torque exerted whena rectangular coil of 435 0 rrns and dimensions 13 0.em by 14.0 em is placed in amagnetic field of 1.87 when carrying a current of 0. A. (Fan 0, fue 7.1 Nm) 8 aA circular loop of wire with radius 5.0m is placed n a magnetic field with ‘strength 0.5T- Ifa current of 154 flows inthe loop, what are the maximum and minimum forques acting onthe loop? (Syn 0 Fas 5.9810" Nm) 2 How would he torque change ifthe loop was replaced by 80.0 turns of wire with he same radius? (Fun 0, Tune ™ 0.295 Nm) 9. rectangular loop of wire carries @ 5 A current ‘an es ina plane tha aso conta avery long spa straight wire carrying a 5.0 A current as shown in Figure 2. Determine, 1h ‘athe nat force onthe long wire (1.75810" N towards AB) the net torque onthe loop if can rotate about AB (r= 15810" Nm) Fig? Tee Physies Notes Motos and Generators The Galvanometer a ‘magnitude and direction of small direct current i (bo takes Aemeacace acts Ve galvanometer is shown. ‘The coil consists of many oops of wie and itis connected in sries with the resto the circuit 0 thatthe current inthe circuit lows through the coil, When the current flows, the coil N s experiences a force de othe presence ofthe external magnetic field (the motor effet). The iron core ofthe coil increases the magnitude of ‘Magnet. Magne this force. The needle is rotated unt the magnetic force acting on te col is equalled by a counter balancing spring. Not thatthe BAG Gahanometer m magnets around the core are curved. This results tw ina radial magnetie field; the plane ofthe coil will always be parallel othe magnetic field and 1 eve the torque willbe constant no matte how far the s coils defected. This also means thatthe scale of the galvanometer is linear withthe amount of defection being proportional othe curent Mowing through the coil Maw i Z Soften core anion The Lower coiled. € ‘pring 34H Restoring spring Te torque frm the coiled ring spring balances the torque de to the free ofthe ‘magnet Hild on the current Tutorial Question {The motor effect is important in the operation of a galvarometer 1 Ldenfy where the force needed to move te needle comes from. 1 Deserbe how the design makes sre the galvanometer does no become a maton. © Explain why a galvanometer must be calibrated {1 Outline why a gaanometer as many ts of whe «Explain why the pole peces of galvanometer magnet are curved. rape hss Notes Motors and Generaors The DC Electric Motor everbe the main eatures of@ DC electric motor andthe role of cach feature Deseribe Provide characteristics and features ‘An lectie motor is «device that transforms electrical potential energy into rotational Kinetic energy. Electic motors produce rotational motion by passing a current through ‘coil in a magneti Field, Electric motors that operate using direct current (DC) are Aiscussed inthis section Anatomy of a motor A simplified diagram of a single-tuen DC motors shown below (which shows only the pars ofthe DC motor that produce rotational motion), ‘The magnets provide an extemal magnetic fed in which the el rotates. As the ‘magnets ae fixed to the casing of the motor and are stationary, they aze known asthe stator. The stator sometimes consists of a pat of eletromagnets ‘The coll cases a direct current. Inthe figure above the coil has only one loop of wire and this is shown with straight sides, This makes i easier to visualise how Toees on the sides come about and to calelate the magnitudes of forces. The coil is wound onto a frame known as an armature. Tis is usually made of ferromagnetic mera And its fee to roate on an ale. The armature and coil together are known asthe rotor. The armature axle protrds from the casing, enabling the movement ofthe col to be used todo work “The force acting onthe sides of the col that are perpendicular to the magnetic field can be calculated using the previously discussed formula for calculating the force cn a ‘urrent-eaying conductor in a magnetic Feld F= Bilsin0 eal motor rotors have many loops or turns of wire on them. Ifthe coll has mums of ‘wie omit then these sides experience a force that im times greater. In his case: F=nBilsin0 Fae Pry Nts — tad Generators ‘This extra force increases the torque acting on the sides ofthe oil The splitring commutator aod the brushes form a mechanical switch that change the direction of| the curtent through the cil every alf tun so that the col continues rotating ine same drection, The source of emf (electromotive force), for example a battery, crives ‘he curent though the col How a DC motor operates Figure elow shows the simplified DC motor at five positions throughout a single rotation, The coil has been labelled with the leters K, L, M ans N so that tis posible to observe the motion of the coil es it completes one rotation, Inthe figure, the side LK has aforee acting on it thats vertically upwards. Side MIN has a ferce of equal magnitude acting onit that is vertically downwards. In this position the forces acting on the sides are perpendicular othe line joining the axle (the pivot line tothe place of application ofthe force. This means thatthe torque scting on the coil isa its maximum vale. Note that the curren is owing in the directien of K 0 L. ‘The magnitude ofthe fores acting on sides LK and MN remained constant ‘hrougkout the rotation just described, However, the torgue sting on the coil changed in magnitude, Ph Generators Commutators The commutator is a mechanical switch that automatically changes the ditecton of the current flowing through the coil when the torque falls vo zero, Figure above provides a close-up look at a commutator. I consist of a split metal ring, each part of ‘which is connected 1 either end ofthe coll As the eol rotates, fist one fing and then the other make contact with a brush This reverses the direction ofthe cures! through the col. Conducting contacts called brushes connect the commutator tothe DC source: of emi. Graphite, which is used in the brushes, ea form of earbon hich Conducts electricity and is also used as lubricant. They are called brushes because they brash against the commutator as tums, The brushes are necessary to sp the connecting wires from becoming tangled Application ‘Complete the following table ofthe anatomy ofthe DC motor Feature of DC Motor —[ Role of Feature ‘Storor colt Armature Split Bing Commutator | Brushes Tape a neralrs Magnetic Fields in DC Motors [Neatly all dectri motors use eletromagnets to produce the magnetic fields fr thet ‘operation, lectromagnets can be tumed on and of, their polarity can be eversed to change the direction of rotation, and heir strength can be changed, which will change the speed o* some motors, Once a motor i spining its inertia wil help eary it past. the point of zero torgue. There are two other techniques that allow the forge to be kept toa maximum and applied for as long as possible Winingsfor 4 skeromaenet ff stor Magni fel ‘Wires embedded “The stationary prt ofthe motor is called the stator and the ends ofthe -cleeomagacts are called pole pieces. The ends ofthe pole pices ae given a curved Shape to ease the magnetic field is curved, This inereases the area in which there is ‘magnetic field able to produce torque. Also, the plane ofeach coils kept parallel to ‘the field for as long as possible so thatthe fore causing the rotation is able to produce Page p Faraday’s Experiment ‘ouiline Michael Faraday’ moving magnet “Outline SKeteh Dn general fers; Ticate The maln features of “iscovery of the generation of an elect current by @| ‘Faraday was abe to show that moving @ magnet near a coil could generate an electric ‘curent inthe coil, The diagrams below shows the effect when the N pole ofa magnet ‘is brought near a coil held stationary, and then taken asiay from the col = = Similar results occur when the S poe is moved near the same end of the coil, except that the deflection of the gavanometer needle i in the opposite direction to when the IN pole moves in the same direction, Another observation from Faraday’s experiments with a coil anda moving magnet is that the magnitude of the induced curent depends on the spood a which the magnet is ‘moving wards of away from the coil. Ifthe magnet moves slowly, a small curent is induced, Ifthe magnet moves quickly, the induced current has a greater magnitude ‘This observation isillustrated in figure below. i aw Le "Notethat in the ease that has been illustrated the S pole is approaching the coil and the caren isin the opposite direction to when te N pole approaches the col from the seme side, Papal Physics (oles — Motos and Generators Magnetic Flux Define State meaning and denlfy essential qualies Magnetic Flux Density Vector ‘When we discus fields, suchas gravitational fed, electic fields, or magnetic Fields, we very often dav ield lines. These ae imaginary straight or curved lines which indicate both the direction and strength ofthe fel. The direction is usually indicated by arrows, and the strength or intensity bythe density of ines (e:by the numberof lines per unit area). ‘The figure on the right shows two magnetic Fields. One has low magnetic field intensity as there are only a few lines per unit tee; the other has high intensity as there ae a lot of lines per unit area, Magnete field intensity (5) is proportional tothe number of magnetic Feld lines per square metre. It is measured ina unit called the tesla (7). Magnetic Flux ‘esoribe the concept af magnetic Aux in terms of ‘Describe Provide characeristes and fears “The entre group of field lines that flow out ofthe N pole of S088. ‘magnet constitute the fax of the magnet, represented by weet 4 (phi. The SI Unit of magnetic fuxis the weber (Wb). ‘Most magnets have fx values inthe microweber range (ww. | a “Two magnets ae of equal strength if they have the same fax (the same total number of lines emerging from their N poles). But ifthe area ofthe poe face of one magnet is half that ofthe 1 U1 q ‘other, then the concentration of lines of force must be twiee a mognetc Sl passing iret inthe magnet with the smaller pole face. This degree of ovo ‘concentration of ux is what we called eae the ux density, B Soclealy B= 6/A ‘Thus, ifs uniform magnetic flux density B, extends over an area A, the magnetic fax ingrenby o=BA rapa Physes Notes - Motors and Generators Generating a Potential Difference ate of change of magnet Mux through ‘Deserbe Provide characteristics and features Faraday eventually deduced ftom his experiments that an em was indaoed in the coil, only when magne field lines Were being cut bythe coil. Faraday"s aw of| Electromagnetic Induction states that: ‘ax with time and the magnitude ofthe emf depends om the rate of change ofthe ‘magnetic flux through the coil oF circuit. (is is induced whenever a coil or cireuit experiences a change of magnetic emé=KA where Kis constant of proportionality a Ac we measure erin vol, in webers and sin seconds (if we mature everthing in standard I uns) the vale of Ks ent a a Thi egaton sora singe loop there saci with nus ten ent nd a Changing flux since b= 84 according tits dfiston, can he changed in thc frat way ‘Wecould change both and B hee we will only change 4 orB # Changing A while keeping B constant: a = aba) = Bays If loop is rotating in a uniform ‘magnetic field, the area of the loop ‘which is affected by the field i constantly changing. Imagine a simple circular loop which is made \ {orotate around a horizontal axis in" \ vertical field (Figure below). The . Zoo EME ‘lux, or numberof lines through the loop, is constantly changing so there will be an emf induced around the loop. Fee Physics Notes Nbors and Generators Notice that we are not changing the geometrical area ofthe loop, itis aways ‘x? respective of position. Instead, we are changing the area whichis fTeted by the magnetic field! Another way of achieving this change in area is actually change the area ofthe Toop by flattening if, that is, changing the cite ‘oanellipse. This is not used in practice. Aah = 018) Cast your mind back to Farady’s experiment with the circuit containing a meter and aco andthe sometimes moving, sometimes stationary bar magnet ‘When the magnet approached the constant rea ofthe loops, the wires experienced an increasing magnetic field, when the magnet receded the coil experienced a deeessing magnetic ld Pag ysis Notes — Motors and Generators Lenz’s Law ‘econ for Lents Law in ferme of conservation of energy and relate ft the production of back enfin motors Account Account for: sate reasons for, report on Givean account of narrate a series of evems or transactions Lenz's Law is a follows The direction of an induced current ts such as t0 oppose the change causing Another way of looking at Lenz's Law isto think about how the electricity is generated. current is induced in a cient then work I= JV must be done. The electrical energy has to come from somewhere! It comes from the mechanical work (3 Fy) done when the currents induced, That is, free mast lays appear oppose the ‘change and so energy has to be put into the system by doing ‘work forthe electricity tobe penerated emf in motors explain that molestie motor, back emf opposes the supply en Explain Relae case asd effet, make the relationships benveen Dhgs evident prowde why andor how ‘Lea's Law applies toboth motors and generatrs. As the cil f a motor moves through the magnetic il, an EM is induced in in the dveston that opposes the change inte ‘movement, Sich an EMP is ale the baek-EMP and ha the opposite pont tothe EMF ‘pple fromthe extemal tery Thus two EM are atl present ithe coi the {xterally applied one fom the biter, an the feral inde one om the dm oe fenertor effec. The ndaced EMF i sale than the applied ones i the difference between the woth actualy makes the erent low inthe coil ofthe moto, ats ‘extomal applied ENF ~intralindoced EMF = 1 R the effective vote inthe motor cireit wore = th cure actual ling in he coil andrei in amperes (A) R= the resistance of he coil and he exter iret in ohms (2) Phusies oes — Motors and Generators Eddy Currents Explain Relate cause and eect, mate the relationships honween Tingy eve provide why andor how ‘When a solid conductor, such a a copper sheet is placed ina region of changing, ‘magnetic fu, ciular eddy currents are induced inthe conductor ty cuentoon By Lena’s Law, these edly curents ovement oppose the motion of the conductor and . i metel "can thus be used for electromagnetic braking purposes. Examples include the EM braking used inthe manufacture of electrone balances and in Theme Park rides suchas Space Prob: 7 at Australia's ‘Wonderland and The Giant Drop at Dreamvorld onthe Gold Coast. Eady currents can also be used o produce heat in induction heaters. is aay curont oop a be explained frome othe rgnthand ede To detenmine the direction of eddy currents, sever different approaches are posible, Observe the diagram above, We can se Fleming's Left Hand Rule in titer ofthe fllowing ways Firstly, pik a point on the metal surface in the magnetic fed but lose to where the field ends, Since the eddy current must oppote the motion af the metal sect (by Lena's Law), the eddy current will cause a force inthe opposite direction tothe ‘motion of the sheet. So, the force is back towards the left the fields down into the ‘page & therefore by Fleming's LI, the eddy curent mst move uptowands the top ofthe page. Since the eddy cuent forms atthe boundary ofthe magretc field (le ‘where the magnet fax changes ftom a panicular value o ero), th eddy current ‘will form in an anticlockwise direction in this ease, as shown. In otber words, the circle must come out of the field, not go farther hack into the field Alternatively, imagine a single proton sting in the metal surface, inside the magnetic Feld but close to where the field ends. This proton is tavelling tothe right along with ‘he rest ofthe metal sheet, through a magnetic field. This situation i analogous to a positive charge moving through a magnetic feld. Using Fleming's LHR, the field is ‘own int the page, the current direction isthe diection of motion ef the proton through the field te the right and therefore the force onthe proton di to its motion through the eld is up towards the top of the page. Hence, the eddy eurent will form ‘an anticlockwise, eircular path as shovwn, There are other way’ to dktermine the ‘irction ofthe eddy current (eg the Right Hand Induced Current Rule) but the two ‘methods given wil suffice in almost al cases Pape Applications of Eddy Currents Electromagnetic braking Consider a metal disk that has spar of it influenced by an external magnetic field, as ilustrated in figure 7.13(a). As the disk is made of metal the movement ofthe metal through the | region of magnetic Held causes eddy currents to flow. Using | the right-hand push rue, ican be shown that the eddy cutent Within the magnetic field in figure 7.13 wil be upwards. The current follows a downvvard return path through the metal ‘outside the region of magnetic influence, This is shown i Figure 7.130). P ener rule In this way eddy currents ean be utilised in smooth Y ere ee are established in the part of the metal that is influenced by the fat Induction heating “Another effect of ey curents is that they cause am increase inthe mperature ofthe ‘metal Tis is due tothe colisons between moving charges and the atoms of the ‘meta, as well asthe dieet agitation of atoms by a magnctic field changing direction atahigh frequency. Induction heating is the heating of an electieally condacting material by the production of eddy ‘urns within the material This is caused by & ‘changing magnetic eld that passes through the ‘material. Induetion heating is undesirable in eletreal ‘ipient such as motors, generators and ‘eansformers, but it has been put © good use with ‘induction cookers and induction furnaces, Applying the principle of induction to cook tops in electric ranges {A gas stove top cooks food by burning gas to produce hot gases. The gases then low ‘eros the bottom ofa saveepan and transfer heat into it by conduction. However, a ies Noes Moors an large amount ofthe thermal energy in the gases iscatied away into the environrient ofthe hitehen, The heat transfered to the saucepan is used to eook the food. ‘Some electric cook tops contain induction cookers instead of heating coils. An induction cooker sets up a rapidly changing magnetic field that induces eddy currents in the metal ofthe saucepan placed on the eook top. The eddy curents cause the ‘etal to heat up directly without the lose of thermal energy that occurs with gas ‘ooking. The hea produced in the metal saucepan is use to Cook the food. The induction coils of tle cooker are separated from the saucepan by a ceramic top plate Induction cookers have an efficiency of about 80% while gas cookers have an -efliciercy rating of about 43%. A diagram of an induction cooker is shown in dgram shove, Sample Summary Lenz's Law 1 sigy Fae Phusics Notes ~ Motors and Generators Generators Describe Provide characteristics and features Compare the sucture and funetion ofa generator tan electric mole Compare Show how things are similar or diffrent [A generator isa device which changes mechanical energy into clecial energy. The ‘energy needed totum the loop comes from three main sources: + Chemical energy in fosi fuels ‘Potential energy in large masses of water Hydrosleticit involves natural or arial waterfalls, + Binding energy in atomie nuclei When a nucleus is split same ofits mass transformed into hea, whichis used to produce superheated steam, Generating alternating current In its simplest form the generator consists of loop of wire which is made to rotate in magnetic —_S. Field by an extemal force tha provides the ci mechanical energy Faraday’s Law (Test Charge Method) ii M. ‘Consider a positive test charge in the side labelled ‘AB. At the instant show, this positive charge is s ‘moving upwards in (or cuts) a magnetic field N sirected to the right. Applying the right-hand rule, : Z the positive charge is freed in the direction from s ‘A towards B, Ths situation is shown in figure bd 43a Using Lenz's Law Av tho instant shown in Figure 4.3, the ux is increasing tothe right through the eol as itis er Forced orotate in the indicated direction. The 1 ‘induced current inthe eoil wil therefore produce ‘magnetic field that passes through the coil tothe left to oppose the extemal change in magnetic 5 flux trough the eo. The right-hand grip rule for coils (Singers in the direction of the induced ‘magnetic field through the coil thumb pointing in the diecton of the cureat in the coil) shows that the induced euerent i elockyvise around the coil as Tage Physies - Generators AC and DC Generators ‘Deseribe Provide characerites and features ‘An altemating curent generator may be converted toa direct cutent generator inthe following ways: By using asplit ring commutator insted of slip rings. ‘The split ing ‘commutatc is mounted on the amature shal but i insulated fom it. The commutatr reverses the connections ofthe col tothe exteral circuit each time the eurent inthe coll reverses. Thus, a DC output is achieved fom the AC generar, [AC generators, metors and other electrical equipment are usually simpler, cheaper and more reliable than theit DC countezpars. With the invention of high-power Semiconductor devices suchas diodes, the demand for DC generators has decline. For example, over the past 50 years the DC generators in ears have been replaced by alternators. The DC current for charging th batery is obtained by using semiconductor devices such as diodes, which convert AC t0 DC. Papa Phisics Notes Motors and Generators Exercises 1 Define the term electric generator. Menty the two types 2 Outline the role of sip rings and brushes in electric generators. Mentify the types of fenerator with which they ate used 5 Outline the advantages and disadvantages of AC generators. Describe how these ‘vantages relate tothe uses of sueh generators, 4 About SO years ago, ca had DC generators rather than the altermators that ae fted today. The generator was used to charge the cars batter, bu it could also work as an clectic motor i supplied with eletcity.IFthe fan bel that drove the generatcr broke, the battery would sometimes quickly discharge. Explain why. ‘5 Contrast alternating current and direct current 6 Compare a stator with an armature, 7 Outline the role of commutators and brushes in elect generators, Identify we types of generator with which they ae used, 8 Look atthe generator helow. State the names given tothe components W, X,Y and Zw '8 Deseribe how a curent i produced in an AC generator. Usea graph to show the nature of the current produced 9 Compare the different ways in which current is supplied to extemal circuits ip AC and DC generators. Use graphs to show the nature ofthe curents produced in each 10 Identify the main sources of energy for generators. Outline the energy conversions involved with each source Notes Motors and Exanple The fgure below shows an AC generator at a particular instant. At his instant, which ifthe terminals, A or B, is postive? Dfreation arian _Jemind A Sale Terminals Paes Physics Notes Nos and Generators Energy Loss in Transmission Lines Seuss the energy Tosses that occur as energy I fed Unvough Wansn the generator to the consumer ‘Discuss Identify issues cud provide polis for andlor gamit ‘One ofthe major factors to be considered in transmiting electric power is energy loss inthe transmission lines ‘The resistance of a meallic conductor i proportional ots resistivity, p length, and inversely proportional 0 its eros sections are, A R=ol & Tere is a power loss dc tothe resistance of the cables, which depends on ‘the distance the current tavel-the longer the distance the greater the total + the conductivity ofthe cable-sme materials have a lower resistance (better conductivity) tan others + the diameter of the cable-the larger the diameter the ower the resistance, but the weight and 2st is also greater 4 the curent which lows-the higher the current the mote power lst The distance is givemit depends onthe location ofthe energy source for the power station and the location of the city. Conductivity ean be improved toa certain extent by choosing the ‘ight material fr the cable, and by choosing the optimum cross- sectional ara, Last, the transformer makes it possible to transmit very large power ‘with minimum current using very high potential difference - often tens of thousands of| vals over Loss in a Conductor “The voltage dop, V across «conductor is given by: voir “The rate of energy transfer in a conduct is called power, P where: mv {If we know the curent through a conductor and it esistane, the previous equation ‘becomes: PPR ‘Therefore, the power latina transmission line is given bythe formula: Pow PR Paget Phusic Notes ~Motorsand Generators Example Suppose that a city needs a power of 10.0 MW IE this power was transmitted at 100.0 ‘Vsthen the current needed would be: Pav 10x 10°= 100.1 00000 A Now cletrc power cable has a resistance of about 1 © per km. Thus the power lost per kilometre is given by: P= FR= (OFX 1~ 10" wats perkm we repeat ths calculation for high voltage transmission, we get athe a different answer. If power is transmited at 190 00 V we need currents of 100 A. The power lost per kilometre will be around 10* wats per kilometre, Pe Fain sssation High voltages and low curents ae needed for the mos eflcient transmission ef cleetcity. However, the use of high voltages in our homes would be quite unsfe. We need to beable to readily change voltages for use at home and in industry Transformers make this quite easy with AC. There is, however, no easy Way 10 change DC voltages, This does not mean there are no advantages to using DC. i ‘certain specific situations, DC is used-power is sent aross the English channel between Britain and France using DC. Table below compares the advantages and disadvantages of AC and DC. Pa Phusics Nal Type of Cu [Advantages | Disadvantages ‘Alternating Current | Power cn bo azaited There acne sk enemy aig age | Sn indied new by tnd low cure ‘he changing exe. alige and curentcan be "Ticker or ote quality effet changed sing | insulation nnd fora, trastomer, {Gren come preven “Tre pace overis | breakdown Availabe forse by indst. | ANAC huis proce, "AC eenerory ad morry | itrferes with lesa are more reliabeas they | eabment hve Fewer pars Tes easy 10 tap into an AC “apply to provide power for hoses aga set Direct Current Fora given thickness of insulation ona cable, DC ‘ean withstand a higher Expensive equipmert is ‘needed to change lrg DC wolges voltage without breaking | ery had to fsetly down. ‘ap nto DC suppl to There isn back emt | provide power fr ‘once the curet is Fotnes long a suet owing Effects of AC & DC Generators ‘asses the effets ofthe development of AC generators on society and the Assess Make a judgment of vale, quali, oucomes, esuls OF se “The development of AC & DC generators has had both positive and negative effects on society and the environment. Firstly, ftom a socal point of view, clectricity generation has allowed the development ofthe highly mechanized ard electronie lifestyles to which people in the developed world have become accustomed, (Our lives are made easier every day by the use of vat numbers of electrical gadgets Electiity runs our lighting, our heaters & air conditioners, our computers and communications equipment, our refrigerators, tasters, electric fry pans & stoves, ‘washing machines, vacuum cleaners, stereos, TV's, garden equipment, industrial ‘equipment and so on ~ thelist is akmost endless, Unfortunately, because elctcty hs greatly reduced the amount of physical labour necessary olive our everydey lives ithas also resulted in negative Socal effec such asa eduction in unskilled jobs and a reduction inthe sizeof workforces needed to perform certain obs, which have led to inereased unemployment Secondly, in terms ofthe environment, the development of AC & DC generatrs has Jhad mainly negative effects. Most power generation stations around the word tll use fossil fels as their energy source. Fossil fel power stations produce thermal Physics Noles Motos and Generators pollution, acid rain and air pollution due tothe release of particulate matter and oxides of nitrogen and sulfur. Fossil fuel power stations release huge amounts of earbon {ioxide into the atmosphor, which adds o the Greenhouse Effect, which isbeieved tobe casing Farh's temperature. Fossil fuel power station also indirectly ease the Jand desecration and pollution associated with the coal mining, necessary to maintain supply of fossil fuel Protecting power transmission lines from lightning When lightning strikes, it wil usually pass between the bottom of thundercloud and the highest point ‘on the Earth below, This means that vil stke tall tees, the tops of buildings such as church spires and the metal power towers used fo suppor high voltage power transmission ines, Many such power towers havea cable running between them known 1s the continuous earth line, This cable normally ‘aries no curtent, but it may carry a current if a fault develops in the system. A second function of this cable is that i cts asa continuous lightning conductor. If this cable o a tower is struek by lightning, the electricity of the lightning will be conducted tothe Earth bythe metal towers and the transmission lines will nt suer from a stdden surge of voltage that could damage substations. Insulating transmission lines dn dey air sparks can jump a distance of 1 em for every J 10000 V of potential ference. Therefor, 2 330 KV Tine ty] il spark to ametal tower if tomes within distance of , 33 om. In high humidity conditions the distance is smaller. re {To prevent spars jumping from tanssin ies othe » teal support towers, larg insulators separate te om tach ote I is importan at tee inultrs ae strong ‘nd have ligh insulting properties. Suspension insulators, ilustratedight are used forall high volage powerlines | Sting. — ie peng at vllages above 33 kV, where the towers or poles aren astaigh Hin, Note that te incvdual setions ‘ofthe insulators ar isk shaped. Ths s because dst and je collet onthe intlators and can become wcondictor then wet. Many wooden poles eth re ar the fist rain Foowing prolonged dry period because wcurent lows ros we diy inslatlors The disk shape ofthe insulator sections increases he ‘istanee tha eurent has wo pass over te aurfae of the nator and so dereaset thersk Theres ese chance that and grime wil elect on he undersies of the setions and these are also lees ikly to et wet re huss - Generators Application Anaiyse secondary information onthe competition between Westinghouse ant Elson ‘osupply electricity to cts, ‘Analyse: identify components and the relationships between them; draw out and relate implications (Component Rlaionship Between componaris | Component Component: oR ‘Outine ofan implication’ Relaonship between mpleations utine ofan imlication: utine of other implications: | Tap Phusies - Transformers sere the purpose of transformers in elesreal circus “Describe Provide characteristics and fearures “Transformers ate used to increase and decrease AC voltage and current. Even around the home this is common, The 240 V atthe power plug is converted by a step "up transformer to more than 20000 V inthe picture tube of your television. 1 you have a portable cassette player or similar device, the 40 V is converted to 9 Vby & ‘step-down transformer. Also as we have see, transformers are an essential pat of ‘the power supply system for Our homes and industries, Step-up and Step-down Transformers Cormpare lepup and step-down transformers Compare Show how tings are snilar or diferent Ina transformer instead of changing the current with a resistor, we supply the changing eurent of AC, The two coils are either wound onto the same iron cor, oF Tinked bya ring-shaped ion core as shown on the right, The input oi is called the primary, ‘the output coli the secondary. ‘Transformers are designed so ‘that almost all the magnet flux produced in te primary «il threads the secondary coil ‘When an altemating eutrent flows through the primary col, ‘constanly changing magnetic flux threads (or passes through) the secondary col. This constantly changing fx ‘passing through the secondary coil produces an AC voltage at the terminals ofthe secondary coil with the same frequency as the AC voltage supplied tothe terminals of the primary col, “The difference hetween the primary voltage, Vand the secondary voltage, Vs in ‘heir magnitudes. The secondary vollage tan be greater than or less than the primary ge, depending on the design ofthe transformer. The magnitude ofthe secondary voltage depends onthe numberof tums of wire on the primary coil, and secondary coil If the transformer is ideal, it is 100% efficient and the energy input at the primary coil is equal tothe energy output ofthe secondary col Fae Philos Notes — Moto Transformer Calculations [dently the relationship Between he ratio of the number of aris Tne secondary cols and the ratio of primary to secondary voltage Tdentiy Recognise and name com tha the em induced in a coil of wire of m turns is emt = nap a fe apply an alternating erent i, the primary ici it wil rl mf a indo back emt aro the primary cil wil have the val md) ‘a You will recall emf The changing magnetic field inthe primary cil will induce a changing emt in he secondary. The sizeof the emf induced will depend onthe number of loops in the secondary coil, as well as the rate of change of ux, emf, = mdb, @ we divide these two equations: nde db a at etl cn If the transformer is carefully designed the iron core will transfer all he changing magnetic fux to the secondary col 0 that: a, = ab, al ‘This isa yood approximation for most transformers, which are offen more than 99% ffcint. Ths changing magnetic feld will induce an emt inthe secondary coil Since the emf ofthe primary source (V,) equals the induced emf across the primary coil and the induced emi across the secondary coil becomes the emt provided by the secondary circuit (V,), thai, Zp emf, and emh=V, Pee Physics Notes Noor and Generators In case ofa step-up’ transformer, the numiber ofthe windings inthe secondary coil (nis larger than that ofthe primary col ). Inthe case of «sep-dowa’ transformer ‘the siuation is reversed EXAMPLE The mumber of windings ina transformers primary cot is 1000 end that of ts -seconiary coil is 250. The transformer is conneced a 240 V domestic power point ‘@ Calculate the potential difference across the secondary winding, 2 defy if thsi a step-up or step-down transformer, Paar Physics oes — Motors and Generator Transformers and the Conservation of Energy plain Relate casce ana effec maka tha rlatianships betoee higx PdaRe provide why and/or how Transformer formula implies that ina step-up transformer, although the output ‘voltage is higher than the input voltage, te output curen s lower than te input current. This isa direct consequence ofthe conservation of energy law. Clearly, if ‘the output current di not deerease compared to the input eurent, Vils would be ‘greater than Vp lp and energy would have been created from nothing. Similarly for step-down transformers, the output voltage is lower tan the input voltage but the ‘oulpu eurent is higher than the input current. From a practical point of view, transformers need to be designed eavefully. There are ‘muny sources of potential eneray losses in transformers, heat losssin the coils, heat losses inthe core due to eddy curents and possible magnetic leakage. The eddy currents inthe core are induced by the changing magnetic lields threading through the ‘ransformer. To reduce the effect of eddy curents, the core is made of layers called laminations separated by thin insulting layers, rather than being on slid block of metal ‘Modem transformers operate with around 99% efficiency and have many practical applications, Perhaps the most important application isin the transfer of electrical energy from a power station tots point of use Sample Summary Saas Sigectemerter LSEBy Pane Physis Notes ~ ars Transformers in power transmission explain the role of transformers in electely sub-taions Taplain Relate care are effects make the relationships benween Wigs ode provide why andor how Ina power stations urine drives the alternator. This is achieved either by using the force of moving water (hydro-lectrcty) or the pressure of steam produced by burning coal, ol, or natural gas, or by using the heat energy released fom nuclear Each sltemator produces three-phase electricity with voltages as high a8 25,000 V 25 EV) atd currents as large a8 20,000 amperes! Large step-up transformers further boost ‘the votage tos high as 500,000 V (300 KV) for disibution over the power ines which form part ofthe electricity gra. (Other common transmission voltages in ‘Australia are 330 kV, 220 kV and 132 kV.) As we have seen, this increased voltage ‘results in deezeased Current which lessens the heating losses in the transmission power Tins. ‘Additonal transformers between the power station andthe consumer reduce energy lossesand gradually lower the voluge. By te time it gets to household users it i reduced to 240V. Usually industry uses it at higher voltages (415 V). HEH onetage aa|E-2| = Sarwar Home Appliances Discuss Identify issues and provide pow for andor against ‘Cerin household appliances contain transformers for reducing the AC voltage fom 240 Vto~12V. For example, a printer connected to a computer has a plug with a box ‘on the end that is plugged ino the mains outlet. This bor contains a transformer. ‘TVs ako contain transformers, atleast one of which i a step-up transformer for producing the high voltages needed forthe ealhode ray tube to operate Pee Physics Notes ~ Motor and Generators Reducing heat Losses due to eddy currents Eddy currents within a metal are circular movements of cletrons de to a changing ‘lux passing though the metal. These circular movements are at rgit angles tothe ireetion ofthe chang [By constructing the iron core from many layers ‘of fron that are coated ‘vith an inguator, the size ofthe eddy currents is reduced and the losses due to eating effects are reduced, Such a core it . called a laminated iron core. The cross-sections of the thin layers are perpendicular tothe direction ofthe ‘magnetic flu, s0 the size ofthe eddy currents is greatly reduced. Another method for reducing eddy cutent losses in transformers iso use materials called ferites, which are complex oxides of iron and other metals. These materials are 004 transmitters of magnetic flux, but are poor conductors of electricity, so the ‘magnitudes of eddy currents are significantly reduced. Impact of transformers on society Discuss Identify issues and provide pois for andor against ‘Transformers have had a major postive impact on society. Transference of| jth low levels of oss, over huge distances between power stations ‘only possible duc tothe existence of transformers, I electrical energy could not be transmitted efficiently over lage distances many mote power Stations with ther associated pollution would be necessary to supply power tothe Toca ates, ‘Transformers enable power fom the one power station tobe used ir many diferent applications. Sub-stations ean step the power down in stages to the various levels tequited by households, industry, public transport and so on. Without transformers, diferent industries requiring diferent voltages would have to build generators to produce those specific volages. ‘The existence of transformers has enabled the constuction of many ofthe electronic labour-saving and entertainment devices we take Tor granted. TV's, computers, ‘mobile phones, stereos, radios, electronic clocks, many kitchen appliances and countless other electronic devices require transformers for their operation, Paget Phusios Notes Motors and Genaatrs AC Electric Motors Desoribe Provide characteristics and features The main features of an AC motor As wih the DC motors, AC generators and DC genoraors that have been Studied earlier, AC mators have 660 main pats. These ae called the stator and the rotor “The stator is the stationary part of the rotor and it isusually connected 1 the frame ofthe machine. The stator of AC motor proves the external ‘magnetic fed in which the rotor me Ts magnet ld pres pms Most AC motors havea cylindrical rotor that rotates about the axis ofthe motoe's shail, This typeof motor usually rotates at high speed, with the rotor completing bout one revition for each cycle of the AC electricity supply. This means that ‘Australian AC motor rotate at about 50 revolutions per second or 3000 revolutions per minute If dower speeds ae required, they are achieved using a speed-reducing ‘Bearbox. This type of motor is found in electric clocks, clctrie dil, fans, pumps, ‘compressors, conveyors, and other machines in factories. The rotor is mounted on bearings that ste attached tothe frame ofthe motor. In most AC motos the rotor is ‘mounted horizontally and the ane is connected to a gearbox and fan. The Fan cools the motor. Both the rotor and the stator havea core of feromagnetic material, usually stel. “he ‘core strengthens the magnetic Field, The pars ofthe core that experince alternating ‘magnetic flux ere made up of thin ste! laminations separated by insulation to reduce the flow of eddy currents that would preatly reduce the efficiency ofthe motor. Universal motors Altemating eurent motors ely on te fut thatthe current automatically changes direction 50 times each second. Electric motors called universal motors (r series motors) may be operated by using either DC or AC curent. As with a DC motor, itis possible to mae an AC motor in whieh the pole pieces are permanent magnets (0 ‘lectomagnets powered by DC). In order to keep an AC motor rating, ‘commutators aeedd to reverse the direction of the cureent in the armature every fll turn (Figure 35D), This results in rather uneven rotation as the force is aplied only ‘ach half tur. Pape “4 eo y Ina more practical AC motor, the elesttomagnets used forthe pole pieces are als powered by AC. The curent inthe pole pices also passes through the armature ‘When the curent reverses during each half eyele, the N and $ poles of the clectromagnct also reverse. Therefore the magnetic field produced by the electromagnet reverses cach half eyele. ‘Commutators are sill needed to reverse the current and keep it moving in the same rection relative t0 cach pole. This ensures the armature is always rotating in the same direction (Figure 3.6). ‘Universal motors cant be used for heavy-duty applications aoe Ica of excess sparking atthe brushes. ‘They are widely used for small appliances sueh as food mixers, ‘vacuum cleaners, Fans and power tools, ae Pee an Gener AC induction motors Induction motors are so named because a changing magnetic field that is setup inthe stator induces exerent inthe rotor. This is similar to what happens in a transformer, ‘with the stator coresponding tothe primary col of the transformer and the rotor corresponding tthe secondary. One difference is that in an induction moor the two ars are separate by a thin airgap. Another difference is that in indetion motors the oor (secondary coil is fice to move. Te simples form of A C induction motor is know as the squirrel-cage motor. tis called squirrel -age motor beeause the rotor resembles the cage or wheel tha people Use to exercise ther squires or pet mice. Its an induction motor because no current ‘asses through the rotor directly from the mains supply. The current in the rotors Induced inthe conductors that make up the eage ofthe rotor by a changing magnetic field ‘Squirel-cageindsstion motors ate by far the most common types of AC motor used domestically andin industry. Squire-cage induetion motors are found in some power Ar, beater mixes, vacuum cleaners, electric saws, har dryer, food processors and Tan heaters, to name but a fe: The squirrel-cage rotor “The rotor ofthe AC induction motor consists of a number cof conducting bars made of ether aluminium or copper “These are attached to wo rings, known as end rings, at cither end ofthe bars. Tis forms an abject that is Sometimes called squinre-cage rotor. The end rings ‘short-circuit te bars and allow a current to Mow fom ‘one side othe otter ofthe cage. “The bas and end ings are encased a laminated iron armature as shown in figure on the right. The ion intensifies the magnetic fi passing through the conductors ofthe rotor cage and the laminations decrease the hating losses du to eddy currents, The armature is mounted ona shaft that passes ‘ou through the ead of the moter. Bearings reduce tition and allow the armature t0 rotate Feely Pas Phin Ns — Motors an Generators The operation of AC induction motors [As the magnetic field rotates in the cylindrical space within the statr, it passes over ‘the bars ofthe eage, This has the sume eflet asthe bars moving in he opposite

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