VARIABLE-FREQUENCY NETWORK

PERFORMANCE
LEARNING GOALS
Variable-Frequency Response Analysis
Network performance as function of frequency.
Transfer function
Sinusoidal Frequency Analysis
Bode plots to display frequency response data

Filter Networks
Networks with frequency selective characteristics:
low-pass, high-pass, band-pass

SINUSOIDAL FREQUENCY ANALYSIS

j ( t + )

A0e

B0 cos( t + )

H (s)

A0 H ( j )e j ( t + )

B0 | H ( j ) | cos( t + + H ( j ) )

Circuit represented by
network function

To study the behavior of a network as a function of the frequency we analyze

the network function H ( j ) as a function of .

Notation
M ( ) =| H ( j ) |

( ) = H ( j )
H ( j ) = M ( )e j ( )

Plots of M ( ), ( ), as function of are generally called

magnitude and phase characteri stics.
20 log10 (M ( ))
BODE PLOTS
vs log10 ( )
( )

HISTORY OF THE DECIBEL

Originated as a measure of relative (radio) power

P2 |dB (over P1 ) = 10 log

P2
P1

V2
V22
I 22
P=I R=
P2 |dB (over P1 ) = 10 log 2 = 10 log 2
R
V1
I1
2

V |dB = 20 log10 | V |
By extension

I |dB = 20 log10 | I |
G |dB = 20 log10 | G |

Using log scales the frequency characteristics of network functions

have simple asymptotic behavior.
The asymptotes can be used as reasonable and efficient approximations

Poles and Zeros and Transfer Functions

Transfer Function:

A transfer function is defined as the ratio of the Laplace

transform of the output to the input with all initial
conditions equal to zero. Transfer functions are defined
only for linear time invariant systems.

Considerations:

Transfer functions can usually be expressed as the ratio

of two polynomials in the complex variable, s.

Factorization:

A transfer function can be factored into the following form.

G ( s) =

K ( s + z )( s + z ) ... ( s + z )
( s + p )( s + p ) ... ( s + p )
1

The roots of the numerator polynomial are called zeros.

The roots of the denominator polynomial are called poles.
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Poles, Zeros and the S-Plane

An Example:

You are given the following transfer function. Show the

poles and zeros in the s-plane.
G (s) =

( s + 8)( s + 14)
s ( s + 4)( s + 10)

j axis
S - plane

o
-14

x
-10

-8

-4

origin

x
0

axis

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Poles, Zeros and Bode Plots

Characterization:

Considering the transfer function of the

previous slide. We note that we have 4 different
types of terms in the previous general form:
These are:
K ,
B

1
1
,
,
s ( s / p + 1)

( s / z + 1)

Given the tranfer function:

Expressing in dB:

G ( jw) =

K ( jw / z +1)
( jw)( jw / p +1)
B

20 log | G ( jw | = 20 log K + 20 log | ( jw / z + 1) | 20 log | jw | 20 log | jw / p + 1 |

B

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Poles, Zeros and Bode Plots

Mechanics:

We have 4 distinct terms to consider:

20logKB
20log|(jw/z +1)|
-20log|jw|
-20log|(jw/p + 1)|

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Poles, Zeros and Bode Plots

Mechanics:

The gain term, 20logKB, is just so many

dB and this is a straight line on Bode paper,
independent of omega (radian frequency).
The term, - 20log|jw| = - 20logw, when plotted
on semi-log paper is a straight line sloping at
-20dB/decade. It has a magnitude of 0 at w = 1.

20

-20db/dec

0
-20

=1

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Poles, Zeros and Bode Plots

Mechanics: The term, - 20log|(jw/p + 1), is drawn with the
following approximation: If w < p we use the
approximation that 20log|(jw/p + 1 )| = 0 dB,
a flat line on the Bode. If w > p we use the
approximation of 20log(w/p), which slopes at
-20dB/dec starting at w = p. Illustrated below.
It is easy to show that the plot has an error of
-3dB at w = p and 1 dB at w = p/2 and w = 2p.
One can easily make these corrections if it is
appropriate.
20
0

-20db/dec

-20
-40

=p

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Poles, Zeros and Bode Plots

Mechanics:

When we have a term of 20log|(jw/z + 1)| we

approximate it be a straight line of slop 0 dB/dec
when w < z. We approximate it as 20log(w/z)
when w > z, which is a straight line on Bode paper
with a slope of + 20dB/dec. Illustrated below.

20

+20db/dec
0
-20
-40

=z

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Example 1:
Given:

G ( jw) =

50, 000( jw + 10)

( jw + 1)( jw + 500)

First: Always, always, always get the poles and zeros in a form such that
the constants are associated with the jw terms. In the above example
we do this by factoring out the 10 in the numerator and the 500 in the
denominator.

G ( jw) =
Second:

50, 000 x10( jw /10 + 1)

100( jw /10 + 1)
=
500( jw + 1)( jw / 500 + 1)
( jw + 1)( jw / 500 + 1)

When you have neither poles nor zeros at 0, start the Bode
at 20log10K = 20log10100 = 40 dB in this case.

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Example 1:

(continued)

Third: Observe the order in which the poles and zeros occur.
This is the secret of being able to quickly sketch the Bode.
In this example we first have a pole occurring at 1 which
causes the Bode to break at 1 and slope 20 dB/dec.
Next, we see a zero occurs at 10 and this causes a
slope of +20 dB/dec which cancels out the 20 dB/dec,
resulting in a flat line ( 0 db/dec). Finally, we have a
pole that occurs at w = 500 which causes the Bode
to slope down at 20 dB/dec.
We are now ready to draw the Bode.
Before we draw the Bode we should observe the range
over which the transfer function has active poles and zeros.
This determines the scale we pick for the w (rad/sec)
at the bottom of the Bode.
The dB scale depends on the magnitude of the plot and
experience is the best teacher here.

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Bode Plot Magnitude for 100(1 + jw/10)/(1 + jw/1)(1 + jw/500)

1

60

1
1

1
1

1
1

1
1

40

20

dB Mag

dB Mag

Phase (deg)
Phase (deg)

-20

-60

-60
0.1

10

(rad/sec) 1000
100
(rad/sec)

10000

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Using Matlab For Frequency Response

Instruction: We can use Matlab to run the frequency response for
the previous example. We place the transfer function
in the form:
5000( s +10)
[ 5000 s + 50000 ]
=
( s +1)( s + 500)
[ s + 501s + 500]
2

The Matlab Program

num = [5000 50000];
den = [1 501 500];
Bode (num,den)
In the following slide, the resulting magnitude and phase plots (exact)
are shown in light color (blue). The approximate plot for the magnitude
(Bode) is shown in heavy lines (red). We see the 3 dB errors at the
corner frequencies.
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B ode Diagram s
From: U(1)
40
30

10
0
-10

10

100

500

0
-20
To: Y (1)

P has e (deg); M agnitude (dB )

20

-40
-60
-80
-100
10 -1

Bode for:
10 0

G ( jw) =
10 1

100(1 + jw / 10)
(1 + jw)(1 + jw / 500)
10 2

10 3

10 4

Frequenc y (rad/sec )
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Phase for Bode Plots

Comment:

Illustration:

Generally, the phase for a Bode plot is not as easy to draw

or approximate as the magnitude. In this course we will use
an analytical method for determining the phase if we want to
make a sketch of the phase.
Consider the transfer function of the previous example.
We express the angle as follows:
G ( jw) = tan ( w / 10) tan ( w / 1) tan ( w / 500)
1

We are essentially taking the angle of each pole and zero.

Each of these are expressed as the tan-1(j part/real part)
Usually, about 10 to 15 calculations are sufficient to determine
a good idea of what is happening to the phase.

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Bode Plots
Example 2:

Given the transfer function. Plot the Bode magnitude.

G (s) =

100(1 + s / 10)
s (1 + s / 100)
2

Consider first only the two terms of

100
jw

Which, when expressed in dB, are; 20log100 20 logw.

This is plotted below.

40
-20db/dec

dB

20
0

The
is
a tentative line we use
until we encounter the
first pole(s) or zero(s)
not at the origin.

-20

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(rad/sec)

Bode Plots
Example 2: (continued)

The completed plot is shown below.

G (s) =

60

100(1 + s / 10)
s (1 + s / 100)

-20db/dec
40

20

dB Mag

-40 db/dec

Phase (deg)

-20

G (s) =
-40

-60
0.1

10

(rad/sec)

100

1000

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100(1 + s / 10)
s (1 + s / 100)
2

Bode Plots
Example 3:

80(1 + jw)3
G( s) =
( jw)3 (1 + jw / 20)2

Given:
1

20log80 = 38 dB
1

-60 dB/dec
60

dB Mag 40

-40 dB/dec
20

-20

.
0.1

(rad/sec)

10

100

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Bode Plots
Example 4:
Given:
1

G ( jw) =
1

10(1 jw / 2)
(1 + j 0.025w)(1 + jw / 500) 2
1

60

40

+ 20 dB/dec
-40 dB/dec

20

dB Mag

Phase (deg)

Sort of a low
pass filter

-20

-40

-60
0.1

10

(rad/sec)

100

1000

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Bode Plots
Given:

(1 + jw / 30) (1+ jw / 100)

G ( jw) =
(1+ jw / 2) (1+ jw / 1700)
2

Example 5
1

60

40

20

dB Mag

Phase (deg)

-40 dB/dec

-20

Sort of a low
pass filter
+ 40 dB/dec

-40

-60
0.1

10

(rad/sec)

100

1000

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Bode Plots
Given:

problem 11.15 text

Example 6

H ( jw) =

640( jw + 1)(0.01 jw + 1) 64( jw + 1)(0.01 jw + 1)

=
( jw) ( jw + 10)
( jw) (0.1 jw + 1)
2

.
-40dB/dec

40

20

-20db/dec

.
-40dB/dec

dB mag

-20

-20dB/dec

-40

0.01

0.1

10

100

1000

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Bode Plots
Design Problem:

Design a G(s) that has the following Bode plot.

Example 7

40

30 dB

20

-40dB/dec

+40 dB/dec

dB mag

0.1

10

30

rad/sec

100

900

1000

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Bode Plots
Procedure: The two break frequencies need to be found. Recall:
#dec = log10[w2/w1]
Then we have:

(#dec)( 40dB/dec)

= 30 dB

log10[w1/30] = 0.75

w1 = 5.33 rad/sec

Also:

log10[w2/900] (-40dB/dec) = - 30dB

This gives w2 = 5060 rad/sec

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Bode Plots
Procedure:

(1 + s / 5.3) 2 (1 + s / 5060) 2
G( s) =
(1 + s / 30) 2 (1 + s / 900) 2
Clearing:

( s + 5.3) 2 ( s + 5060) 2
G( s) =
( s + 30)2 ( s + 900)2

Use Matlab and conv:

N 1 = ( s 2 + 10.6s + 28.1)

N 2 = ( s 2 + 10120s + 2.56 xe7 )

N1 = [1 10.6 28.1]

N2 = [1 10120 2.56e+7]

N = conv(N1,N2)
1

1.86e+3

s4

s3

2.58e+7

s2

2.73e+8 7.222e+8

s1

s0
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Bode Plots
Procedure:

The final G(s) is given by;

( s + 10130.6 s + 2.571e s + 2.716e s + 7.194e )

G ( s) =
( s + 1860 s + 9.189e s + 5.022e s + 7.29e )
4

Testing:

We now want to test the filter. We will check it at = 5.3 rad/sec

And = 164. At = 5.3 the filter has a gain of 6 dB or about 2.
At = 164 the filter has a gain of 30 dB or about 31.6.
We will check this out using MATLAB and particularly, Simulink.

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Matlab (Simulink) Model:

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Filter Output at = 5.3 rad/sec

Produced from Matlab Simulink

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Filter Output at = 70 rad/sec

Produced from Matlab Simulink

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Reverse Bode Plot

Required:
Example 8

From the partial Bode diagram, determine the transfer function

(Assume a minimum phase system)

Not to scale
68
20 db/dec
-20 db/dec
30
20 db/dec

dB

110

850

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Reverse Bode Plot

Required:
From the partial Bode diagram, determine the transfer function
Example 9

(Assume a minimum phase system)

100 dB
-40 dB/dec

Not to scale

50 dB
-20 dB/dec

-20 dB/dec
10 dB
-40 dB/dec

0.5

40
w (rad/sec)

300

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Appendix

General form of a network function showing basic terms

Poles/zeros at the origin
Frequency independent

K 0 ( j ) N (1 + j1 )[1 + 2 3 ( j 3 ) + ( j 3 ) 2 ]...
H ( j ) =
(1 + j a )[1 + 2 b ( j b ) + ( j b ) 2 ]...
log( AB ) = log A + log B First order terms
N
log( ) = log N log D
D

Quadratic terms for

complex conjugate poles/zeros

| H ( j ) |dB = 20 log10 | H ( j ) | = 20 log10 K 0 N 20 log10 | j |

+ 20 log10 | 1 + j1 | +20 log10 | 1 + 2 3 ( j 3 ) + ( j 3 ) 2 | +...

20 log10 | 1 + j a | 20 log10 | 1 + 2 b ( j b ) + ( j b ) 2 | ..
z1z2 = z1 + z2 H ( j ) = 0 N 90
Display each basic term
z1
= z1 z2
1
1 2 3 3
separately and add the

+
tan
+
tan
+
...
1
z2
results to obtain final
1 ( 3 ) 2
2 b b
tan a tan
...
2
1 ( b )
1

answer

Lets examine each basic term

Constant Term

the x - axis is log10

this is a straight line
Poles/Zeros at the origin

( j )

| ( j ) N |dB = N 20 log10 ( )

( j ) N = N 90

| 1 + j |dB = 20 log10 1 + ( ) 2
1
+
j

Simple pole or zero

(1 + j ) = tan 1

<< 1 | 1 + j |dB 0 low frequency asymptote

(1 + j ) 0

>> 1 | 1 + j |dB 20 log10 high frequency asymptote (20dB/dec)

The two asymptotes meet when = 1 (corner/break frequency)

(1 + j ) 90

Behavior in the neighborhood of the corner

corner
octave above
octave below

distance to
FrequencyAsymptoteCurve asymptote Argument
3dB
3
45
= 1 0dB

= 2
= 0 .5

6dB

7db

63.4

0dB

1dB

26.6

Asymptote for phase

Low freq. Asym.

High freq. asymptote

Simple zero

Simple pole

2
Quadratic pole or zero t 2 = [1 + 2 ( j ) + ( j ) ] = [1 + 2 ( j ) ( ) ]
2

| t 2 |dB = 20 log10

(1 ( ) )

2 2

t 2 = tan 1

+ (2 )

<< 1 | t 2 |dB 0 low frequency asymptote

2
1 ( ) 2

t 2 0

>>1 | t 2 |dB 20 log10 ( ) 2 high freq. asymptote 40dB/dec t 2 180

= 1 | t 2 |dB = 20 log10 ( 2 ) Corner/break frequency

t 2 = 90

= 1 2 2 | t 2 |dB = 20 log10 2 1 2 Resonance frequency

These graphs are inverted for a zero

Magnitude for quadratic pole

t 2 = tan

1 2 2

Phase for quadratic pole

2
2

LEARNING EXAMPLE
Draw asymptotes
for each term

Generate magnitude and phase plots

Gv ( j ) =

10(0.1 j + 1)
( j + 1)(0.02 j + 1)

Breaks/corners : 1,10,50

Draw composites

dB
40
20

10 |dB

20dB / dec

0
20 dB / dec

20

90
45 / dec

45 / dec

0.1

10

100

90
1000

asymptotes

LEARNING EXAMPLE

Generate magnitude and phase plots

Draw asymptotes for each

Gv ( j ) =

Form composites

25( j + 1)
( j ) 2 (0.1 j + 1)

Breaks (corners) : 1, 10

dB
40
28dB

20
0

40dB / dec

20

90

45 / dec

45

90

180

0.1

10

100

270

Final results . . . And an extra hint on poles at the origin

40

dB
dec

20

dB
dec
40

1
K0
= 0 = ( K 0 )2
( j ) 2 dB

dB
dec

LEARNING EXTENSION

Sketch the magnitude characteristic

breaks : 2, 10, 100

104 ( j + 2)
G ( j ) =
But the function is NOT in standard form
( j + 10)( j + 100)
20( j / 2 + 1)
We need to show about
Put in standard form G ( j ) =
4 decades
( j / 10 + 1)( j / 100 + 1)

dB
40
25 |dB

20
0
20

90

10

100

1000

90

LEARNING EXTENSION

Sketch the magnitude characteristic

It is in standard form
break at 50
Double pole at the origin

100(0.02 j + 1
G ( j ) =
( j ) 2

dB
40
20
0
20
90
90

10

100

Once each term is drawn we form the composites

270
1000

LEARNING EXTENSION
Put in standard form

G ( j ) =

j
( j + 1)( j / 10 + 1)

Sketch the magnitude characteristic

G ( j ) =

10 j
( j + 1)( j + 10)

not in standard form

zero at the origin
breaks : 1, 10

dB
40
20
0
20

20dB / dec
20dB / dec

90
90

0.1

10
Once each term is drawn we form the composites

100

270

LEARNING EXAMPLE A function with complex conjugate poles

t 2 = [1 + 2 ( j ) + ( j ) 2 ]
Put in standard form

G ( j ) =
G ( j ) =

Draw composite asymptote

25 j
( j + 0.5) ( j ) 2 + 4 j + 100

0.5 j
( j / 0.5 + 1) ( j / 10) 2 + j / 25 + 1

2 = 1 / 25
= 0.2
= 0.1

dB
40
20
= 1 | t 2 |dB = 20 log10 (2 )

8dB

20

90
90

Behavior close to corner of conjugate pole/zero

is too dependent on damping ratio.
Computer evaluation is better

0.01

0.1

10

270
100

Evaluation of frequency response using MATLAB

G ( j ) =

Using default options

25 j
( j + 0.5) ( j ) 2 + 4 j + 100

num=[25,0]; %define numerator polynomial

den=conv([1,0.5],[1,4,100]) %use CONV for polynomial multiplication
den =
1.0000
4.5000 102.0000
50.0000
freqs(num,den)

Evaluation of frequency response using MATLAB User controlled

G ( j ) =

25 j
( j + 0.5) ( j ) 2 + 4 j + 100

>> clear all; close all %clear workspace and close any open figure
>> figure(1) %open one figure window (not STRICTLY necessary)
>> w=logspace(-1,3,200);%define x-axis, [10^{-1} - 10^3], 200pts total
>> G=25*j*w./((j*w+0.5).*((j*w).^2+4*j*w+100)); %compute transfer function
>> subplot(211) %divide figure in two. This is top part
>> semilogx(w,20*log10(abs(G))); %put magnitude here

>> grid %put a grid and give proper title and labels
>> ylabel('|G(j\omega)|(dB)'), title('Bode Plot: Magnitude response')

Evaluation of frequency response using MATLAB User controlled

Repeat for phase

Continued

USE TO ZOOM IN A SPECIFIC REGION OF INTEREST

>> semilogx(w,unwrap(angle(G)*180/pi)) %unwrap avoids jumps from +180 to -180

>> grid, ylabel('Angle H(j\omega)(\circ)'), xlabel('\omega (rad/s)')
>> title('Bode Plot: Phase Response')

No xlabel here to avoid clutter

Compare with default!

LEARNING EXTENSION

t 2 = [1 + 2 ( j ) + ( j ) ]
2

Sketch the magnitude characteristic

0.2( j + 1)
G ( j ) =
j [( j / 12) 2 + j / 36 + 1]

= 1 / 12
2 = 1 / 36 = 1 / 6
= 1 | t 2 |dB = 20 log10 (2 )
= 9.5dB

dB
40
20

20dB / dec

0
20

0dB / dec

90
40dB / dec

90

0.1

12

10

100

270

G ( j ) =

0.2( j + 1)
j [( j / 12) 2 + j / 36 + 1]

num=0.2*[1,1];
den=conv([1,0],[1/144,1/36,1]);
freqs(num,den)

DETERMINING THE TRANSFER FUNCTION FROM THE BODE PLOT

This is the inverse problem of determining frequency characteristics.
We will use only the composite asymptotes plot of the magnitude to postulate
a transfer function. The slopes will provide information on the order
A. different from 0dB.
There is a constant Ko
A

K 0 |dB = 20 K 0

D
E

K 0 |dB
= 10 20

B. Simple pole at 0.1

( j / 0.1 + 1) 1
C. Simple zero at 0.5

( j / 0.5 + 1)
D. Simple pole at 3

( j / 3 + 1) 1
E. Simple pole at 20

G ( j ) =

10( j / 0.5 + 1)
( j / 0.1 + 1)( j / 3 + 1)( j / 20 + 1)

( j / 20 + 1) 1

If the slope is -40dB we assume double real pole. Unless we are given more data

LEARNING EXTENSION

Determine a transfer function from the composite

magnitude asymptotes plot
A. Pole at the origin.
Crosses 0dB line at 5

C
E
A
B

5
j
B. Zero at 5
C. Pole at 20
D. Zero at 50
E. Pole at 100

5( j / 5 + 1)( j / 50 + 1)
G ( j ) =
j ( j / 20 + 1)( j / 100 + 1)

Sinusoidal

DESIGN EXAMPLE

BASS-BOOST AMPLIFIER
(non-inverting op-amp)

DESIRED BODE PLOT

f =
P

500
2

OPEN SWITCH
(6dB)

Switch closed??

DESIGN EXAMPLE

TREBLE BOOST

Original player response

Desired boost

Design equations

Proposed boost circuit

Non-inverting amplifier

Filters