Causes of variation and investigating variation

Within each subspecies there is a range of phenotypes. Explain the factors that
give rise to this variation. (4)
Phenotype depends on genotype and environment
different local environments can produce variation;
different selection pressures;
mutations producing new alleles;
meiosis produces new combinations of alleles/example;
random fusion of gametes / sexual reproduction
Independent assortment in meiosis
Crossing over in meiosis
Explain why standard deviation is more useful than range as a measure of
variation within a population.
Definition of range + SD / effect of outliers on range + SD;
Ranges are similar in both areas;
Suggests that variation within populations is similar;
SD smaller in area of high light intensity;
Shows that area of high light intensity is a more uniform population;
When comparing variation in size between two groups of organisms, it is
often considered more useful to compare standard deviations rather than
ranges. Explain why.
Range influenced by single outlier (accept anomaly) /
converse for S.D.;
S.D. shows dispersion/spread about mean;
Range only shows highest and lowest values/extremes;
S.D. allows statistical use;
Tests whether or not differences are significant;
Give the meaning and explain one possible cause of each of the following
types of variation. Continuous variation and discontinuous variation
Range between extremes/no discrete types;
strong environmental influence;
polygenic/many genes involved;
quantitative.
2
discrete types;
little/no environmental influence/only genetic;
(often alleles of) 1/2 gene;
qualitative.
Give the meaning and explain one possible cause of each of the following types of
variation continuous and discontinuous.
Continuous:
Range between extremes/no discrete types;
strong environmental influence;
polygenic/many genes involved;
quantitative.
Discontinuous:
Discrete types;
little/no environmental influence/only genetic;
(often alleles of) 1/2 gene;
qualitative.
Explain how you would use a quadrat to estimate the number of dandelion
plants in a field measuring 100 m by 150 m. (3)
Principle of randomly placed quadrats;
Method of producing random quadrats; (Reject throwing)
Valid method of obtaining no. dandelions in given area (mean per
quadrat/ total no. in many quadrats);
Multiply to give estimate for total field area;

Randomly sample to avoid Bias

Use a large number of samples to be representative of the population, to
calculate a more reliable mean, to allow statistical analysis to be carried out and to
identify anomalies
Intraspecific variation: difference between members of the same species
Interspecific variation: differences between members of different species
Standard deviation: shows the spread of the results around the mean. High
standard deviation indicates high variability in the data, low standard deviation
indicates a low variability in the data (uniformity)

DNA
In eukaryotes, DNA is linear and associated with proteins.
In prokaryotes, DNA molecules are smaller, circular and are
not associated with proteins.
Describe two features of DNA which make it a stable
molecule.
Two strands with specific base pairing;
large number of hydrogen bonds (between
strands);
helix/coiling reduces chance of molecular
damage / protects H bonds;
strong sugar-phosphate backbone;
Describe the molecular structure of DNA
Long polymer of nucleotides;
composition of a nucleotide (pentose sugar, phosphate and N
containing base)
4 bases named (A, T, C and G)
(Uracil (U) is a base in RNA that
replaces T), A, G are purine bases
(2 ring structure) T, C and U are
pyrimidine bases (single ring structures)
sugar-phosphate backbone;
two (polynucleotide) strands;
specific base-pairing;
example e.g. AT / CG; there are 2 H bonds between A/t
and three H bonds between C/G
hydrogen bonding between bases
Explain how the structure of DNA is related to its
function.(6)
sugar - phosphate backbone gives strength (phosphodiester
bonds)
(coiling gives) compact shape;
sequence of bases allows information to be stored;
long molecule stores large amount of information;
information can be replicated / complementary base
pairing;
(double helix protects) weak hydrogen bonds / double helix
makes molecule stable prevents code being corrupted;
chains held together by weak hydrogen bonds;
chains can split for replication / transcription
Complementary base pairing enables information to be replicated / transcribed;
Many hydrogen bonds together give molecule stability;
Hydrogen bonding allows chains to split for replication / transcription OR molecule unzips
easily for replication / transcription.
Some definitions
Locus: Position of a gene on a strand of DNA.
Genes: are short sections of DNA that contain coded information as a specific sequence
of bases. Genes code for polypeptides that determine the nature and development of
organisms.
Mutation: A change in the base sequence of a gene
Alleles: alternative forms of a gene (created through mutations).
Codon: A sequence of three bases (called a triplet) that codes for a specific amino acid.
The base sequence of a gene determines the amino acid sequence in a polypeptide.
Exons: sequences of bases in a gene that code for the polypeptide
Introns: (In eukaryotes), sequences of bases in a gene that do not code for
polypeptides.
Differences in base sequences of alleles of a single gene may result in non-functional
proteins, including non-functional enzymes.
Non-overlapping: each base is part of only one codon
Degenerate genetic code: there are 20 amino acids and 64 codons, so most amino acids
have more than one codon. There are 3 stop codons and 1 start codon.

In eukaryotes, DNA is linear, associated with proteins and large compared to the smaller,
circular DNA in prokaryotic cells that also have no proteins associated with it.

Meiosis
Explain the importance of meiosis in the life cycle of a sexually reproducing
organism.
Meiosis halves the number of chromosomes (formation of haploid gametes, eggs and
sperm)
Restoration of diploid number at fertilisation;
Introduces variation;
Describe what happens to chromosomes in meiosis.(6)
1. Chromosomes condense;
2. Chromosomes associate in homologous pairs (bivalents)
3. Crossing-over (chiasma formation)
4. Join to spindle (fibres) / moved by spindle ;(*)
5. (Join via) centromere
6. (At) equator/middle of cell
7. Independent assortment
8. (Homologous) chromosomes move to opposite poles /
chromosomes separate/move apart; (ALLOW are pulled apart)
nd
9. (Pairs of) chromatids separated in 2
division;
Describe how meiosis causes variation and explain the advantage of variation
to the species.(5)
1. Crossing-over;
2. Independent/random assortment/orientation/segregation of (homologous)
chromosomes in meiosis I;
3. Independent/random assortment/orientation/segregation of chromatids in meiosis II;
Advantages of variation, any three from:
4. Different adaptations / some better adapted;
5. Some survive / example described;
6. To reproduce;
7. Pass on gene/allele;
8. Allows for changing environment/different environment/example described;
Explain how crossing over can contribute to genetic variation.
Sections of chromatids exchanged;
sections have different alleles;
new combinations of (linked) alleles;
Give two processes, other than crossing over, which result in genetic variation.
Explain how each process contributes to genetic variation.
Mutation;
different/new allele formed / genes deleted or duplicated/ sequence of genes
changed (reject genetic information);
random fusion of gametes in fertilisation;
new combination of alleles;
independent assortment (of chromosomes) (accept random);
shuffling of maternal and paternal chromosomes/new combination
of alleles;
Explain the importance of genetic variation in the process of evolution.
Causes variation in phenotype some organisms are better have more favourable
characteristics for environment
Natural selection of better adapted organisms survive and reproduce passing on genes
selection is due to different phenotypes being better suited to different environments;
eventually leads to species change/change in gene pool/change in gene frequencies

Mitosis, replication of DNA and Cell Cycle

Mitosis is important in the life of an organism. Give two reasons why.
1. Growth / increase in cell number;
2. Replace cells / repair tissue / organs /body;
3. Genetically identical cells;
4. Asexual reproduction /cloning;
Describe the behaviour of chromosomes during mitosis and explain how this
results in the production of two genetically identical cells. (7)
1 chromosomes shorten/thicken/supercoiling;
2 chromosomes (each) two identical chromatids/strands/copies
(due to replication);
3 chromosomes/chromatids move to equator/middle of the spindle/cell;
4 attach to individual spindle fibres;
5 spindle fibres contract / centromeres divide / repel;
6 (sister) chromatids/chromosomes (separate)
move to opposite poles/ends of the spindle;
7 each pole/end receives all genetic information/
identical copies of each chromosome;
8 nuclear envelope forms around each group of
chromosomes/ chromatids/at each pole
Describe what happens to the chromosomes
during each of the following stages of mitosis.
Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase.
prophase coil up/spiralise/condense;
(allow shorter/contract/become visible)
metaphase move to equator or centre of cell / attach
to spindle;
(reject if reference to pairing)
anaphase chromatids separate/centromeres divide;
(reject chromosomes move to poles without further
explanation)
telophase uncoil; (allow lengthen/becomes less
visible)
Describe two events which occur during interphase.
Increased in volume of cell / amount of cytoplasm / increase in mass /cell bigger;
Increase in number of organelles;
Protein synthesis / specific example;
DNA replication / chromosomes become chromatids / chromosomes copy;
I references to G1, G2 and S phases)
Increase in volume of cell/volume of cytoplasm / increase in mass / cell bigger; increase in
number of organelles;
synthesis of protein/named protein;
DNA replication/increase / chromosomes copied;
ATP synthesis /
respiration;
Comparing mitosis
and meiosis

Cancer
Mutation is a change in the base sequence for a gene.
Mutations occur naturally, but the frequency can be increased by mutagens like, UV light,
X-rays, Gamma radiation, or other high energy ionising radiation.
Mutations in genes controlling the cell cycle may lead to the development of cancer.
There are 2 key genes involved in the cell cycle
1) Proto-oncogenes: encode proteins that are growth factors and stimulate cell division.
Mutate to form oncogenes and express proteins at all times and can lead to uncontrolled
cell division
2) Tumour Suppressor genes: encode proteins that inhibit cell division
Cancer is caused by a mutation in several genes.
Cancer cells: high rate of division, ability to separate form adjacent cells and migrate to
other tissues
If the DNA of the cell is damaged, a protein called p53 stops the cell cycle.
Mutation in the gene for p53 could cause cancer to develop. Explain how.
Cancer cells often have damaged DNA;
Mutation in gene for p53 means the p53 protein is faulty or not made;
Consequently, a cell (with faulty /DNA) divides/completes cell cycle;
Uncontrolled division produces cancer;
Explain what is meant by a malignant tumour and describe how exposure to
cigarette smoke may result in the formation of a malignant tumour. (6)
A malignant tumour is a mass of abnormal cells;
That can spread to other tissues (metastasis);
(Relative risk of) lung cancer decreases the longer it is since giving up smoking;
(Relative risk of) lung cancer increases with the number of cigarettes smoked per day;
Cigarette smoke contains carcinogens/ mutagens/cancer-causing chemicals;
Causes changes in DNA;
Of genes that control cell division;
Reference to oncogenes;
Reference to tumour suppresser genes;
Rapid rate of cell division/ uncontrolled cell division;
Describe how altered DNA may lead to cancer.
1 (DNA altered by) mutation;
2 (mutation) changes base sequence;
3 of gene controlling cell growth / oncogene / that monitors cell division;
4 of tumour suppressor gene;
5 change protein structure / non-functional protein / protein not formed;
6 (tumour suppressor genes) produce proteins that inhibit cell division;
7 mitosis;
8 uncontrolled / rapid / abnormal (cell division);
9 malignant tumour;

Genetic Diversity
The DNA of different species varies due to the different genes. More closely related
species the more common their DNA will be. Genetic diversity is important to help a
population survive changing environments.
Factors that increase genetic diversity are..
Mutations (producing new alleles)
Gene flow: alleles move between populations as individuals form one population
reproduce with those form another.
Factors that reduce genetic diversity are
A genetic bottleneck happens when a population is drastically reduced in size due to a
natural catastrophe or a continual more gradual change in the environment. The few
individuals left will only have a small range of alleles between them, so if they reproduce
and the population increases again there will be reduced genetic diversity. Many of the
original variety of alleles will have been lost in individuals who didnt survive.

Large number of
population dies

Original population:
many different alleles
shown by different
colours

Reproductio
n

Reduced population: many

alleles lost from original
population

New population:
reduced genetic
diversity compared to
original
The founder effect occurs when a small number of individuals colonise a new habitat
and start a new, isolated population. Since the few individuals will only have a small
range of alleles between them. Founder effects are common throughout evolutionary
history, and are readily seen in remote islands (such as the Galapagos Islands), where
colonisation is difficult and rare. These modern populations will have low genetic
diversity, reflecting the small range of alleles in the small founding population.

Original
population: retains
high genetic diversity

New population:
Genetic diversity is
reduced

Original
population: many
different alleles
shown by different
colours
Founder population:
isolated from original
population, reduced variety
of alleles

Selective breeding, or artificial selection, means the controlled breeding of animals

or plants by humans so that only individuals with certain characteristics are allowed to
reproduce. Since these characteristics are (at least partly) genetically controlled, this
means selecting certain alleles and rejecting others, so the genetic diversity of these
animals and plants is reduced. The purpose of selective breeding is to change species so
that they are more useful to humans, resulting in new breeds of animals and varieties of
plants.
These can be very different from the wild populations and are sometimes recognised as
new species, since they can no longer interbreed. Since domesticated animals and plants
have such a low genetic diversity they are not able to survive well in the wild, being outcompeted by wild species with greater diversity. They are often highly susceptible to
changes in the environment, such as drought, predators or disease. In the case of
domesticated animals, the intense selection can lead to the development of physical
problems with the animals, which would normally disappear in the wild due to
competition. This leads to ethical problems of whether we are causing harm to the
animals by selective breeding, and we must weigh the advantages to humans against the
harm to the animals. Some examples will illustrate the problems.
Arguments for selective breeding
Produce high yielding plants and animals
Use to produce animals and plants with high resistance to disease, so less drugs and
pesticides needed
Animals and plants could be bred to increase tolerance to extreme environments
Arguments against selective breeding
Cause health problems, rapid growth or high milk loads put strain on animals reducing
life expectancy.
Reduces genetic diversity, increasing genetic diseases and vulnerability to disease and
changes in environment
Do animals have value or are they solely for human usefulness
What features do we select for?
Should humans decide what is appealing in animals?
Animal welfare must be considered, for example, humans select animals that grow
quickly (leads to high infection risk and joint problems) and that are better suited to
living in sheds than open fields which is their natural habitat
Loss of alleles that may be beneficial to humans in the future
Lower resistance to disease
Decreased fertility
Development of physical problems in animals that would normally be selected against in
the wild
Scientists analysis of blood proteins has indicated a lack of genetic diversity
in populations of some organisms. Describe the processes that lead to a
reduction in the genetic diversity of populations of organisms.
1. Mark principle of - reduced variety/number of different alleles/DNA / reduced gene pool (in
new population);
2. Founder effect;
3. A few individuals from a population become isolated/form colonies:
4. (Genetic) bottlenecks;
5. (Significant) fall in size of population
6. Selective breeding / artificial selection;
7. Using organisms with particular alleles/traits/phenotypes/characteristics;
What is meant by a genetic bottleneck?
Genetic bottleneck linked to low genetic diversity/smaller gene pool;
Reference to very low seal population/population in 1910/under 100 seals/caused
by hunting;
How you would expect the founder effect to have influenced the genetic
diversity
New colonies formed by small number (of seals)/ small number of founders;
Founders have different/fewer alleles/genes / have smaller gene pool;
The conifers used in plantations are the result of a long period of selection for
desirable characteristics. Explain how a programme of selection might affect
the variety of alleles in a population.

Reduces (the variety of alleles) / genetic diversity;

only certain phenotypes allowed / selected to breed;
(phenotypic) character controlled by allele;
some/non-selected alleles eliminated/frequency decreased;
others/selected alleles increase in frequency;

Haemoglobin
Describe how haemoglobin normally loads oxygen in the lungs and
unloads it in a tissue cell.
Oxygen combines (reversibly) to produce oxyhaemoglobin;
each haemoglobin molecule/ one haemoglobin may transport 4 molecules of
oxygen;
high partial pressure of oxygen / oxygen tension / concentration in lungs;
haemoglobin (almost) 95% / 100% saturated;
unloads at low oxygen tension(in tissues);
presence of carbon dioxide displaces curve further to right / increases oxygen
dissociation;
allows more O2 to be unloaded;
increase temp/ acidity allows more O2 to be unloaded;
low pO2 / increase CO2 / increase term / increase acid occur in vicinity of
respiring tissue;
Describe how haemoglobin is involved in absorbing oxygen in the lungs and
transporting it to respiring tissues.
1. Diffusion of oxygen into red cell / haemoglobin in red cells;
2. High affinity of haemoglobin in high oxygen concentration;
3. (Therefore) loads / becomes saturated in lungs / where oxygen abundant;
4. oxyhaemoglobin formed;
2+
5. Reference to role of haem e.g. energy changes /role of Fe
ions /Hb molecule combines
with fewer oxygen molecules;
6. Unloads / low affinity in low concentration;
7. Explanation in terms of dissociation curve i.e. small changes in concentration gives large
changes in saturation;
+
8. Respiration in tissues gives high CO2 concentration / high temperature / high H
concentration / low pH
9. Dissociation curve shifts to right / oxyhaemoglobin dissociation at higher partial pressure
The blood leaving a muscle has a lower pH than the blood entering it.
During vigorous exercise, the fall in pH is even greater. Explain what
causes this greater fall in pH.
(in exercise) - faster respiration rate;
more CO2 production;
CO2 is acidic / forms carbonic acid;
lactic acid production;
+
release of H ions;
During exercise, the rate of respiration of
muscle cells increases. Explain what
causes human haemoglobin to unload
more oxygen to these cells.
Partial pressure on oxygen in muscle falls more;
high / more carbon dioxide produced;
lowers PH;
increase in temperature;
percentage saturation of Hb falls / lowers
affinity /
increase dissociation;
displaces curve to right / results in Bohr shift;

There is an advantage to the shrew in having

haemoglobin with a dissociation curve shifted to the
right. Explain this advantage.

(at the tissues at low pp oxygen) the shrews haemoglobin is less

saturated with oxygen / has reduced affinity;
oxyhaemoglobin dissociates more readily / haemoglobin releases
oxygen more readily / more oxygen released;
allowing greater demand / respiration rate;

Suggest the advantage to a ground squirrel

of having haemoglobin that has an oxygen
dissociation curve to the left of the curve for
human haemoglobin.
In ground squirrel lower partial pressure of oxygen
in lungs;
Haemoglobin can be saturated/load more oxygen;
at lower partial pressure of oxygen;

Explain how the foetal haemoglobin makes it

possible for the foetus to take oxygen from the
mothers blood.
Foetal haemoglobin has greater affinity for/binds more
readily to oxygen;
at same ppO2/concentration of oxygen, foetal has
higher saturation;
correct use of figures from graph (% and pp);
maintains diffusion gradient across placenta.
Differentiation
Cells specialise to carry out special functions.
Squamous epithelial cells, thin, little cytoplasm, provide a short diffusion pathway
Palisade cells are packed with chloroplasts
Tissues: similar cells grouped together to perform a common function
Organs: groups of different tissues working together for a particular function
Organ systems

Q. Describe how the structure of a

chloroplast is adapted to its function
in photosynthesis.
Membrane is permeable to gases
Disc shape gives a large surface area for
absorption of light and gas
Contains chlorophyll to absorb light
Contains a range of pigments to increase the
range of wavelengths that can be absorbed
Stacking of the thylakoids (grana) maximises
light absorption
Stroma contains enzymes for the reactions of
photosynthesis
Stroma contains ribosomes (70s) and DNA for
making enzymes needed in photosynthesis
Q. Photosynthesis generally takes place
in a leaf. Describe how the leaf is
adapted to allow this process to occur
effectively.
Large surface area to collect solar energy;
transparent nature of cuticle to allow light
penetration;
position of chlorophyll to trap light;
stomata to allow exchange of gases;
thin / max. surface area to volume ratio for
diffusion of gases;
spongy mesophyll / air spaces for carbon
dioxide store;
xylem for input of water;
phloem for removal of end products;
Describe how the structure of xylem
is related to its function.
Vessels;
Have no end walls / hollow / no
cytoplasm;
Allows unrestricted flow of water.
Lignification;
Provides support / strength /
impermeability;
Pits allow lateral transport;
Tracheids with porous end walls.

Structure of chloroplast for function

Membranes / (disc) shape provides large
surface for light absorption;
layering of membrane allows a lot of
pigment;
(permeable) membrane allows diffusion of
gases / carbon dioxide;
membranes provide surface for attachment
of electron / hydrogen
acceptors;
stroma / matrix containing enzymes for
Calvin cycle /
lightindependent reactions;

Q. Palisade cells are the main site of

photosynthesis. Explain one way in
which a palisade cell is adapted for
photosynthesis.
Contains many chloroplasts thus lots of
chlorophyll:
To trap or absorb light (energy);
Elongated cells with long axis
perpendicular to the surface:
Light has a longer pathway allowing
maximum light absorption / light
penetration;
Chloroplasts move;
To trap or absorb light (energy)
Range of pigments;
Can absorb a range of wavelengths /
colours / for max light absorption;
Large S.A. or cell wall feature e.g. thin /
permeable;
For (rapid) CO2 absorption;

Difference between the glucose

molecules is the orientation of the OH
group at C1.

Cellulose structure and function

Basic structure of glycogen

Is a polymer of beta glucose.

Condensation polymerisation occurs
The monomers are held by1,4 glycosidic
bonds.
Alternate beta glucose molecules are
inverted
The chain is long and straight
Adjacent chains can be held together by Hbonds

Glycogen is similar to amylopectin.

This forms micro-fibrils which are rigid and

can link to form cellulose fibres
Cellulose is a component of the cell wall
Its strength means it can resist osmotic
pressure

Basic structure of starch

Storage polysaccharide
Insoluble (no effect on water potential
and thus osmotically inactive)
Not a pure substance but a mixture of
2 polysaccharides
Amylose: a chain of alpha glucose
held by 1,4 glycosidic bonds. It forms
a helix, held by H bonds within the
chain
Amylopectin: a polymer of alpha
glucose with 1,4 glycosidic bonds and
a small number of 1,6 branches. This
gives it an open structure and the
branches are quickly hydrolysed

It is polymer of (1-4) alpha glucose

with 9% (1-6) branches, though more
than starch. Because it is so highly
branched, it can be mobilised
(broken down by glycogen
phosphorylase to produce glucose
for energy) very quickly, reflects the
grater metabolic demands of animal
over plant
Animals storage polysaccharide
Found mainly in muscle and liver.

Starch/Glycogen vs
Cellulose
Starch/Glycogen
(1,4 and) 1,6 bonds
branches
2. All glucose same way up
3. Helix/coiled/compact
4. Alpha glucose
5. No (micro/macro)
Fibrils/fibres

Celluose
1. 1,4 bonds no 1,6
bonds
2. Alternate glucoses
upside down;
3. Straight;
4. Beta glucose;
5. Micro/macro
fibrils/fibres;

Starch: structure for function

Role = storage
Features: Insoluble stays in cell
Features: Osmotically inactive cell does not
absorb water
Feature: good respiratory substrate
provides many glucose molecules on
hydrolysis
Feature: Amylose is Coiled lots of glucose in
a small space
Feature: amylopectin branched is rapidly
hydrolysed to glucose because enzymes can
begin to operate on all brnaches

Surface area to volume ratio

Explain the link between the size of an organism
and the way in which its cells are supplied with
oxygen.(6)
Small organisms have large surface/volume ratio;
as, for example, single-celled organisms;
diffusion/exchange over body surface/skin;
(the need for) specialised respiratory/gas-exchange
surfaces in larger animals;
diffusion is a slow process;
cells of larger organisms are a long way from gas
exchange surface;
must be supplied by transport system/circulatory
system/blood;

Many large animals have blood systems. Explain why these animals need blood
systems to supply their cells with oxygen.
Gas exchange surface long distance from (some) respiring tissues;
Blood system allows rapid transport/faster supply;
Diffusion is slow;

The graph shows there

is a decrease in
oxygen uptake with an
increase in body mass

Heat from respiration helps mammals to maintain a constant body

temperature. Use this information to explain the relationship between body
mass and oxygen uptake shown in the graph.
Smaller animals have a large surface area to volume ratio
Lose more heat per gram of tissue
Respire faster to maintain body temperature
Oxygen demand increases

Many of the mammals found in cold parts of Finland have a larger size and
body mass than related species found in warmer regions. Explain the
importance of this to their survival.(4)
Large animals have small surface area to volume ratio;
Large mammals are homoiothermic;
Lose less heat to environment;
By radiation/convection/conduction;
Fat;
For insulation;

Gas Exchange
Describe and explain how the structure of the mammalian breathing system
enables efficient uptake of oxygen into the blood.(6)
1. Alveoli provide a large surface area;
2. Walls of alveoli thin to provide a
short diffusion pathway;
3. Walls of capillary thin/close to
alveoli provides
a short diffusion pathway;
4. Walls (of capillaries/alveoli) have
flattened cells;
5. Cell membrane permeable to
gases;
6. Many blood capillaries provide a
large surface area;
7. Intercostal/chest
muscles/diaphragm muscles / to
ventilate lungs / maintain a
diffusion/concentration gradient;
8. Wide trachea / branching of
bronchi/bronchioles for efficient
flow of air;
9. Cartilage rings keep airways open;

A fish uses its gills to absorb oxygen from water. Explain how the gills of a fish
are adapted for efficient gas exchange.
1 Large surface area provided by
lamellae/filaments;
2 Increases diffusion/makes diffusion
efficient;
3 Thin epithelium/distance between water
and blood;
4 Water and blood flow in opposite
directions/countercurrent;
5 maintains concentration gradient (along
gill)/equilibrium
not reached;
5 Not enough to say gives steep
concentration gradient
6 As water always next to blood with lower
concentration of oxygen;
7 Circulation replaces blood saturated with
oxygen;
8 Ventilation replaces water (as oxygen
removed);

Describe and explain how fish maintain a flow of water over their gills.
1. mouth opens, operculum/opercular valve shuts;
2. floor of mouth lowered;
3. water enters due to decreased pressure / increased volume;
4. mouth closes, operculum/opercular valve opens;
5. floor raised results in increased pressure / decreased volume;
6. high/increased pressure forces/pushes water over gills;
Explain how the countercurrent principle helps fish to extract oxygen from
water.
Water flows in opposite direction to blood;
across (gill) lamellae;

so difference in concentration maintained;

diffusion gradient maintained / diffusion over full length.

Insect have more than

1.5 million tracheoles.
The distance between
the ends of the
tracheoles in the muscle
is approximately 4 m.
Explain how these
features allow efficient
oxygen supply.
Large number gives large (total)
surface area;
For diffusion;
Short distance between
tracheoles gives short pathway;
Movement/diffusion through
muscle is slow;

An insect lives in air. Describe how the insect is

able to obtain oxygen and limit water loss.
1 Air enters through (open) spiracles;
2 Through tracheae;
3 Diffusion gradient in trachea
4 Tracheae associated with all cells/closely associated
with cells;
5 Oxygen diffuses into cells;
6 Ventilation replacing air in tracheae;
7 Body covered with (waterproof) waxy layer/cuticle;
8 Spiracles are able to close open in response to carbon
dioxide at a critical level;
Fluid filled tracheoles allow some control over gas
exchange. When the insect is at rest the fluid is in the tracheoles. This slows down
the diffusion of oxygen to the muscles, this slows down respiration and thus the
production of CO2. It means CO2 levels will rise slowly and limit the number of
times the spiracles open, thus reducing water loss. When the insect starts to move,
the muscles produce lactic acid, this lowers the water potential of the muscles,
which draws the fluid out of the tracheoles (by osmosis) and now diffusion of
oxygen will be faster through the air filled tracheoles.

Describe how carbon dioxide in

the air outside a leaf reaches
mesophyll cells inside the leaf.
1. (Carbon dioxide enters) via
stomata;
2. (Stomata opened by) guard cells;
3. Diffuses through air spaces;
4. Down diffusion gradient;

Xerophytic adaptations in plants

Using Ficks law describe and explain structural adaptations of the leaves of
xerophytes that reduce water loss
Reduced number of stomata; reduced surface area;
Thick waxy cuticle; increases diffusion distance;
Leaves reduced to spines; reduced surface area ;
(epidermal) hairs; reduce diffusion gradient;
Sunken stomata; reduced concentration gradient;
curled leaves; reduce concentration ; difference
Statement of Ficks law:
Rate of diffusion SA exchange surface conc difference
Thickness of exchange surface;
Low surface area, low concentration difference and high thickness/equivalent reduce loss
/ candidate clearly relates features to equation to show how rate is reduced;
Explain how the presence of hairs and rolled leaves reduce water loss in xerophytic plants.
Trap moist air / increase humidity;
Reduce air flow (around leaf surface / stomata);
Lower WP / water vapour concentration gradient (between inside and outside of leaf);
Shield stomata from high temperature / high light intensity / wind; ignore sun
Reduce transpiration / evaporation / diffusion of water (vapour);
Describe and explain how features you would expect in the leaves of a tree adapted to a
dry environment helps the trees survival. (6)
Sunken stomata;
water evaporation into pit creates local humidity;
increased humidity reduces gradient for water evaporation;
Close arrangement of stomata;
diffusion shells of individual stomata overlap;
interferes with water diffusion and slows evaporation;
restriction of stomata to lower side of leaf;
rate of air movement below leaf less/ heating effect of sun less;
gradient for water evaporation reduced/ water molecules have less kinetic energy;
Thick cuticle/wax/suberin (on upper surface);
(wax/suberin )waterproof;
water unable to diffuse onto surface to evaporate,
Presence of trichomes/ hairs;
surface traps water close to leaf surface;
increased humidity reduces gradient for water evaporation;
Reduced leaves/spines/small surface area to volume;
less surface area for evaporation;
more distance across leaf for water to diffuse;
Rolled leaves;
stomata enclosed in localised humidity;
increased humidity reduces gradient for water evaporation;
Describe ways in which the leaves of plants may be adapted for reducing water
loss in hot, dry conditions.
Curled leaves;
Thick cuticle;
Sunken stomata;
Hairs;
stomata sunken in pits creates local humidity/ decreases exposure to air currents;
presence of hairs creates local humidity next to leaf/ decreases exposure to air currents;
stomata mainly located on underside of leaf so less exposed to air currents/ heat from
sun;
stomata close midrib so more sheltered from air currents;
stomata close together so diffusion shells overlap;
thick waxy cuticle makes more waterproof impermeable to water;
double palisade layer increases diffusion distance;
stomata on inside of rolled leaf creates local humidity/ decreases exposure to air
currents;

The Blood Vessels

Names are require only of the coronary arteries, blood vessels entering an
leaving the heart, liver and kidneys

The structure of arteries, veins and capillaries in relation to their function

Artery (away from the

heart)
Thickest wall, enabling it to
carry blood at high pressure /
withstand
pressure surges;
most elastic tissue, which
smoothes out flow / maintains
pressure;
most muscle which maintains
pressure;
muscle in wall to control blood
flow;
Endothelium that reduces
friction;

Vein (into the heart)

Thin wall does not have to
withstand high pressure; so
they have less elastic tissue
and muscle tissue, but have a
larger lumen to reduce friction
as blood is under lower
pressure
Presence of valves to reduce
back flow
Blood flow is a result of
muscle contraction, squeezing
it along vessels
Endothelium that reduces
friction;

Capillary
Thin wall, allowing
diffusion/exchange;
only endothelium present,
allowing short diffusion pathway;
Fenestrations to allow materials
to be exchange
Narrow lumen slows down red
blood cells and
Presses them against the walls of
the capillary allowing more time
and increasing the surface area
for exchange
Endothelium that reduces friction;

Arteries and arterioles take blood away from the heart. Explain how the
structures of the walls of arteries and
arterioles are related to their
functions.
Elastic tissue
1 Elastic tissue stretches under pressure/when heart
beats;
2 Recoils/springs back;
3 Evens out pressure/flow;
Muscle
4 Muscle contracts;
5 Reduces diameter of lumen/vasoconstriction/constricts vessel;
6 Changes flow/pressure;
Epithelium
Artery arterioles: elastic fibres decrease
7 Epithelium smooth;
and muscle fibres increase.
8 Reduces friction/blood clots/less resistance;
The thickness of the aorta wall changes all the time during each cardiac cycle.
Explain why.
1. (Aorta wall) stretches;
2. Because ventricle/heart contracts / systole / pressure increases;
3. (Aorta wall) recoils;
4. Because ventricle relaxes / heart relaxes /diastole / pressure falls;
5. Maintain smooth flow / pressure
Explain the difference in thickness between the pulmonary artery (thicker) and
the pulmonary vein (thinner).
High pressure / smooth out blood flow / artery wall contains more collagen / muscle /
elastic (fibres) / connective tissue;
Describe two ways by which blood flow in the veins is
maintained.
Valves prevent backflow;
effect of (skeletal) muscle contraction
Residual blood pressure from heart;
negative pressure from thorax;
suction effect from heart;

Describe and explain ways in which a capillary

adapts for exchange
1. Permeable capillary wall/membrane;
2. Single cell thick/thin walls, reduces diffusion distance;
3. Flattened (endothelial) cells, reduces diffusion distance;
4. Fenestrations, allows large molecules through;
5. Small diameter/ narrow, gives a large surface area to volume/ short diffusion distance;
6. Narrow lumen, reduces flow rate giving more time for diffusion;
7. Red blood cells in contact with wall/ pass singly, gives short diffusion distance / more
time for diffusion;
(allow 1 mark for 2 features with no explanation)
Explain two ways in which the small diameter of the capillaries results in
the efficient transfer of oxygen from the alveoli to the red blood cells.

Red blood cells close to capillary wall/ thin capillary wall;

Short diffusion path/ distance for oxygen to diffuse;
Longer time for diffusion to take place/ diffusion is slow;

Tissue Fluid Formation

Explain how tissue fluid is formed and how it may be returned to the
circulatory system.
1. (Hydrostatic) pressure of blood high at arterial end;
2. Fluid/water/soluble molecules pass out (reject plasma);
3. Proteins/large molecules remain;
4. This lowers the water potential / water potential becomes more negative;
5. Water moves back into venous end of capillary (reject tissue fluid);
6. By osmosis / diffusion;
7. Lymph system collects any excess tissue fluid;
8. (Lymph) returns to blood / circulatory system / link with vena cava/returns tissue fluid
to vein;
Describe how tissue fluid is formed and how it is returned to the circulatory
system.
Formation
1. High blood / hydrostatic pressure / pressure filtration;
2. Forces water / fluid out;
3. Large proteins remain in capillary;
Return
4. Lower water potential in capillary / blood;
5. Due to (plasma) proteins;
6. Water enters capillary / blood;

7. (By) osmosis;
8. Correct reference to lymph collecting excess fluid returning blood to main circulation
Describe the part played by proteins in the plasma in returning tissue fluid to the
capillary.
Produces lower water potential;
Water moves into capillary;
By
osmosis/diffusion;
Describe and explain one way in which the composition of tissue fluid differs from
that of plasma.
Contains little/no protein;
Molecules too large (to pass through capillary wall);
Contains less glucose;
some will have entered tissue cells;
The tissues of people who are starving often swell because of the accumulation of
tissue fluid. Explain what causes this accumulation of tissue fluid.
Starvation linked to low protein content of diet/Low protein concentration
in plasma/blood;
Water potential of blood higher/smaller water potential gradient;
Tissue fluid formed faster than returned/less tissue fluid returned to blood;
Histamine increases the permeability of capillary walls so that large molecules can
pass through. Explain how this change in permeability results in swelling round the bite.
Proteins can move into tissue fluid;
Lowers water potential of tissue fluid;
Increases tendency to draw water/fluid out/
Reduces tendency to reabsorb water;
Suggest an explanation for the link between high blood pressure and the
accumulation of tissue fluid.
High blood pressure increases rate of filtration / forces more fluid out;
Lymph system cannot cope / higher pressure reduces reabsorption;

Movement of water through plants

Explain how water enters a plant root from the soil and travels through to the
endodermis.
Water enters root hair cells;
by osmosis;
because active uptake of mineral ions has created a WP gradient;
water moves through the cortex;
(by osmosis) down a WP gradient;
through cell vacuoles and cytoplasms / symplastic pathway;
through cell walls / apoplastic pathway;
Not required here but remember that all water is forced into the symplastic pathway at
the endodermis because of the casparian strip
Describe and explain how water moves via the apoplastic and symplastic
pathways from the soil to the xylem in a root.
Apoplastic Via cell walls / spaces external to cell membrane / external to
cytoplasm / between cells;
As far as endodermis / Casparian strip / layer of wax;
Caused by transpiration pull;
Cohesion / hydrogen-bonding between water molecules;
Symplastic Through cell surface membrane (of epidermis / root hair cell) / ref.
vacuoles membrane;
High to low / s;
Diffusion / osmosis;
Cell-to-cell via plasmodesmata / via strands of cytoplasm;
Secretion / active transport of ions into xylem by endodermis;
OR
Active uptake of ions from soil at epidemis;
Lowers / s in xylem / increases osmosis into xylem;

Explain how the structure of the endodermis affects the passage of water
by this apoplastic pathway.
Casparian bands; (accept ref to suberin)
which are impermeable/waterproof;
lower water potential in the cytoplasm of endodermis cell;
enters symplastic pathway / cytoplasm of cell;
by osmosis;

Root pressure is a force that is partly responsible for the movement of water
through xylem in stems. Explain how the active transport of mineral ions into
xylem vessels in the roots results in water entering these vessels and then
being moved up the xylem tissue.
Water potential in xylem reduced (by entry of ions);
Water potential gradient established between xylem and surrounding cells;
Plasma membranes of surrounding cells are partially permeable;
Water enters xylem by osmosis;
Volume of water in xylem increases;
Cannot move back due to gradient;
Pressure in xylem increases (and forces water upwards);
Describe one piece of evidence that supports the root pressure theory
and explain how it supports this theory.
Suitable accepted evidence, 1 mark for evidence and 1 mark for explanation
EITHER e.g.guttation
(only) upward pressure could force liquid water out of leaves;
OR
Sap exuding from a cut, rooted stem;
(only) upward force could make this happen;
Explain how water enters xylem from the endodermis in the root and is then
transported to the leaves.
(In the root)
1. Casparian strip blocks apoplast pathway / only allows symplast pathway;
2. Active transport by endodermis;
3. (Of) ions/salts into xylem;
4. Lower water potential in xylem / water enters xylem by osmosis /down a water
potential gradient;
(Xylem to leaf)
5. Evaporation / transpiration (from leaves);
6. (Creates) cohesion / tension / H-bonding between water molecules / negative pressure;
7. Adhesion / water molecules bind to xylem;

8. (Creates continuous) water column;

Describe the roles of root

pressure and cohesion-tension in
moving water through the xylem.
Root pressure
Involves active transport of ions into
xylem;
Water potential in xylem reduced
Water potential gradient established
between xylem and surrounding cells
Water enters xylem by osmosis
Volume of water in xylem increases;
Pressure in xylem increases (and
forces water upwards);
Cohesion tension
Solar energy source;
Evaporation of water from leaves
through stomata
Water potential gradient created
across leaf / mesophyll cells;
therefore water moves out of xylem
(into surrounding tissues) by osmosis
this creates a pull/tension on the
water in xylem
Which is in a continuous column
Cohesion (or description) of water
molecules maintains column;
Due to H-bonding / polarity / charges
of water molecules ;
Column doesnt break because of
adhesion with xylem walls;
Lignified walls keep xylem (vessels)
open;
capillarity due to narrow lumen of
xylem (vessels);
Evidence to support supports cohesion
Evidence that supports the root
pressure theory
Guttation: (only) upward pressure could
force liquid water out of leaves;
OR
Sap exuding from a cut, rooted stem:
(only) upward force could make this
happen;

The diameter of a tree is less during the day, when the tree is transpiring, than it is at night.
Evaporation from leaves during daytime; tension/negative pressure (on water) in xylem creates
inward pull (on walls of xylem vessel);
xylem vessels become narrower; due to adhesion of water molecules (to walls of xylem vessels);
If air enters the xylem the transpiration stream can cease as cohesion is disrupted between the water molecules.
If the xylem breaks air is sucked into the vessel suggesting a negative pressure inside

diameter of the tree

The potometer

R u b b e r s to p p e r

R e s e rv o ir fo r p u s h in g a ir b u b b le b a c k
to rig h t-h a n d e n d o f c a p illa ry tu b e
C a p illa r y tu b e w ith s c a le
A ir b u b b le

This is a bubble potometer:

measuring the rate of water
uptake by a plant by timing
how long it takes for a
bubble to move a certain
distance along a capillary
tube of known diameter
A mass photometer exists
measuring the water loss
from the plant by the change
in mass over a given time;
accuracy limited by accuracy
of balance used (does
assume all the loss in mass
is water loss)

Potometer above assumes that all the water taken up is lost in transpiration but some will be
used in.
Photosynthesis, maintaining turgidity of cell, hydrolysis reactions
Volume of water up taken by shoot = r2 distance travelled (r = radius of capillary tube)
Rate of transpiration = distance moved by bubble time taken
Rate of water uptake (mm3s-1) = Speed of movement of air bubble (mm s-1) x cross-sectional area
The theory behind this is that as water evaporates from the leaves of the shoot water is moved up
the shoot due to cohesive forces and the air bubble is drawn along the capillary tube at the same rate
thus giving a measure of the transpiration rate. However, it is actually the rate of water uptake being
measured this is not the same as transpiration because.

1. The cross sectional area of the shoot is not as large as the area of the root hairs that normally
absorb water to supply the leaves so rate of uptake is less than transpiration.
The potometer can be used to investigate how various environmental factors affect the rate of
transpiration.
Light. Light stimulates the stomata to open allowing gas exchange for photosynthesis, and as
a side effect this also increases transpiration. This is a problem for some plants as they may
lose water during the day and wilt.
Temperature. High temperature increases the rate of evaporation of water from the spongy
cells, and reduces air humidity, so transpiration increases.
Humidity. High humidity means a higher water potential in the air, so a lower water potential
gradient between the leaf and the air, so less evaporation.
Air movements. Wind blows away saturated air from around stomata, replacing it with drier
air, so increasing the water potential gradient and increasing transpiration.
Setting up the potometer
1) Cut a leafy shoot from the plant and immediately put it under water then cut a small section
from the stem again while it is under water, this prevents air getting into the xylem and
breaking the column of water. Do not get the leaves wet as this will affect the transpiration
rate.
2) Put the potometer under the water (freshly boiled and cooled water minimises air bubbles)and
move it from side to side to remove the air from the system then attach the leafy shoot into
the potometer under water also.
3) Seal all joints with water proofing substance like petroleum jelly so that any water loss is from
the leafs only
4) Ensure the environmental conditions dont change around the leaves as this will heavily
influence the transpiration rate
5) The air bubble introduce into the capillary tube can be timed as it moves across a set
distance, thus the rate of water loss can be measured.

Classification/taxonomy
Taxonomy: arranging organisms into groups based on similarities and differences.
The most common system of classification uses.
7 groups (taxonomic groups).
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
(Remember this pneumonic: King, Philip, Came, Over, from, Germany, Swimming)
The groups are organised into a hierarchy
(As you move down the hierarchy there are more groups at each level, but fewer organisms
in each group)
The smaller the group the more similarities between the organisms in that group
There is no overlap between the groups
The hierarchy ends with species
A species is a group of similar organisms able to reproduce and give fertile offspring.
Each species is assigned a binomial name Genus and Species.
Q. Describe the principles on which the system of classification of living
organisms is based. (4)
Hierarchy of 7 taxonomic groups (KPCOFGS);
no overlap between groups;
organisms placed in groups due to common structures / similar characteristics;
reflecting evolutionary history (phylogeny) of organisms within a group;
binominal nomenclature / example;
definition of a species;
Phylogenetics
The study of the evolutionary history of groups of organisms, telling us who is related to
whom and how close this relationship is compared to a common evolutionary ancestor.
It is closely related to classification because grouping needs to reflect evolutionary
relationship
Members of one genus must be more closely related to each other than they are to
organisms in a different genus.
Q. How does a phylogenic system differ to a simple hierarchy?
Hierarchical classification, large groups are divided into smaller groups
Process starts with species grouped into genus then grouped into family, order, class,
phylum. As the groups get larger there is a more distant common ancestory
Initially this was based on shared easily observable characteristics
(phylogenetic) based on evolutionary history;
shows ancestry of groups / points of divergence;
members of a group have features in common; based on
anatomy/fossils/embryology/DNA/specific aspect of cell biology or homologous structures,
reflecting evolutionary history; phylogeny.
Q. Explain the principles biologists use to classify organisms into groups
compared to older models.
Consider phylogeny
Look at evolutionary lineage/history
Find the point of divergence from a common ancestor
Consider, genetic, biochemical, embryology, homology of anatomy
Organisms are arranged in a hierarchy where large taxa (groups) are subdivided into
smaller taxa
(K, P, C, O, F, G,S)
As groups get smaller the similarities between the species increase
Each species is given a binomial name using the genus and species
Older models of classification used observable features to group organisms
Problems with classification
Defining a species is difficult when, reproductive behaviour cannot be observed because.
They organisms are extinct
Reproduce asexually
Practical and ethical issues involved when trying to cross breed certain different species

Genetic comparisons as a means of classification

Originally classification was limited to things we could observe (looks and
behaviour (courtship as an example)), today we can use DNA and proteins.
Species can be classified into the different taxonomic groups based on
similarities/differences in their genes. This can be achieved by comparing their DNA and
proteins (coded for by DNA). More closely related = more similar DNA and proteins.
Comparing DNA: 2 possible methods, DNA sequencing or DNA hybridisation
DNA sequencing
Directly compare DNA by looking at the order of bases (A, T, C and G). Closely related
species will have a higher percentage of similarity
DNA Hybridisation
DNA from 2 species is collected, heated and separated into single strands (heating breaks Hbonds between the DNA bases)
The 2 separates species DNA is mixed and allowed to cool, this allows H-bonds to reform
between complementary base pairs. The more similar the base sequences the more H-bonds
that will form.
The similarity is measure by heating the hybrid strands and recording the temperature
required to separate the strands. The higher the temperature required the more H-bonds
that existed and the more closely related the DNA.
Comparing proteins can be done in 2 ways, comparing amino acid sequences,
immunological comparisons.
Comparing amino acids sequences
Proteins are made up of amino acids. The sequence of amino acids is coded for by DNA. The
closer the DNA sequences the more closely related the proteins.
Immunological comparisons
Uses antibody specificity to see how similar proteins are

Scientists studied two species of North American seahorse. They thought that these
two species are closely related. Describe how comparisons of biological molecules in
these two species could be used to find out if they are closely related.
(Compare) DNA;
Sequence of bases/nucleotides;

DNA hybridisation;
Heat and Separate DNA strands / break hydrogen bonds;
Mix DNA/strands (of different species);
Measure Temperature/heat required to separate (hybrid) strands indicates relationship;
Higher temp more closely related
Compare same/named protein;
Sequence of amino acids /primary structure;
Immunological evidence not a mark
Inject (seahorse) protein/serum into animal
(Obtain) antibodies/serum;
Add protein/serum/plasma from other (seahorse) species;
Amount of precipitate indicates relationship

Biologists can also use protein structure to investigate the relationship

between different species of crane. Explain why.
1. More closely related (species) have more similarities in amino acid sequence/primary
structure;
2. In same protein / named protein e.g. albumin;
3. Amino acid sequence is related to (DNA) base/triplet sequence;
OR
4. Similar species have a similar immune response to a protein/named protein;
5. More closely related (species) produce more precipitate / antibody-antigen
(complexes) / agglutination;
Courtship
Courtship behaviour allows animals to:
Recognise members of their own species. This is particularly important where many very
similar species live in the same habitat. Reproduction between members of different
species may be possible, but wont lead to fertile offspring, so should be avoided.
Attract a mate of the opposite sex.
Identify a mate that is capable of breeding. Both partners need to be sexually mature,
fertile and receptive to mating. Many females only produce eggs at specific times, often
just once a year.
Synchronise the production of eggs and sperm.
Form a pair bond and help raise the offspring.
Many birds have complex courtship displays involving bright colours and stereotyped
movements. For example, the peacock attracts females by displaying its massive, brightlycoloured tail and at the same time vibrating its tail feathers. Explain the benefits to the
species of such elaborate courtship displays, and suggest how they may have
evolved. (6)
Acts as (sign) stimulus for mating behaviour /activity by female;
Assists species recognition;
Indicates fittest / healthy male;
Male with best display more likely to mate;
(More likely) to pass on genes;
Genes for features of display passed on;
More young from these males likely to survive;
Process repeated through many generations;
Good display linked with other features favouring survival.
Give two ways in which courtship is important in species such as sticklebacks.
enables male / female to recognise opposite sex;
enables recognition of own species;
synchronises mating behaviour;

Behaviour in the males of a species of cichlid fish. In this some males are territorial while others
are not. Territorial males have flashy eyebars and reddish- orange patches on their flanks, while
the drab non-territorial males look rather like females. The territory holders aggressively
dominate males without territories and only the territorial males can breed. Should a territory
holder die, a drab male will quickly become colourful and behave as aggressively as the previous

owner. Being an underling in this species has dire physiological consequences. Not only is
reproductive behaviour suppressed, but so is the entire system that links the brain to the testes.
The results are shrunken testes and a low concentration of androgens. Dominant territorial fish,
on the other hand, have large testes and a high concentration of androgens.
Suggest how the appearance and behaviour of male cichlids are likely to lead to
success in reproduction.(6)
territorial signal / territory holder linked to colour aggressiveness;
sex recognition;
species recognition;
sexual maturity;
courtship signal;
reduces conflict / warm off other males;
territorial / dominant males have larger testes / more sperm;

Antibiotic resistance
Suggest three ways in which antibiotics may act on bacteria.
Prevent DNA replication;
prevent protein synthesis/transcription/translation/ribosome function;
damage/inhibit formation of cell wall;
Describe ways in which antibiotics can act against bacteria. Explain why this mode of action is effective
against the bacteria.
Prevent DNA replication
Prevent m-RNA synthesis (transcription)
Prevent transfer of amino acids to ribosomes (translation)
Prevent cell wall synthesis
Preventing DNA replication:
Bacterial cell will be unable to divide;
Prevent reproduction population of bacteria will not increase;
Preventing m-RNA synthesis
No m-RNA means code not passed to ribosomes form transcription;; no protein synthesis means no new
enzymes;
Preventing transfer of amino acid
No proteins made at ribosomes
No translation means no enzymes / no proteins structures;
Prevent cell wall synthesis
Water potential of bacterial cell lower than surrounding solution
Water enters by osmosis
Osmotic lysis occurs
Bacteriostatic antibiotics do not kill bacteria but allow patients to recover
from a bacterial infection. Explain why they allow patients to recover.
Prevent further growth/multiplication of bacteria;
allow time for immune response (to bacteria);
Explain how resistance to an antibiotic could become widespread in a bacterial
population following a gene mutation conferring resistance in just one
bacterium.
Bacteria with natural mutation develop resistant allele and have (selective) advantage
over others / described;
Frequent use of antibiotic creates selection pressure/ antibiotic kills non resistant
bacteria;
Resistant bacteria (Survive to) reproduce more than other types;
Pass on advantageous allele/ mutated allele in greater numbers;
Frequency of (advantageous) allele increases in subsequent generations;
(penalise use of gene instead of allele once only)
Frequency of resistant types increases in subsequent generations;

Resistance is passed on from one

generation to another as bacteria
reproduce asexually. Vertical gene
transmission
Resistance may be passed on from
one speices to another through
conjugation, horizontal gene
transmission.

Biodiversity

All the organisms living in a habitat are collectively called its community, and species
diversity means the variety of species in a community. Species diversity is useful
because it tell us about the complexity, quality and stability of an ecosystem.
The best measure of Species diversity considers the number of different species (species
richness) and the abundance (number) of each species within a community.
The higher the species diversity of plants and trees, the more habitats, the more varied
the food sources and the more food available which consequently means a higher
diversity of insects and birds and animals.
We can calculate species diversity using the Simpson Index of Diversity
N = total number of all organisms
n = Total number of organisms in one species
= sum of

Agricultural practices (intensive farming) why things are done and the consequences of
these processes
Agriculture
Selective breeding: done to select for certain favourable characteristics reduces genetic
diversity.
Destruction of hedgerows: Makes large farms with large fields are cheaper and more
efficient to run by easing the moving machinery and harvesting. Hedgerows provide
habitats for at least 30 species of trees and shrubs, 65 species of nesting birds, 1500
species of insects and 600 species of wildflowers. These in turn provide food for small
mammals. Hedgerows also act as wildlife corridors, allowing animals to move safely
between woodlands.
Monoculture: increases the productivity by growing the best crops, which can be sowed
and harvested quickly using dedicated machinery. This increases yield and reduces
labour costs. It reduces genetic diversity and renders all crops in a region susceptible to
disease. Reduces animal species diversity, because there are few niches.
Fertilisers: maintain soil fertility, but they can pollute surrounding groundwater causing
eutrophication and killing aquatic animals.
Pesticides: are sprayed on crops to prevent attack by insects and other invertebrate
animals, but many pesticides have a broad spectrum, killing a wide range of animals and
so reducing diversity.

Herbicides: kill competing plants (weeds) that might reduce crop yield.

Deforestation
The Two main reasons humans clear forests are:
To use the land for agriculture, housing, mining or reservoirs
To use the timber for fuel, charcoal, paper or building materials.
Forests have a high biodiversity because a mature forest has many different species of
plants in several layers; each adapted to their own conditions of light and nutrient
availability. The different plants have different animals feeding on them and living in
them; and the different primary consumers have different secondary consumers feeding
on the. So forests contain complex food webs with high diversity.

Agriculture Deforestation

By contrast, a field of crops has very low diversity with very few plants (often just the
crop and a few weeds) and so few animals. Deforestation therefore reduces biodiversity.
As the diagram shows, forests have a deeper and more extensive root system, so binding
the soil together.
Without this root system, soils can be eroded, leading to desertification (fertile land
becomes desert). Forests also have a high productivity: i.e. there is a lot of plant material
produced per square meter of land, and a lot of photosynthesis takes place. So
deforestation reduces the rate at which carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere
and so increases the greenhouse effect and global warming.

benefits Wood and land for homes

Local areas developed by attracting business
Risks

Diversity reduced
Less carbon dioxide stored: leading to climate change
Possible sources of medicines (often found in rain forest) are lost
Natural beauty lost
benefits More food can be produced
Food is cheaper to produce and so cheaper to buy
Attraction of local business
Risks
Diversity is reduced due to monoculture, loss hedgerows, use of herbicides
and pesticide
Natural beauty lost