Assessment of Children

San Diego
Jerome M. Sattler, Publisher,Inc.
ssessment of Children
Cognitive Foundations
Fifth Edition
Jerome Me Sattler
San Diego State University
San Diego State University
Jerome M. Sattler
Fifth Edition
Cognitive Foundations
Assessment of Children
Jerome M . Sattler, Publisher, Inc .
San Diego
1
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CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN:

THE PROCESS
. Study Questions
Key Terms, Concepts, and Names
Tests not accompanied by detailed data on their construction, validation, uses, and limitations should be suspect.
-Oscar K. Buros, founder of the Institute
of Mental Measurements (1905-1978)
Summary
Goals and Objectives
Thinking Through the Issues
This chapter is designed to enable you to do the following:
Steps in the Assessment Process
Identify the purposes of assessment

Delineate principles guiding the use of tests
Describe the skills needed to become a competent clinical assessor
Describe the basic techniques used in the assessment
process
List the steps in the assessment process
Guidelines for Conducting Assessments
Multimethod Assessment
Four Pillars of Assessment
Identify the purposes of assessment

Delineate principles guiding the use of tests
Describe the skills needed to become a competent clinical assessor
Describe the basic techniques used in the assessment
process
List the steps in the assessment process
Types of Assessment
'!Ypes of Assessment
Four Pillars of Assessment

-Oscar K. Buros, founder of the Institute

of Mental Measurements (1905-1978)
Tests not accompanied by detailed data on their construction, validation, uses, and limitations should be suspect.
This chapter is designed to enable you to do the following:

Thinking Through the Issues
Summary
Goals and Objectives
Key Terms, Concepts, and Names

~
Study Questions
CHALLENGES
' IN
.ASSESSING CHILDREN:
THE PROCESS
.
CHAPTER 1
CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN:THE PROCESS
( Continued)
Psychological reports do count. Psychological reports are
key documents used by mental health professionals, teachers,
administrators, physicians, courts, parents, and children.
Words can be misinterpreted. A pivotal factor in the case
was the meaning of the words reevaluate and retest. Participants in the case, including judges, assigned different meanings
v. the Board of Education of the City of New York
his late teenage years. Mr. Hoffman had made poor progress
during his school years, and there had been no significant
change in his severe speech defect. At the age of 17, he entered a sheltered workshop for youths with mental retardation.
After a few months in the program, he was given the Wechsler
Adult Intelligence Scale and obtained a Verbal Scale 10 of 85,
a Performance Scale 10 of 107, and a Full Scale 10 of 94. His
overall functioning was in the Normal range. On the basis of
these findings. Mr. Hoffman was not permitted to remain at the
Occupational Training Center. On learning of this decision, he
became depressed. often staying in his room at home with the
door closed.
Mr. Hoffman tlien received assistance from the DiVision of
Vocational Rehabilit'ation. At the age of 21. he was trained to
be a messenger, but he did not like this work. At the time of the
trial, he had obtained no further training or education, had not
advanced vocationally, and had not improved his social life.
THE IMPORTANCE OFTHE CASE FOR THE PRACTICE

OF SCHOOL AND CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
The case of Daniel Hoffman v. the Board of Education of the
City of New York is one of the first cases in which the courts
carefully scrutinized psychological reports and the process of
special education placement. Despite the outcome of the case
for the plaintiff, the case raises several important issues related
to the psychoeducational assessment process.
Verdict and Appeals

The case was initially tried before a jury, which returned a verdict in favor of Mr. Hoffman, awarding him damages of $750,000.
This decision was appealed to the Appellate DiVIsion of the New
York State Supreme Court, which affirmed the jury verdict on
November 6, 1978, but lowered damages to $500,000. The New
York State Appeals Court overturned the Appellate Court's decision on December 17, 1979, finding that the court system was
not the proper arena for testing the validity of educational decisions or for second-guessing such decisions.
Verdict and Appeals

The case was initially tried before a jury, which returned a verdict in favor of Mr. Hoffman, awarding him damages of $750,000.
This decision was appealed to the Appellate Division of the New
York State Supreme Court, which affirmed the jury verdict on
November 6, 1978, but lowered damages to $500,000. The New
York State Appeals Court overturned the Appellate Court's decision on December 17, 1979, finding that the court system was
not the proper arena for testing the validity of educational decisions or for second-guessing such decisions.
his late teenage years. Mr. Hoffman had made poor progress
during his school years, and there had been no significant
change in his severe speech defect. At the age of 17, he entered a sheltered workshop for youths with mental retardation.
After a few months in the program, he was given the Wechsler
Adult Intelligence Scale and obtained a Verbal Scale 10 of 85,
a Performance Scale 10 of 107, and a Full Scale 10 of 94. His
overall functioning was in the Normal range. On the basis of
these findings, Mr. Hoffman was not permitted to remain at the
Occupational Training Center. On learning of this decision, he
became depressed, often staying in his room at home with the
door closed.
Mr. Hoffman tlien received assistance from the Division of
Vocational Rehabilitation. At the age of 21, he was trained to
be messenger, but he did not like this work. At the time of the
trial, he had obtained no further training or education, had not
advanced vocationally, and had not improved his social life.
a:
THE IMPORTANCE OFTHE CASE FOR THE PRACTICE

OF SCHOOL AND CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
The case of Daniel Hoffman v. the Board of Education of the
City of New York is one of the first cases in which the courts
carefully scrutinized psychological reports and the process of
special education placement. Despite the outcome of the case
for the plaintiff, the case raises several important issues related
to the psychoeducational assessment process.
Introduction
The case of Daniel Hoffman v. the Board of Education of the City
of New York is instructive because it illustrates the important role
that testing and psychological reports can play in people's lives.
In this case, a psychological report contained a recommendation that was ignored by the school administrators. Years later,
when the case was tried, the failure to follow the recommendations became a key issue.
Psychological reports do count. Psychological reports are

key documents used by mental health profeSSionals, teachers,
administrators, physicians, courts, parents, and children.
Words can be misinterpreted. A pivotal factor in the case
was the meaning of the words reevaluate and retest. Participants in the case, including judges, assigned different meanings
Exhibit 1-1
Psychological Reports Do Count: The Case of Daniel Hoffman
Removal from Training Program

In a curious twist of fate, testing, which resulted in Mr. Hoffman's
being assigned to special education. also played an important
role in removing him from a special workshop program during
~'".'
Inadequate Assessment Procedures

During the trial it was shown that the psychologist who tested
Mr. Hoffman in kindergarten had failed (a) to interview Daniel's
mother. (b) to obtain a social history, and (c) to discuss the results of the evaluation with Daniel's mother. If a history had been
obtained, the psychologist would have learned that Mr. Hoffman
had been tested 10 months previously at the National Hospital for Speech Disorders and had obtained an 10 of 90 on the
Merrill-Palmer Scale of Mental Tests.
Inadequate Assessment Procedures

During the trial it was shown that the psychologist who tested
Mr. Hoffman in kindergarten had failed (a) to interview Daniel's
mother, (b) to'obtain a social history, and (c) to discuss the results of the evaluation with Daniel's mother. If a history had been
obtained, the psychologist would have learned that Mr. Hoffman
had been tested 10 months previously at the National Hospital for Speech Disorders and had obtained an 10 of 90 on the
Merrill-Palmer Scale of Mental Tests.
Board of Education's Position

The Board of Education took the position that Mr. Hoffman's 10
of 74, obtained on the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale when
he was 5 years, 9 months old, indicated that his placement in a
class for children with mental retardation was appropriate. The
Board contended that the test was proper and administered by
a competent and experienced psychologist. It also noted that
it was the unanimous professional judgment of Mr. Hoffman'S
teachers, based on their evaluation and his performance on
standardized achievement tests, that a retest was not warranted. The Board made clear that at the time Mr. Hoffman was
in school, its policy was to retest only when retesting was recommended by teachers or requested by parents.
The .psychological report in which the psychologist had recommended that Mr. Hoffman be placed in a class for children
with mental retardation was one" of the key documents on which
the entire case rested. The ketsentence in the 1957 report was
as follows:. "Also, his intelligence should be reevaluated within
a two-year period so that a more accurate estimation of his
abilities can be made" (italics added). The Board of Education
argued that the psychologist did not literally mean retesting because he did not use this word in the report. Although a minority
of the court concurred with this interpretation, the majority supported Mr. Hoffman's position that reevaluation meant only one
thing-administration of another intelligence test.
"
Basis of Litigation
Daniel Hoffman, a 26-year-old man, brought suit against the
New York City Board of Education in 1978 to recover damages
for injuries resulting from his placement in classes for the mentally retarded. The complaint alleged that (a) the Board was ..
negligent in its original testing procedures and placement of Mr.
Hoffman, causing or permitting him to be placed in an edlJcational environment for mentally retarded children and consequently depriving him of adequate speech therapy, which would
have addressed his diagnosed disability, a speech impediment,
and (b) the Board was negligent in failing or refusing to follow
adequate procedures for the recommended retesting of Mr.
Hoffman's intelligence. After entering special education classes,
he remained in them throughout his school years.
Basis of Litigation
Daniel Hoffman, a 26-year-old man, brought suit against the
New York City Board of Education in 1978 to recover damages
for injuries resulting from his placement in classes for the mentally retarded. The complaint alleged that (a) the Board was ..
negligent in its original testing procedures and placement of Mr..
Hoffman. causing or permitting him to be placed in an edllcational environment for mentally retarded children and consequently depriving him of adequate speech therapy, which would
have addressed his diagnosed disability, a speech impediment,
and (b) the Board was negligent in failing or refusing to follow
adequate procedures for the recommended retesting of Mr.
Hoffman's intelligence. After entering special education classes,
he remained in them throughout his school years.
Board of Education's Position

The Board of Education took the position that Mr. Hoffman's 10
of 74, obtained on the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale when
he was 5 years, 9 months old, indicated that his placement in a
class for children with mental retardation was appropriate. The
Board contended that the test was proper and administered by
a competent and experienced psychologist. It also noted that
it was the unanimous professional judgment of Mr. Hoffman's
teachers, based on their evaluation and his performance on
standardized achievement tests, that a retest was not warranted. The Board made clear that at the time Mr. Hoffman was
in school, its policy was to retest only when retesting was recommended by teachers or requested by parents.
The .psychological report in which the psychologist had recommended that Mr. Hoffman be placed in a class for children
with mental retardation was one" of the key documents on which
the entire case rested. The key"sentence in the 1957 report was
as follows:. "Also, his intelligence should be reevaluated within
a two-year period so that a more accurate estimation of his
abilities can be made" (italics added). The Board of Education
argued that the psychologist did not literally mean retesting because he did not use this word in the report. Although a minority
of the court concurred with this interpretation, the majority supported Mr. Hoffman's position that reevaluation meant only one
thing-administration of another intelligence test.
Introduction
The case of Daniel Hoffman v. the Board of Education of the City
of New York is instructive because it illustrates the important role
that testing and psychological reports can play in people's lives.
In this case, a psychological report contained a recommendation that was ignored by the school administrators. Years later,
when the case was tried, the failure to follow the recommendations became a key issue.
Removal from Training Program

In a curious twist of fate, testing, which resulted in Mr. Hoffman's
being assigned to special education, also played an important
role in removing him from a special workshop program during
Exhibit 1-1
Psychological Reports Do Count: The Case of Daniel Hoffman
v. the Board of Education of the City of New York
( Continued)
CHAPTER 1
CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN: THE PROCESS
In using this text, consider the following limitations. First,

this text is not a substitute for test manuals or for texts on
child development or child psychopathology; it supplements
material contained in test manuals and summarizes major
findings in the areas of child development and psychopathology. Second, this text cannot substitute for clinically supervised experiences. Each student should receive supervision
in all phases of assessment, including test selection, administration, scoring, and interpretation; report writing; and communication of results and recommendations. Ideally, every
student should examine children who have mental retardation, learning disabilities, or developmental delays, as well as
".
.'
'.
-.-.'.
- .
-.
Exhibit 1~~(Colitinued)
GOALS AND OBJEC TIVES
1. Select an appropriate assessment battery

2. Evaluate the psychometric properties of tests
3. Establish and maintain rapport with children, their parents, and their teachers
4. Observe, record, and evaluate behavior
5. PerfOlTIl infOlTIlal assessments
to.these words..Therefore, careful attention must be given to the

wording of reports: Reports must be written clearly, with findings and recommendations stated as precise ly as pOSSible, and
.
carefully proofread.
lOs ohange. Children's IQs do not remain static. Although
there is substantial stability after children reach 6 years of age,
their IQs do change.
Differenttests may provide different lOs. The three IQs obtained by Mr. Hoffman at 5, 6,and 18 years of age may reflect
differences in.the content and stancjardization of the three tests,
. rather than genuine changes in cognitive performance.
Interviewing parents' before conducting a formal evaluatior
is important. An interview with the parents (or other key adults)
may provide valuable information about the child's development,
prior assessments, and any prior lnterven tionstha t,the child re-.
.
ceived and their effectiveness.
Decisions must be based on more thail':one assessment
. approach. A battery of psychological tests and procedures, including achievement tests, along with interViews with parents
and teachers and reports from teachers, should be used in the
assessment process. All available information, including the
case history, should be reviewed before recommendations are

made.
The instruments used must be appropriate. A child who has
a speech or language disability may need to be assessed with
performance tests in addition tcr--or instead of-verb al tests.
Previous findings must be reviewed. Before carrying out a
formal assessment, the clinician must determine whether the
child has been evaluated previously and, if so, review all relevant
assessment findings. Then previous findings must be compared
with present findings~
Assessment results should be discussed with the parent(s).
Parents need to have a copy of the report and an opportunity to
discuss the assessment findings and recommendations.
You are about to begin a study of assessment procedures that

affect children, their families, schools, and society. The assessment procedures covered in this text are rooted in traditions of psychological, clinical, and educational measurement
that are a century old. This text is designed to help you conduct psychological and psychoeducational evaluations in
order to make effective decisions about children. (In this
book, the telTIl children refers to the age range from 1 year to
18 years.) Effective decision making is the hallmark of sound
clinical and psycho educational assessment.
To become a skilled clinical assessor, you should have
some background in testing and measurement, statistics,
child development, personality theory, child psychopathology, and clinical" and educational interventions. Knowledge
in each of theseareas will help you administer and interpret
tests, airive at accurate conclusions, and fOlTIlulate appropriate recommendations. If you are evaluating children with
severe sensory or motor disabilities (e.g., deafness, blindness, or cerebral palsy), you may-need to collaborate with
teachers or other specialists to determine which assessment
instruments to use.
Among the technical and clinical skills needed to be a competent clinical assessor are the abilities to do the following:
<
6. Interview parents, children, teachers, and relevant

others
7. Administer and score tests and other assessment tools by
following standardized procedures
8. Interpret assessment results and fOlTIlulate hypotheses
9. Take relevant ethnic and cultural variables into consideration in the assessment and intervention process
10. Use assessment findings to help develop interventions
11. Communicate assessment findings both orally and in
writing
12. Collaborate effectively with other professionals
13. Adhere to ethical standards
14. Keep up with the current literature in clinical and psychoeducatiomil assessment and intervention
15. Keep up with and follow federal and state laws and regulations concerning the assessment and placement of children with special needs
;-
Although many issues were involved in Mr. Hoffman's case,

the preceding pOints are particularly germane to the practice of
school and clinical psychology. They illustrate that a psychologicaf.evaluation, including the formulation of recommendations,
requires a high level of competence. The case also demonstrates that it is incumbent on admipistrators to carry out the
psychologist's or school committees' recommendations.
E.2d 317-49 N. Y.2d 121.

Note. The citations for this case are.41 0 N. Y. S.2d 99 and 400 N.
You are about to begin a study of assessment procedures that

affect children, their families, schools, and society. The assessment procedures covered in this text are rooted in traditions of psychological, clinical, and educational measurement
that are a century old. This text is designed to help you conduct psychological and psychoeducational evaluations in
order to make effective decisions about children. (In this
book, the term children refers to the age range from 1 year to
18 years.) Effective decision making is the hallmark of sound
clinical and psycho educational assessment.
To become a skilled clinical assessor, you should have
some background in testing and measurement, statistics,
child development, personality theory, child psychopathology, and clinical"and educational interventions. Knowledge
in each of these'areas will help you administer and interpret
tests, amve at accurate conclusions, and formulate appropriate recommendations. If you are evaluating children with
severe sensory or motor disabilities (e.g., deafness, blindness, or cerebral palsy), you may' need to collaborate with
teachers or other specialists to determine which assessment
instruments to use.
Among the technical and clinical skills needed to be a competent clinical assessor are the abilities to do the following:
6. Interview parents, children, teachers, and relevant

others
7. Administer and score tests and other assessment tools by
following standardized procedures
8. Interpret assessment results and formulate hypotheses
9. Take relevant ethnic and cultural variables into consideration in the assessment and intervention process
10. Use assessment findings to help develop interventions
11. Communicate assessment findings both orally and in
writing
12. Collaborate effectively with other professionals
13. Adhere to ethical standards
14. Keep up with the current literature in clinical and psychoeducatiomil assessment and intervention
15. Keep up with and follow federal and state laws and regulations concerning the assessment and placement of children with special needs
r
In using this text, consider the following limitations. First,
this text is not a substitute for test manuals or for texts on
child development or child psychopathology; it supplements
material contained in test manuals and summarizes major
findings in the areas of child development and psychopathology. Second, this text cannot substitute for clinically supervised experiences. Each student should receive supervision
in all phases of assessment, including test selection, administration, scoring, and interpretation; report writing; and communication of results and recommendations. Ideally, every
student should examine children who have mental retardation, learning disabilities, or developmental delays, as well as
:Note. The citations for this case are .41 0 N. y. S.2d 99 and 400 N. E.2d 317-49 N. Y.2d 121.
to.these words. Therefore, careful attention must be given to the
wording of reports.' Reports must be written clearly, with findingsand recommendations stated as precisely as possible,and
carefully proofread. ,
lOs ohange.Childre!1's IQs do not 'remain static. Although
thereissubs~ntial stability after children reach 6 years of age,
their IQsdo 9hange.
Differenttests.may provide different/Os. The three lOs obtained by Mr. Hoffman at 5,6,and 18years of age may reflect
differences in. the content and standardization of the three tests,
rather than genuine changes in cognitive performance.
interviewing parents' before' conduCting a formal evaluatio(l
is important. An.interview with the parents (or other key adults)
may provide valuable information aboutthe child's development,
prior assessments, and any prior'interventionsthat,the child nilceivedandtheir effectiveness.
.
Decisionsmusfbe based on more thai1'ime assessment
approach. A -battery of psychological tests and procedures, including aChievement tests, along with interViews with parents
and teachers and reports from teachers, should be used in the
assessmenLprocess. All available information, including the
Although many issues were involved in Mr. Hoffman's case,

the preceding points are particularly germane to the practice of
school and clinical psychology. They illustrate that a psychologicaf-evaluation, including the formulation of recommendations,
reqLiires a high level of competence. The case also demon- .
strates that it is incumbent on administrators to carry out the
psychologisfs or school committees' recommendations.
case history, should be reviewed before recommendations are

made.
,The instruments used must be appropriate. A child who has
a speech or language disability may-need to be assessed with
performance tests in addition tcr-or instead of-verbal tests.
Previous findings must be reviewed. Before carrying out a
formal assessment, the clinician must determine whether the
child has been evaluated previously and, if so, review all relevant
assessment findings. Then previous findings must be compared
with present findings;
Assessment results should be discussed with the parent(s). _
Parents need to have a copy of the report and
opportunity to _
discuss the assessment findings and recommendations.
an
<
1. Select an appropriate assessment battery

2. Evaluate the psychometric properties of tests
3. Establish and maintain rapport with children, their parents, and their teachers
4. Observe, record, and evaluate behavior
5. Perform informal assessments
GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
CHAPTER 1 CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN: THE PROCESS
A screening assessment is a relatively brief evaluation intended to identify children who are at risk for developing
certain disorders or disabilities, who are eligible for certain programs, who have a disorder or disability in need
of remediation, or who need a more comprehensive assessment. Screening may involve, for example, evaluating
the readiness of children to enter kindergarten programs or
programs for the gifted and talented. Decisions based on
a screening assessment should not be viewed as definitive
and should be revised, if necessary, as new information
becomes available.
Afocused assessment is a detailed evaluati6n of-a specific
area of functioning. The assessment may address a diagnostic question (e.g., Does the child have attention deficit!
hyperactivity disorder?), a skill question (e.g., Does the
child exhibit a verbal memory deficit?), or an etiological
question (e.g., Why is the child failing mathematics?). The
examiner may also examine, at his or her discretion and
on the basis of clinical judgment, additional areas such
as reading ability. Settings in which time and financial
pressures are severe (such as private medical facilities,
schools, and health maintenance organizations) often use a
focused or problem-solving assessment instead of a longer
and more expensive diagnostic assessment.
A diagnostic assessment is a detailed evaluation of a child's
strengths and weaknesses in several areas, such as cognitive, academic, language, behavioral, emotional, and social
functioning. It may be conducted for a variety of reasons,
including establishing a diagnosis (determining the classification that best reflects the child's level and type of
functioning and/or assisting in the determination of mental
disorder or educational disabilities) and suggesting educational or clinical placements, programs, and interventions.
A counseling and rehabilitation assessment focuses on a
child's abilities to adjust to and successfully fulfill daily
conditions, eligibility criteria for special education programs,

designing individualized educational programs, and confidentiality and safekeeping of records. Those who work in
school settings will need to know about and follow precisely
such federal regulations as the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Improvement Act of 2004 (public Law 108-446,
or IDEIA; also referred to as IDEA 2004), Section 504 of the
Rehabilitation Act of 1973, the Americans with Disabilities
Act (ADA), and the Fa,mily Educational Rights to Privacy Act
(FERPA). These laws are discussed in Chapter 3.
"It's about Benny, doctor. He'sjustcome

from school with an 10 of 1041 Should I
put him right to bed?"
-
TYPES OF ASSESSMENT
Assessment is a way of understanding a child in order to make
informed decisions about the child. There are several types of
assessment, including screening assessments, focused assessments, diagnostif: assessments, counseling and rehabilitation
assessments, progress evaluation assessments, and problemsolving assessments.
u-
t
I
typical and gifted children, in order to develop skills with different populations. Thir~, although this text covers the major
psychological instruments used to assess children, it does not
cover all of them, nor does it cover more than a small fraction of the thousands of informal assessment procedures used
by clinicians and researchers. New editions of assessment instruments and new procedures will be published throughout
your career. You will need to study these materials carefully
in order to use them effectively. The principles you willieam
in this text will help you evaluate many kinds of assessment
tools with a more discerning eye.
The text summarizes the reliability and validity information presented in test manuals; however, it does not provide a
comprehensive review of all the published research on each
measure. You will need to keep abreast of current research
on assessment and intervention throughout your training and
career. You will want to pay close attention to research on
the reliability and Validity of the tests, interview procedures,
observational techniques, behavioral checklists, and oilie~/
relevant assessment techniques. You may also want to conduct your own informal (and formal) research on intelligence
tests, tests of special abilities, interviewing, observation, and
other assessment procedures.
You will want to pay close attention to new findings about
children with special needs. In order to work with children
with special needs, you will have to become familiar with state
and federal regulations concerning the practice of clinical and
school psychology. It is especially important that those conducting assessments understand state and federal regulations
that address nonbiased assessment, classification of disabling
Copyrighf 1955, Cowles Magazines, Inc.
A screening assessment is a relatively brief evaluation intended to identify children who are at risk for developing
certain disorders or disabilities, who are eligible for certain programs, who have a disorder or disability in need
of remediation, or who need a more comprehensive assessment. Screening may involve, for example, evaluating
the readiness of children to enter kindergarten programs or
programs for the gifted and talented. Decisions based on
a screening assessment should not be viewed as definitive
and should be revised, if necessary, as new information
becomes available.
Afocused assessment is a detailed evaluati6n of-a specific
area of functioning. The assessment may address a diagnostic question (e.g., Does the child have attention deficit!
hyperactivity disorder?), a skill question (e.g., Does the
child exhibit a verbal memory deficit?), or an etiological
question (e.g., Why is the child failing mathematics?). The
examiner may also examine, at his or her discretion and
on the basis of clinical judgment, additional areas such
as reading ability. Settings in which time and financial
pressures are severe (such as private medical facilities,
schools, and health maintenance organizations) often use a
focused or problem-solving assessment instead of a longer
and more expensive diagnostic assessment.
strengths and weaknesses in several areas, such as cognitive, academic, language, behavioral, emotional, and social
functioning. It may be conducted for a variety of reasons,
including establishing a diagnosis (determining the classification that best reflects the child's level and type of
functioning and/or assisting in the determination of mental
disorder or educational disabilities) and suggesting educational or clinical placements, programs, and interventions.
A counseling and rehabilitation assessment focuses on a
child's abilities to adjust to and successfully fulfill daily
typical and gifted children, in order to develop skills with difconditions, eligibility criteria for special education programs,
ferent populations. Thir~, although this text covers the major
designing individualized educational programs, and confidentiality and safekeeping of records. Those who work in
psychological instruments used to assess children, it does not
cover all of them, nor does it cover more than a small fracschool settings will need to know about and follow precisely
tion of the thousands of informal assessment procedures used
such federal regulations as the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Improvement Act of 2004 (public Law 108-446,
by clinicians and researchers. New editions of assessment instruments and new procedures will be published throughout
or IDEIA; also referred to as IDEA 2004), Section 504 of the
your career. You will need to study these materials carefully
Rehabilitation Act of 1973, the Americans with Disabilities
in order to use them effectively. The principles you willieam
Act (ADA), and the Fa,mily Educational Rights to Privacy Act
(FERPA). These laws are discussed in Chapter 3.
in this text will help you evaluate many kinds of assessment
tools with a more discerning eye.
The text summarizes the reliability and validity information presented in test manuals; however, it does not provide a
TYPES OF ASSESSMENT
comprehensive review of all the published research on each
measure. You will need to keep abreast of current research
Assessment
is
a
way
of
understanding
a child in order to make
on assessment and intervention throughout your training and
informed
decisions
about
the child. There are several types of
career. You will want to pay close attention to research on
.
assessment,
including
screening assessments, focused assessthe reliability and Validity of the tests, interview procedures,
ments,
diagnostif:
assessments, counseling and rehabilitation
observational techniques, behavioral checklists, and oilie~/
assessments,
progress evaluation assessments, and problemrelevant assessment techniques. You may also want to consolving assessments.
duct your own informal (and formal) research on intelligence
tests, tests of special abilities, interviewing, observation, and
other assessment procedures.
You will want to pay close attention to new findings about
children with special needs. In order to work with children
with special needs, you will have to become familiar with state
and federal regulations concerning the practice of clinical and
school psychology. It is especially important that those conducting assessments understand state and federal regulations
that address nonbiased assessment, classification of disabling
Copyrighf 1955, Cowles Magazines, Inc.
"It's about Benny, doctor. He'sjust come

from school with an 10 of 1041 Should I
put him right to bed?"
-
u-
$
resent the domain of interest addressed by the test. The test
instructions, wording of items, probing questions, recording
of responses, time limits, and scoring criteria (with objective
guidelines and examples) are specified in detail in the test
manuals so that they can be used by:hll examiners in the same
way. Test authors design standard procedures to reduce the
effect of personal biases of examiners and to reduce extraneous sources of influence on the child's performance (see
Chapter 2). The intent of a norm-referenced test is to provide
a fair and equitable comparison of children by providing objective, quantitative scores.
Norm-referenced measures are scaled so that each score
reflects a rank within the norm group (see Chapter 4 for a discussion of psychometric issues). Norm-referenced measures
have been designed to assess, for example, individual differences in intelligence, reading, mathematics, problem solving,
organizational skills, writing, attention, visual-motor skills,
gross- and fine-motor skills, and behavior. Although we are
fortunate to have a choice of well-standardized and psychometrically sound tests with which to evaluate children, some
tests do not meet psychometric standards. When you have
completed your study of this text, you will be able to evaluate
which tests have adequate psychometric standards.
Norm-referenced measures are an economical and efficient
means of sampling behavior within a few hours and quantifying a child's functioning. Quantification (Le., assigning
numbers to responses) serves several purposes. First, it gives
a picture of the child's cognitive, motor, and behavioral defi-
responsibilities. Possible responses to treatment and potential for J:ecovery (e.g., in cases of traumatic brain injury)
also are considered.
A progress evaluation assessment focuses on a child's
progress over time, such as day to day, week to week,
month to month, or year to year. It is used to evaluate
changes in the child's development, skills, or abilities and
in the effectiveness of intervention procedures.
A problem-solving assessment focuses on specific types of
problems (e.g., dyslexia) in a series of steps from problem
identification to problem analysis, intervention, and outcome evaluation.
FOUR PILLARS OF ASSESSMENT
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Assessment
Methods
III
III
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Let's compare and contrast psychological assessment and

psychological testing. Both involve identifying critical questions and areas of concern and planning data collection. They
also differ. Psychological testing involves administering and
scoring tests; the focus is on collecting data., Psychological
assessment encompasses several clinical tools, such as formal
and informal tests, observations, and interviews. The focus of
psychological assessment is not only on collecting data, but
also on integrating the findings, interpreting the data, and synthesizing the results. Testing produces findings; assessment
gives meaning to the findings within the context of the child's
life. For example, information from children and parents can
be skewed by their personal agendas or desire to please you
or by a negative attitude toward mental illness or medications.
You might need to consider such factors when you interpret the
results of the evaluation and formulate intervention strategies.
With each type of evaluation, you will usually share the findings and recommendations with the referral source, the child,
his or her parents, the school, or other relevant parties.
Figure 1-1. Four pillars of assessment.
E
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iii
The"fourpillars of assessment-norm-referenced measures,

interviews, behavioral observations, and informal assessment
procedures-provide information about a child's knowledge,
skill, behavior, or personality (see Figure 1-1). The four pillars complement one'another and provide a basis for making
decisions about children. Each procedure must be interpreted
. ill its own right, and the information obtained from all four
, must be woven together so that the final tapestry is integrated,
understandable, meaningful, and consistent. Let's look at
, each assessment procedure more closely.
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Norm-Referenced Measures
We have based this text on the premise that norm-referenced

measures are indispensable for clinical and psychoeducational assessment. Norm-referenced measures are measures
that are standardized on a clearly defined group, termed the
nonn group. A norm group is a group of individuals, representative with respect to characteristics such as age, gender,
ethnicity, socioeconomic status (SES), or geographic region,
who have taken the test. The test items are selected to rep-
Norm-Referenced Measures
The" four pillars of assessment-norm-referenced measures,

procedures---provide information about a child's knowledge,
skill, behavior, or personality (see Figure 1-1). The four pillars complement onedanother and provide a basis for making
decisions about children. Each procedure must be interpreted
. ill its own right, and the information obtained from all four
. must be woven together so that the final tapestry is integrated,
. understandable, meaningful, and consistent. Let's look at
. each assessment procedure more closely.
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Q)
III
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ca
iii
E
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.E
Let's compare and contrast psychological assessment and

psychological testing. Both involve identifying critical questions and areas of concern and planning data collection. They
also differ. Psychological testing involves administering and
scoring tests; the focus is on collecting data., Psychological
assessment encompasses several clinical tools, such as formal
and informal tests, observations, and interviews. The focus of
psychological assessment is not only on collecting data, but
also on integrating the findings, interpreting the data, and synthesizing the results. Testing produces findings; assessment
gives meaning to the findings within. the context of the child's
life. For example, information from children and parents can
be skewed by their personal agendas or desire to please you
or by a negative attitude toward mental illness or medications.
You might need to consider such factors when you interpret the
results of the evaluation and formulate intervention strategies.
With each type of evaluation, you will usually share the findings and recommendations with the referral source, the child,
his or her parents, thf! school, or other relevant parties.
Figure 1-1. Four pillars of assessment.
resent the domain of interest addressed by the test. The test

instructions, wording of items, probing questions, recording
of responses, time limits, and scoring criteria (with objective
guidelines and examples) are specified in detail in the test
manuals so that they can be used bj'all examiners in the same
way. Test authors design standard procedures to reduce the
effect of personal biases of examiners and to reduce extraneous sources of influence on the child's performance (see
Chapter 2). The intent of a norm-referenced test is to provide
a fair and equitable comparison of children by providing objective, quantitative scores.
Norm-referenced measures are scaled so that each score
reflects a rank within the norm group (see Chapter 4 for a discussion of psychometric issues). Norm-referenced measures
have been designed to assess, for example, individual differences in intelligence, reading, mathematics, problem solving,
organizational skills, writing, attention, visual-motor skills,
gross- and fine-motor skills, and behavior. Although we are
fortunate to have a choice of well-standardized and psychometrically sound tests with which to evaluate children, some
tests do not meet psychometric standards. When you have
completed your study of this text, you will be able to evaluate
which tests have adequate psychometric standards.
Norm-referenced measures are an economical and efficient
means of sampling behavior within a few hours and quantifying a child's functioning. Quantification (i.e., assigning
numbers to responses) serves several purposes. First, it gives
a picture of the child's cognitive, motor, and behavioral defi-
responsibilities. Possible responses to treatment and potential for J:ecovery (e.g., in cases of traumatic brain injury)
also are considered.
A progress evaluation assessment focuses on a child's
progress over time, such as day to day, week to week,
month to month, or year to year. It is used to evaluate
changes in the child's development, skills, or abilities and
in the effectiveness of intervention procedures.
identification to problem analysis, intervention, and outcome evaluation.
We have based this text on the premise that norm-referenced

measures are indispensable for clinical and psychoeducational assessment. Norm-referenced measures are measures
that are standardized on a clearly defined group, termed the
norm group. A norm group is a group of individuals, representative with respect to characteristics such as age, gender,
ethnicity, socioeconomic status (SES), or geographic region,
who have taken the test. The test items are selected to rep-
5
I,L
&
Hi
CHAPTER 1
4
When and where the child shows the target behaviors

Frequency, duration, and rate of the target behaviors
How the child's behavior compares with that of a
nonreferred child in the same setting
How the child functions in situations that require planning,
decision making, memory, attention, and related skills
Child's reaction to social and interpersonal stressors
Child's reaction to environmental stressors
How the child's behavior changes during the day
How others respond to the child's behavior
How the child behaves in multiple settings. with different
caretakers. and at different times during the day
Factors that contribute to and sustain the problem behavior,
including those that increase or decrease the frequency of
the behavior
How the child responds to various instructional methods,
materials, and settings
How the child responds to current interventions (if
appropriate)
Clues helpful in formulating changes in interventions or
new interventions
cits and strengths. (Note that norm-referenced rating scales

are particularly valuable in evaluating behavioral deficits and
strengths; see Sattler and Roge, 2006). Second, it describes
the child's present functioning in reference to his or her peer
group. Third, it provides a baseline against which to measure
progress during and after interventions. Finally, it promotes
communication between the psychologist and parents, teachers, or others who requested the evaluation.
Norm-referenced measures allow us to evaluate changes
in several aspects of a child's physical and social world.
They inform us about developmental changes, changes in the
child's cognitive and neurological condition, and the effects
of educational or behavioral interventions and other forms of
remediation. For example, the effects of a medication regimen
can be periodically evaluated through ongoing evaluation of
fine-motor control and integration, processing speed, atten-_
tion and concentration, cognitive flexibility, and short-term
memory. Repeated evaiuations are particularly needed when
medications may have potentially detrimental side effects_
:if"
Interviews
CHILD
Child's view of the referral

Child's concerns about being evaluated
Child's view of which school subjects are easy and difficult
Child's self-perceptions of strengths, weaknesses, interests, and goals, including thoughts about why he or she is
having problems
Child's conversational language abilities, cooperativeness,
interaction skills, and personal hygiene
Child's interests and hobbies
Child's view of his or her family, teachers, and peer group
Stressors in the child's life
PARENT
Parent's view of 1;he child's presenting problems

Parent's knowledge about the child's presenting problems
Child's developmental history
Child's medical, social, and academic history
Child's behavior, temperament, personality, interpersonal
style (includu:;g relationship with parents, siblings, and
teachers), interests, and hobbies
Family situation, including sociocultural variables (e.g., socioeconomic status [SES], parental occupations, and level
of acculturation), language used in the home, individuals
living in the home, and factors that may be contributing
to the child's problems (such as marital discord, financial
strain, alcoholism, or drug abuse)
Prior intervention attempts
Parenting styles
Parental disciplinary techniques
Examples of Information Obtained from

Behavioral Observations
Table 1"1
You will gain valuable assessment information by interviewing a child and his or her parents, teachers, and other individuals familiar with the child. (Note that the term parents
refers to the child's parents or to other caregivers, such as
foster parents, grandparents, or other relatives who are raising
the child.) Results of an assessment may be meaningless or
inconclusive if you examine the child without interviewing
those who play an important role in his or her life.
Unstructured or semistructured interviews are less rigid
than formal tests. They allow interviewees to convey information in their own words and interviewers to ask questions in
their own words--opportunities that neither may have while
taking or admifiistering standardized tests. Unstructured interviews are usually open-ended, without a set agenda. Semistructured interviews provide a list of questions, but the focus
of the interview can change as needed. Structured interviews
provide a rigid, but comprehensive, list of questions usually
designed to arrive at a psychiatric diagnosis. In addition, all
three inter:view formats allow direct observation of a child's
social interaction skills, language skills, and communication
skills. Chapters 5, 6, and 7 in Sattler and Roge (2006) discuss
interviewing techniques, and Appendix B in that text includes
15 semistructured interviews for obtaining information from
parents and teachers about normal development and several
childhood developmental disorders. Clinical and Forensic
Interviewing of Children and Families (Sattler, 1998) also
discusses interviewing techniques, including those needed
for child maltreatment investigations. Another valuable resource for interviewing children is the text by McConaughy
(2005a).
Following are some examples of the types of information
that you can obtain from unstructured and semistructured interviews with a child, a parent, and a teacher.
You will gain valuable assessment information by interviewing a child and his or her parents, teachers, and other individuals familiar with the child. (Note that the term parents
refers to the child's parents or to other caregivers, such as
foster parents, grandparents, or other relatives who are raising
the child.) Results of an assessment may be meaningless or
inconclusive if you examine the child without interviewing
those who play an important role in his or her life.
Unstructured or semistructured interviews are less rigid
than formal tests. They allow interviewees to convey information in their own words and interviewers to ask questions in
their own words--opportunities that neither may have while
taking or administering standardized tests. Unstructured interviews are usually open-ended, without a set agenda. Semistructured intervitnvs provide a list of questions, but the focus
of the interview can change as needed. Structured interviews
provide a rigid, but comprehensive, list of questions usually
designed to arrive at a psychiatric diagnosis. In addition, all
three inter:view formats allow direct observation of a child's
social interaction skills, language skills, and communication
skills. Chapters 5, 6, and 7 in Sattler and Hoge (2006) discuss
interviewing techniques, and Appendix B in that text includes
15 semistructured interviews for obtaining information from
parents and teachers about normal development and several
childhood developmental disorders. Clinical and Forensic
Interviewing of Children and Families (SattIer, 1998) also
discusses interviewing techniques, including those needed
for child maltreatment investigations. Another valuable resource for interviewing children is the text by McConaughy
(2005a).
Following are some examples of the types of information
that you can obtain from unstructured and semistructured interviews with a child, a parent, and a teacher.
Interviews
Parent's view of the child's presenting problems

Par~nt's knowledge about the child's presenting problems
Child's developmental history
Child's medical, social, and academic history
Child's be~vior, temperament, personality, interpersonal
style (including relationship with parents, siblings, and
teachers), interests, and hobbies
Family situation, including sociocultural variables (e.g., socioeconomic status [SES), parental occupations, and level
of acculturation), langnage used in the home, individuals
living in the home, and factors that may be contributing
to the child's problems (such as marital discord, financial
strain, alcoholism, or drug abuse)
Prior intervention attempts
Parenting styles
Parental disciplinary techniques
Table 1-1
Examples of Information Obtained from
PARENT
When and where the child shows the target behaviors

Frequency, duration, and rate of the target behaviors
How the child's behavior compares with that of a
nonreferred child in the same setting
How the child functions in situations that require planning,
decision making, memory, attention, and related skills
Child's reaction to social and interpersonal stressors
Child's reaction to environmental stressors
How the child's behavior changes during the day
How others respond to the child's behavior
How the child behaves in multiple settings, with different
caretakers, and at different times during the day
Factors that contribute to and sustain the problem behavior,
including those that increase or decrease the frequency of
the behavior
How the child responds to various instructional methods,
materials, and settings
How the child responds to current interventions (if
appropriate)
Clues helpful in formulating changes in interventions or
new interventions
Child's view of the referral

Child's concerns about being evaluated
Child's view of which school subjects are easy and difficult
Child's self-perceptions of strengths, weaknesses, interests, and goals, including thoughts about why he or she is
having problems
Child's conversational language abilities, cooperativeness,
interaction skills, and personal hygiene
Child's interests and hobbies
Child's view of his or her family, teachers, and peer group
Stressors in the child's life
cits and strengths. (Note that norm-referenced rating scales

are particularly valuable in evaluating behavioral deficits and
strengths; see Sattler and Hoge, 2006). Second, it describes
the child's present functioning in reference to his or her peer
group. Third, it provides a baseline against which to measure
progress during and after interventions. Finally, it promotes
communication between the psychologist and parents, teachers, or others who requested the evaluation.
Norm-referenced measures allow us to evaluate changes
in several aspects of a child's physical and social world.
They inform us about developmental changes, changes in the
child's cognitive and neurological condition, and the effects
of educational or behavioral interventions and other forms of
remediation. For example, the effects of a medication regimen
can be periodically evaluated through ongoing evaluation of
fine-motor control and integration, processing speed, atten-"
tion and concentration, cognitive flexibility, and short-term
memory. Repeated evaluations are particularly needed whf;lll
medications may have potentially detrimental side effects.
CHILD
CHAPTER 1 CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN:THE PROCESS
I:
r
7

Social work reports
adopted family; involvement in

To provide information about the child's family, foster family, or
the juvenile justice system; or child maltreatment.
'Interventions attempted and results

Teacher's goals for the assessment
Background Questionnaire,
Personal Data Questionnaire, and
School Referral Questionnaire
Resources available to the family

Factors that ~ay interfere with or enhance intervention
efforts
Parents' goals for the assessment
you in choosing an assessTo define the prob,lems as seen by the referral source and assist
also need to be assessed to
ment battery. AreC),s not mentioned in the referral document may
iate interventions.
determine the cause of the problems and/or to develop appropr
r from a parent, the child,
To gather useful information about the child and the problem behavio
(2006).
and a teacher, respectively. See Appendix A in Sattler and Hoge
Teacher's view of the child's presenting problems

Child's grades and academic history
Child's academic strengths and weaknesses
Child's school attendance record
Child's behavior in class
Situations in which the child shows problem behavior
Factors that exacerbate the child's problem
Situations that are stressful to the child
Child's social skills and peer relationships
Child's interests and participation in class and extracurricular activities
Teacher's view of the parents (if the teacher has had contact with them)
You will obtain valuable information by observing the child

during the formal assessment, as well a,s in his or her natural
surroundings such as the classroom, playground, or home (see
Table 1-1). Chapters 8 and 9 in Sattler and Hoge (2006) explain how to make different structured observations and how
to record and evaluate the data obtained from them. Chapter 6
in this text presents useful guidelines for conducting observations during an evaluation.
9 in Sattler and Hoge (2006)

To monitor the child's behavior, thoughts, and feelings. Chapter
provides several self-monitoring forms.
. For example, you could
To allow observation of the child's behavior in a simulated situation
m by assuming the role of
evaluate how the child feels about speaking in front of the classroo
the teacher and asking the child to play himself or herself.
Role playing
Self-monitoring records
--
history, developmental history,

To provide information about the child's past and current health
and medication history.
at the time the documents
To provide information about the child's thoughts and perceptions
also reveal changes in the child's
were written. If documents were written at different times, they
stories, drawings, and musithoughts and perceptions over time. Examples are diaries, poems,
cal compositions.
"
Personal documents
Informal Assessment Procedures
You may need to supplement norm-referenced measures with

informal assessment procedures (see Table 1-2). Many inforMedical records
Prior and current school records

Informal assessments of
reading ability
s. Examples are phonics

To evaluate factors that may contribute to the child's reading difficultie
tests and reading fluency tests.
r,:and attendance in school
To provide information about the child's achievement record, behavio
performance and prior school
over time, which allows comparison of the child's current school
performance.
Table 1-2
Examples of Informal Assessment Procedures
Purpose
Written language samples
Procedure
, usually in some academic

To determine whether a child has reached a performance standard
-referenced tests give informasubject area or skill area. Districtwide and teacher-made criterion
curriculum.
tion about the child's competencies in mastering the classroom
essays, term papers, and writTo evaluate the breadth of the child's writing skills. Examples are
ten answers to test questions.
To determine whether a child has reached a performance standard, usually in some academic
subject area or skill area. Districtwide and teacher-made criterion-referenced tests give information about the child's competencies in mastering the classroom curriculum.
--.-~--~~~---------------,
--------~---------------+------
Criterion-referenced tests
Criterion-referenced tests
'.
Referral docume nt
TEACHER
Written language samples
To evaluate the breadth of the child's writing skills. Examples are essays, term papers, and written answers to test questions.
Informal assessments of
reading ability
Purpose
Prior and current school records
To provide information about the child's achievement record, behavior"and attendance in school
over time, which allows comparison of the child's current school performance and prior school
performance.
Procedure
To evaluate factors that may contribute to the child's reading difficulties. Examples are phonics
tests and reading fluency tests.
Examples of Informal Assessment Procedures
--------------------------------~---------------
Table 1-2
Teacher's view of the child's presenting problems

Child's grades and academic history
Child's academic strengths and weaknesses
Child's school attendance record
Child's behavior in class
Situations in which the child shows problem behavior
Factors that exacerbate the child's problem
Situations that are stressful to the child
Child's social skills and peer relationships
Child's interests and participation in class and extracurricular activities
Teacher's view of the parents (if the teacher has had contact with them)
You may need to supplement norm-referenced measures with

informal assessment procedures (see Table 1-2). Many infor-
To provide information about the child's past and current health history, developmental hIstory,
and medication history.
Medical records
--~----------------.~-~--
Informal Assessment Procedures
Personal documents
~
To provide information about the child's thoughts and perceptions at the time the documents
were written. If documents were written at different times, they also reveal changes in the child's
thoughts and perceptions over time. Examples are diaries, poems, stories, drawings, and musical compositions.
. .
'j
You will obtain valuable information by observing the child

during the formal assessment, as well as in his or her natural
surroundings such as the classroom, playground, or home (see
Table 1-1). Chapters 8 and 9 in Sattler and Roge (2006) explain how to make different structured observations and how
to record and evaluate the data obtained from them. Chapter 6
in this text presents useful guidelines for conducting observations during an evaluation.
--------.------~--~~-~------
Self-monitoring records
To monitor the child's behavior, thoughts, and feelings. Chapter 9 in Sattler and Hoge (2006)
provides several self-monitoring forms.
Role playing
To allow observation of the child's behavior in a simulated situation. For example, you could
evaluate how the child feels about speaking in front of the classroom by assuming the role of
the teacher and asking the child to play himself or herself.
.~ _____ .~.
Referral document
To define the problems as seen by the referral source and assist you in choosing an assessment battery. Are~s not mentioned in the referral document may also need to be assessed to
determine the cause of the problems and/or to develop appropriate interventions.
Background Questionnaire,
Personal Data Questionnaire, and
School Referral Questionnaire
---~-~
To gather useful information about the child and the problem behavior from a parent, the child,
and a teacher, respectively. See Appendix A in Sattler and Hoge (2006).
'Interventions attempted and results

Teacher's goals for the assessment
-
Social work reports

__
~_
Resources available to the family

Factors that ~ay interfere with or enhance intervention
efforts
Parents' goals for the assessment
--------.~.-.
TEACHER
_.
-~~-------
To provide information about the child's family, foster family, or adopted family; involvement in
~~ __ --.!.he juvenile justice systemi or child maltreatment.
____ _ _ _~ .~.. _
FOUR PILLAR S OF ASSES SMENT
Ii
CHAPTER 1

Figure 1-2. Multimethod assessment approach.
mal assessment procedures have been developed for different

purposes. You might use one or more of these informal assessment procedures, or you might want to develop your own.
However, informal assessment procedures that have unknown
or questionable technical adequacy (e.g., unknown reliability
and validity) must be used cautiously. Informal assessments
are particularly helpful for developing interventions. This text
describes some informal assessment procedures that can be
used in cognitive evaluations, such as testing-of-limits (see
Chapter 6), but does not devote a chapter exclusively to informal tests and procedures. Appendix D in Sattler and Hoge
(2006) provides several informal measures to help assess
learnillg disabilities in particular.
.
-Adaptivebeh,avior
. Social-emotiohaf~
persol1afityfunctioning
MULTIMETHOD ASSESSMENT
viewing (if available) the child's educational records, medical

reports, social work reports, and previous evaluations. Second,
a multimethod approach uses several assessment techniques,
including norm-referenced measures, interviews, observations, and informal assessment procedures. Third, it assesses
multiple areas (e.g., intelligence, attention and memory, processing speed, planning and organization, achievement, visual
skills, auditory skills, motor skills, oral language, adaptive
behavior, and social-emotional-personality functioning). Finally, it involves recommending interventions. Table 1-3 lists
the main factors to consider in a multimethod assessment.
A multimethod assessment allows you to do the following:
Obtain information about the child's medical, developmental, academic, familial, and social history
Obtain information about the child's current cognitive, academic, behavioral, social, and interpersonal functioning
Determine the child's cognitive, academic, and social
strengths and weaknesses
Understand thenature, presence, and degree of any disabling conditions that the child might have
.Interviews
-Behavioral observations
-Informal assessment
. procedures
.Or~llaflguage
This text advocates a multimethod assessment (see Figure 1-2).

First, a multirnethod assessment involves obtaining informa~
tion from several sources (including the referral source, the
child, parents, teachers, and other relevant parties) and re-
Teachers . ..
OWer !amily~embers
. Other informants
Child's records and
previous evaluation:3
-Motor skills .
.. Assessment Methods
. Areas Assessed
.-Intelligence
Sources of Data
.Referral source
. Assessment Methods
.Child
Norm-referenced measures
Interviews
-Parellts
Obtain information about the child's medical, developmental, academic, familial, and social history
Obtain information about the child's current cognitive, acadefnic, behavioral, social, and interpersonal functioning
Determine the child's cognitive, academic, and social
strengths and weaknesses
Understand the nature, presence, and degree of any disabling conditions that the child might have
Behavioral observations
-Informal assessment
.procedures
.Achievement
This text advocates a multimethod assessment (see Figure 1-2).

First, a multimethod assessment involves obtaining informa~
tion from several sources (including the referral source, the
child, parents, teachers, and other relevant parties) and re Visual skills
.. Auditoryskills
Motor skills
-Oral. language
-Adaptive behavior
Socialcemotionalpersonality functioning
mal assessment procedures have been developed for different

purposes. You might use one or more of these informal assessment procedures, or you might want to develop your own.
However, informal assessment procedures that have unknown
or questionable technical adequacy (e.g., unknown reliability
and validity) must be used cautiously. Informal assessments
are particularly helpful for developing interventions. This text
describes some informal assessment procedures that can be
used in cognitive evaluations, such as testing-of-limits (see
Chapter 6), but does not devote a chapter exclusively to informal tests and procedures. Appendix D in Sattler and Hoge
(2006) provides several informal measures to help assess
learnillg disabilities in particular.
viewing (if available) the child's educational records, medical

reports, social work reports, and previous evaluations. Second,
a multimethod approach uses several assessment techniques,
including norm-referenced measures, interviews, observations, and informal assessment procedures. Third, it assesses
multiple areas (e.g., intelligence, attention and memory, processing speed, planning and organization, achievement, visual
skills, auditory skills, motor skills, oral language, adaptive
behavior, and social-emotional-personality functioning). Finally, it involves recommending interventions. Table 1-3 lists
the main factors to consider in a multimethod assessment.
A multimethod assessment allows you to do the following:
Figure 1-2. Multimethod assessment approach.
CHAPTER 1
i
Guide students in selecting educational and vocational
programs
Monitor cognitive, academic, or social cbanges in the child
(and in the family, scbool, and community as needed)
Measure the effectiveness of interventions
Table 1-3
Factors to Consider in a Multimethod Assessment
Referral Information
Referral source
Reason for referral
Behaviors of concern to referral source
Demographic and Background Information

Child's date of birth and age
Child's gender
Child's residence
Child's grade level
Child's ethnicity
Child's prenatal, birth, and postnatal developmental histories
and developmental milestones
Child's languages, such as language spoken at home, at
school, and with friends, and competency in each _ ,
Child's educational history, such as grades, behavior.in
school, grade placements, retentions, and special class
placements
Child's social and interpersonal history, including involvement
in court and family services
Child's medical history, such as serious diseases, disabilities,
and medications
Family's history and socioeconomic status, such as number
of children, birth order of children, and resources
Interventions attempted by parents and teachers and their
results
Recent changes in child's life (e.g., parents' divorce or
remarriage, loss of a close family member or friend, move,
change in teacher)
Child's school environment (e.g., violence, teacher-child ratio,
overcrowding)
Resources available to child (e.g., computer in home,
parental support, tutoring, proximity to community resources
such as library)
Mathematics ability, such as math computations, fluency, and

math applications
Abilities in other academic areas
Attention and concentration, such as ability to filter out
extraneous stimuli and focus on a task over a period of time
Executive functions, such as planning, organization, setting
priorities, creating and applying effective strategies, attending
to the most salient aspects of a task, and applying the correct
amount of effort and attention to a task
Adaptive skills, such as self-help skills and ability to function
in the environment
Work and study skills, such as (a) study habits, including
length of time spent studying, frequency of studying,
when ~md where studying takes place, (b) note-taking
strategies, (c) study strategies such as writing and answering
study questions, (d) text-reading strategies, (e) use of
supplementary materials, (f) use of computer software, and
(g)use of the Web and online resources
AUditory perception, such as ability to identify, discriminate,
interpret, and organize elements of acoustical stimuli
Fine-motor coordination, such as ability to integrate small
muscles,usually in conjunction with visual perception
Gross-motor activity, such as degree of coordination and
ability to organize movements of the large muscle groups
Memory, such as ability to store and retrieve information
Visual perception, such as ability to identify, discriminate,
interpret, and organize physical elements of visual stimuli
Personal and emotional functioning, such as ability to
relate to others, ability to express and modulate emotions,
ability to show a range of emotions, coping strategies, and
temperament
Activity level in various situations
Effect of problems on ordinary activities
Compensatory strategies used by child
Assessment Findings
Child's, family's, and school's expectations for changes in the

child's behavior
Most feasible interventions, including educational programs
and settings, given family, school, and community resources
Realistic goals
Prognosis
(For reevaluations) Changes in functioning
Interventions
Child's date of birth and age

Child's gender
Child's residence
Child's grade level
Child's ethnicity
Child's prenatal, birth, and postnatal developmental histories
and developmental milestones
Child's languages, such as language spoken at home, at
school, and with friends, and competency in each _ .
Child's educational history, such as grades, behavior';n
school, grade placements, retentions, and special class
placements
Child's social and interpersonal history, including involvement
in court and family services
Child's medical history, such as serious diseases, disabilities,
and medications
Family's history and socioeconomic status, such as number
of children, birth order of children, and resources
Interventions attempted by parents and teachers and their
results
Recent changes in child's life (e.g., parents' divorce or
remarriage, loss of a close family member or fri.end, move,
change in teacher)
Child's school environment (e.g., violence, teacher-child ratio,
overcrowding)
Resources available to child (e.g., computer in home,
parental support, tutoring, proximity to community resources
such as library)
Assessment Findings
Description of problem behavior, such as (a) its origin,
(b) age of child when it began, (c) its frequency, duration,
intensity, and severity, and (d) its antecedents and
consequences
Overall level of inteiligence, level of verbal ability, level of
nonverbal abilitY, and cognitive strengths and weaknesses
Reading ability, such as decoding, phonemic awareness,
reading comprehension, and reading fluency
Written language ability, such as spelling, writing mechanics,
and written expression
Interventions
Child's, family's, and school's expectations for changes in the
child's behavior
Most feasible interventions, including educational programs
and settings, given family, school, and community resources
Realistic goals
PrognOSis
(For reevaluations) Changes in functioning
Demographic .and Background Information
Cross-validate impressions provided by multiple informants

Determine the conditions that inhibit or support the acquisition of appropriate skills
Obtain baseline information prior to the implementation
of an intervention program
Develop useful instructional programs
Referral source
Reason for referral
Behaviors of concern to referral source
Guide students in selecting educational and vocational

programs
Monitor cognitive, academic, or social cbanges in the child
(and in the family, scbool, and community as needed)
Measure the effectiveness of interventions
Referral Information
Mathematics ability, such as math computations, fluency, and

math applications
Abilities in other academic areas
Attention and concentration, such as ability to filter out
extraneous stimuli and focus on a task over a period of time
Executive functions, such as planning, organization, setting
priorities, creating and applying effective strategies, attending
to the most salient aspects of a task, and applying the correct
amount of effort and attention to a task
Adaptive skills, such as self-help skills and ability to function
in the environment
Work and study skills, such as (a) study habits, including
length of time spent studying, frequency of studying,
when and where studying takes place, (b) note-taking
strategies, (c) study strategies such as writing and answering
study questions, (d) text-reading strategies, (e) use of
supplementary materials, (f) use of computer software, and
(g) use of the Web and online resources
AUditory perception, such as ability to identify, discriminate,
interpret, and organize elements of acoustical stimuli
Fine-motor coordination, such as ability to integrate small
muscles,-usually in conjunction with visual perception
Gross-motor activity, such as degree of coordination and
ability to organize movements of the large muscle groups
Memory, such as ability to store and retrieve information
Visual perception, such as ability to identify, discriminate,
interpret, and organize physical elements of visual stimuli
Personal and emotional functioning, such as ability to
relate to others, ability to express and modulate emotions,
ability to show a range of emotions, coping strategies, and
temperament
Activity level in various situations
Effect of problems on ordinary acllvities
Compensatory strategies used by child
k.
Cross-validate impressions provided by multiple infonnants
Determine the conditions that inhibit or support the acquisition of appropriate skills
Obtain baseline infonnation prior to the implementation
of an intervention program
Develop useful instructional programs
Description of problem behavior, such as (a) its origin,

(b) age of child when it began, (c) its frequency, duration,
intenSity, and severity, and (d) its antecedents and
consequences
Overall level of inteiligence, level of verbal ability, level of
nonverbal abilitY, and cognitive strengths and weaknesses
~. Reading ability, such as decoding, phonemic awareness,
reading comprehension, and reading fluency
Written language ability, such as spelling, writing mechanics,
and written expression
Table 1-3
Factors to Consider in a Multimethod Assessment
The assessment process comprises 11 steps (see Figure 1-3).

These steps represent a multistage process for planning,
collecting data, evaluating results, formulating hypotheses,
developing recommendations, communicating results and
recommendations, conducting reevaluations, and following
up on a child's performance. The original assessment plan
may need to be modified as questions develop from the assessment findings. Sometimes you will want to change assess- .
ment procedures as a result of information obtained early on,
so that you can gain more information about specific areas of
Table 1-4
Guidelines That Form a Foundation for the Assessment Process
STEPS IN THE ASSESSMENT PROCESS
how assessment results directly affect children'and their parents. You must be careful about the words you choose when
writing reports and when communicating with ciiildren, their
families, and other professionals. Your work is a major professional contribution to children and their families, to their
schools, and to society.
Interpretations are developed by use of inductive methods

(Le., gathering information about a child and then drawing
conclusions) and deductive methods (Le., proposing a
hypothesis about the child's behavior and then collecting
information that relates to the hypothesis).
Results from psychological measures should be interpreted
in relation to other behavioral data and case history
information (including a child's cultural background and
primary language), never in isolation.
Assessment measures assess a child's performance based
on her or his answers to a set of items administered at a
particular time and place. The answers represent samples
of behavior; they do not directly reveal traits or capacities,
but they allow you to make inferences about these
characteristi.cs.
Divergent assessment findings need to be carefully
considered and reported, not minimized or ignored.
Assessmentconclusions and recommendations should be
based on all sources of information obtained about a child,
not on any single piece of information.
Reevaluations may be needed periodically (e.g., 1 year
after an intervention begins and/or every 3 years for special
education classification). However, reevaluations should be
conducted only when there is a good reason to do so, unless
required by state or federal statute (see Chapter 3 for the
requirements for reevaluation under IDEA 2004).
Assessment measures intended to assess the same area
may yield different scores (e.g., two different intelligence
tests purporting to measure similar constructs may yield
scores that differ). In such cases, you should discuss the
implications of these findings.
The assessment process comprises 11 steps (see Figure 1-3).

These steps represent a multistage process for planning,
collecting data, evaluating results, formulating hypotheses,
developing recommendations, communicating results and
recommendations, conducting reevaluations, and following
up on a child's performance. The original assessment plan
may need to be modified as questions develop from the assessment findings. Sometimes you will want to change assess- .
ment procedures as a result of information obtained early on,
so that you can gain more information about specific areas of
Background
Assessment should be used for the benefit of the child.
Assessment should be a systematic process of arriving at an
understanding of a child.
Table 1-4
Guidelines That Form a Foundation for the Assessment Process
10
CHAPTER 1
A clinical assessor should never focus exclusively on a child's

test scores; instead, he or she -should interpret them by asking
what the scores suggest about the child's competencies and
limitation~. Each child has a range of competencies and limitations that can be evaluated quantitatively and qualitatively.
Note that the aim is to assess both limitations and competencies, not just limitations. Table 1-4 provides guidelines that
form a foundation for the assessment process.
Tests and other assessment procedures are powerful tools,
but their effectiveness depends on the examiner's knowledge,
skill, and experience. Clinical and psychoeducational evaluations lead to decisions and actions that affect the lives of
children and their families. When used wisely and cautiously,
assessment procedures can assist you in helping children,
parents, teachers, and other professionals. When used inappropriately, assessment procedures can be misleading and
hannful. The case of Daniel Hoffman in Exhibit 1-1 shows
~.::
how assessment results directly affect children'and their parents. You must be careful about the words you choose when
writing reports and when communicating with children, their
families, and other professionals. Your work is a major professional contribution to children and tbeir families, to their
schools, and to society.
GUIDELINES FOR
CONDUCTING ASSESSMENTS
Interpretation of Assessment Measures

Scores may be adversely affected by the child's (a) poor
comprehension of English,(b) temporary fatigue, anxiety,
or stress, (c) uncooperative behavior, (d) limited motivation,
(e) disturbances in temperament or personality, and/or (f)
physical illnesses or disorders.
Assessment strategies include comparing a child's
performance with that of other children (Le., normative
comparisons) and evaluating the child's unique profile of
scorr::s or individual patterns (Le., idiographic comparisons).
Selection of Assessment Measures

Assessment measures should have adequate reliability and
validity for the situations in which they are being used.
Assessment measures should have representative
standardization groups.
Assessment measures should provide information
needed to answer the referral question and make useful
recommendations.
well-defined rules.
Administration of Assessment Measures

Assessment measures should be administered under
standard conditions (e.g., using the exact wording in the
manuals and following administrative instructions and time
limits precisely).
Assessment measures should be scored according to
recommendations.
Administration of Assessment Measures

Assessment measures should be administered under
standard conditions (e.g., using the exact wording in the
manuals and following administrative instructions and time
limits precisely).
Assessment measures should be scored according to
well-defined rules.
Selection of Assessment Measures

Assessment measures should have adequate reliability and
validity for the situations in which they are being used.
Assessment measures should have representative
standardization groups.
Assessment measures should provide information
needed to answer the referral question and make useful
Interpretations are developed by use of inductive methods

(i.e., gathering information about a child and then drawing
conclusions) and deductive methods (i.e., proposing a
hypothesis about the child's behavior and then collecting
information that relates to the hypothesis).
Results from psychological measures should be interpreted
in relation to other behavioral data and case history
information (including a child's cultural background and
primary language), never in isolation.
Assessment measures assess a child's performance based
on her or his answers to a set of items administered at a
particular time and place. The answers represent samples
of behavior; they do not directly reveal traits or capacities,
but they allow yoti to make inferences about these
characteristi.cs.
Divergent assessment findings need to be carefully
considered and reported, not minimized or ignored.
Assessment. conclusions and recommendations should be
based on all sources of information obtained about a child,
not on any single piece of information.
Reevaluations may Qe needed periodically (e.g., 1 year
after an intervention begins and/or every 3 years for special
education classification). However, reevaluations should be
conducted only when there is a good reason to do so, unless
required by state or federal statute (see Chapter 3 for the
requirements for reevaluation under IDEA 2004).
Assessment measures intended to assess the same area
may yield different scores (e.g., two different intelligence
tests purporting to measure similar constructs may yield
scores that differ). In such cases, you should discuss the
implications of these findings.
Interpretation of Assessment Measures

Scores may be adversely affected by the child's (a) poor
comprehension of English, (b) temporary fatigue, anxiety,
or stress, (c) uncooperative behavior, (d) limited motivation,
(e) disturbances in temperament or personality, and/or (f)
physical illnesses or disorders.
Assessment strategies include comparing a child's
performance with that of other children (Le., normative
comparisons) and evaluating the child's unique profile of
scorf3s or individual patterns (Le., idiographic comparisons).
Background
Assessment should be used for the benefit of the child.
Assessment should be a systematic process of arriving at an
understanding of a child.
GUIDELINES FOR
CONDUCTING ASSESSMENTS
CHAPTER 1
A clinical assessor should neve:r focus exclusively on a child's

test scores; instead, he or she should interpret them by asking
what the ~cores suggest about the child's competencies and
limitation~. Each child has a range of competencies and limitations that can be evaluated quantitatively and qualitatively.
Note that the aim is to assess both limitations and competencies, not just limitations. Table 1-4 provides guidelines that
form a foundation for the assessment process.
Tests and other assessment procedures are powerful tools,
but their effectiveness depends on the examiner's knowledge,
skill, and experience. Clinical and psychoeducational evaluations lead to decisions and actions that affect the lives of
children and their families. When used wisely and cautiously,
assessment procedures can assist you in helping children,
parents, teachers, and other professionals. When used inappropriately, assessment procedures can be misleading and
harmful. The case of Daniel Hoffman in Exhibit 1-1 shows
10
............................................................
dIiiI'~
L_
,
. STEPS IN THE ASSESSMENT PROCESS
You are not obligated to accept all referrals, nor do you need
to give all children who are referred to you a complete assess-
Step 2: Decide Whether to Accept

the Referral
Decide whether to accept the referral
Step 2
Review referral information
Step 1
When you receive a referral, read it carefully and, if necessary, consult with the referral source to clarify any ambiguous
or vague information. For example, if a teacher asks you to
find out why a child is having difficulty in class, you will want
to know the teacher's specific concerns (e.g., reading deficit,
inattention, social skills deficit). You may find it necessary to
redefine the referral question to focus on a particular concern.
You: will want to know what the referral source expects you
to accomplish and to identify the areas of most concern to the
refe~al source. If you can't identify these areas, it will be difficult to formulate an appropriate assessment strategy. If you
can identify these areas and identify the referral source's expectations, you will begin the assessment on a firm footing.
Remember that you and the referral source are working
together to help the child. You want to establish rapport and a
good working relationship with the referral source. Communication and decision making will be easier if you and the referral source share a common vocabulary and agree about the
referral question. Rapport with the referral source also may
help you with the assessment process, as that person may be
able to provide timely access to school records, conduct classroom observations, and contact other individuals with insights
about the child. Finally, a referral s()lfce who has confidence
in the process and results of an assessment will be more likely
to implement appropriate interventions.
Describe the assessment procedures to the referral source,
and discuss potential benefits and limitations (e.g., placement
in a special education program, effect of the testing process
on the child). In some cases, based only on the information
provided by the referral source, you may be able to suggest
interventions that can be implemented in the classroom prior
to a formal assessment. If the child's problem behavior is alleviated, a formal assessment may not be needed. Some school
districts have prereferral committees or teacher support tearns
to work with teachers who have concerns about students'
academic performance or behavior. Prereferral committees
may recommend interventions. Their advice may reduce the
number of children unnecessarily referred for assessment,
making it easier to provide prompt and intensive services to
those most in need of individual assessment.
Step 3
Obtain relevant background information
Observe the child in several settings
Step 5
Consider the influence of relevant others
Step 4
Select and administer an assessment test battery
11
hypotheses may be modified and new ones may emerge. In

some cases, it may not be practical to conduct observations
or home visits, especially in clinics or hospitals with limited
staff. Also, in school settings, the intervention strategies and
recommendations usually will be made by the multidisciplinary team rather than by one person.
Step 1 : Review Referral Information
Write a report
Step 10
Meet with parents, the child (if appropriate),

and other concerned individuals
Step 11
Follow up on recommendations and

conduct a reevaluation
Interpret the assessment results
Step 9
Step 7
Develop intervention strategies and

recommendations
Develop intervention strategies and

recommendations
Step 8
Step 8
Write a report
Step 7
Step 9
Select and administer an assessmeDt test battery
Step 6
Step 10
Meet with parents, the child (if appropriate),

Follow up on recommendations and
conduct a reevaluation
Figure 1-3. Steps in the assessment process.
functioning. For example, suppose your original plan does not

call for an in-depth developmental history interview with the
mother. However, the interview with the child reveals a period
of hospitalization last summer. Consequently, you decide that
you need to interview the mother to obtain more detailed de. velopmental information and, if necessary, ask for written permission to obtain a copy of the medical report. Finally, as you
review your findings, you may decide that the child needs a
specialized assessment, such as a neuropsychological evaluation or a speech and language evaluation. In this case, you
would refer the child to an appropriate specialist.
The steps in the assessment process are not necessarily
fixed in the order presented here. For example, you may want
to observe the child after you administer the assessment battery. The referral question, as well as case history information, will guide your selection of assessment tools. As you
conduct the examination and review the results, your initial
to accept the referral
When you receive a referral, read it carefully and, if necessary, consult with the referral source to clarify any ambiguous
or vague information. For example, if a teacher asks you to
find out why a child is having difficulty in class, you will want
to know the teacher's specific concerns (e.g., reading deficit,
inattention, social skills deficit). You may find it necessary to
redefine the referral question to focus on a particular concern.
You will want to know what the referral source expects you
to accomplish and to identify the areas of most concern to the
refe~al source. If you can't identify these areas, it will be difficult to formulate an appropriate assessment strategy. If you
can identify these areas and identify the referral source's expectations, you will begin the assessment on a firm footing.
Remember that you and the referral source are working
together to help the child. You want to establish rapport and a
good working relationship with the referral source. Communication and decision making will be easier if you and the referral source share a common vocabulary and agree about the
referral question. Rapport with the referral source also may
help you with the assessment process, as that person may be
able to provide timely access to school records, conduct classroom observations, and contact other individuals with insights
about the child. Finally, a referral s()Jlfce who has confidence
in the process and results of an assessment will be more likely
to implement appropriate interventions.
Describe the assessment procedures to the referral source,
and discuss potential benefits and limitations (e.g., placement
in a special education program, effect of the testing process
on the child). In some cases, based only on the information
provided by the referral source, you may be able to suggest
interventions that can be implemented in the classroom prior
to a formal assessment. If the child's problem behavioris alleviated, a formal assessment may not be needed. Some school
districts have prereferral committees or teacher support teams
to work with teachers who have concerns about students'
academic performance or behavior. Prereferral committees
may recommend interventions. Their advice may reduce the
number of children unnecessarily referred for assessment,
making it easier to provide prompt and intensive services to
those most in need of individual assessment.
StepS
Decide whether
Step 11
<

Step 6
functioning. For example, suppose your original plan does not

call for an in-depth developmental history interview with the
mother. However, the interview with the child reveals a period
of hospitalization last summer. Consequently, you decide that
you need to interview the mother to obtain more detailed developmental information and, if necessary, ask for written permission to obtain a copy of the medical report. Finally, as you
review your findings, you may decide that the child needs a
specialized assessment, such as a neuropsychologic~ evaluation or a speech and language evaluation. In this case, you
would refer the child to an appropriate specialist.
The steps in the assessment process are not necessarily
fixed in the order presented here. For example, you may want
to observe the child after you administer the assessment battery. The referral question, as well as case history information, will guide your selection of assessment tools. As you
conduct the examination and review the results, your initial
Figure 1-3. Steps in the assessment process.
Step 4
Step 3
Step 2
Review referral information
Step 1
Step 1 : Review Referral Information
hypotheses may be modified and new ones may emerge. In

some cases, it may not be practical to conduct observations
or home visits, especially in clinics or hospitals with limited
staff. Also, in school settings, the intervention strategies and
recommendations usually will be made by the multidisciplinary team rather than by one person.
Step 2: Decide Whether to Accept

the Referral
You are not obligated to accept all referrals, nor do you need
to give all children who are referred to you a complete assess-
<
11
I
CHAPTER 1 CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN:THE PROCESS
Generally, if problems are likely neurological or physiological, you should refer the child to a specialist in the appropriate area. If you decide to conduct the evaluation, obtain
from the parents.
Do I need to confer with the referral source about what

questions an _assessm~nt can and cannot answer? Identifying differences among the expectations of the referral
source, the parents, and other parties involved at the outset
of the evaluation may prevent misunderstandings after the
evaluation is complete.
Are there other professionals who are more competent
to handle the referral because of its higbly specialized
nature? For example, a child who has recently sustained a
head injury would be best served by a neuropsychological
and neurological assessment rather than by a psychoeducational assessment.
Is formal testing needed? Can I answer the concerns of
the referral source with assessment procedures other than
formal testing (e.g., by examining work samples, classroom assessments, or report cards)?
Do I need to refer the child for a medical evaluation because the referral indicates (or I have discovered in the
course of my evaluation) that the child has physical concerns that may affect the assessment or has had a sudden
change in cognitive ability, physical condition, behavior, or personality? For example, has the child displayed
changes in any of these areas?
To obtain a comprehensive evaluation of a child's problems, it

is critical that you (or a member of the interdisciplinary team or
clinical staff) interview the child's parents, siblings, teachers,
and other adults. Detennine each parent's preferred language
and use a trained interpreter as needed (see Chapter 5 for information about using an interpreter). Carefully explain to the
parents the policies of the clinic, school, or your own practice. Also explain the limits of confidentiality (see Chapter 3),
fees, time constraints, and what you think you can accomplish.
Give parents the opportunity to ask questions, and answer their
questions as simply, clearly, and directly as possible.
When you interview the child's parents and teachers, find
out how they view the problem and what they have done to
alleviate the problem, and explore their roles in maintaining
the problem. Because different adults see the child in different settings and play different roles with the child, do not
be surprised to find that adults' reports about the same child
conflict. When the assessment findings do not agree with the
parents' or teachers' accounts of what the child can do, investigate the reasons for the disagreement. Do not assume
that conflicting reports are wrong; rather, consider them to be
based on different samples of behavior.
j
""i
ment battery. It is also important to know your competencies.

Ask yourself questions such as these:
12
A thorough knowledge of a child's current problems and past

history is a key to planning and conducting an appropriate
assessment. It is important to obtain information about the
child's physical, social, psychological, linguistic, and educational development. You can obtain this information in several
ways. First, you can ask the parents to complete the Background Questionnaire, the teacher to complete the School
Step 4: Consider the Influence

of Relevant Others
Referral Questionnaire, and older children and adolescents

to complete the Personal Data Questionnaire (see Appendixes A-I, A-3, and A-2, respectively, in Sattler and Roge,
2006). Second, you can interview the child, parents, teachers, and others familiar with the child's problem. Third, you
can review the child's cumulative school records (including
records from previous schools), which provide information
regarding grades, curricula, and state and district standardized testing. Finally, if applicable, you can review reports of
previous psychological or other evaluations, medical reports,
and reports from other agencies.
Note whether the child was exposed to any risk factors
during prenatal development, delivery, early childhood, or
later development (risk factors are factors that may lead to
psychological, neurological, and/or psychoeducational problems). AlsO note whether the family has a history of any
disorders related to the referral question. In school settings,
you will want to note information about what the child has
or has not learned and any corrective actions taken by the
schoohitaff (e.g., curriculum changes or behavioral or environmental interventions) and obtain samples of the child's
classroom _work (e.g., essays, writing samples, drawings,
constructions). If you plan to contact other sources to obtain
information about the child, be sure to have the parents sign
a release-of-information consent form. If the child was recently hospitalized, ask the hospital staff and tutors who have
worked with the child whether they think the child is ready to
return to school and to tell you about any factors that might
interfere with the child's schooling and adjustment.
Step 3: Obtain Relevant

Background Information
Step 4: Consider the Influence

of Relevant Others
Generally, if problems are likely neurological or physiological~ you should refer the child to a specialist in the appropriate area. If you decide to conduct the evaluation, obtain
pe~ssion from the parents.
Changes in cognitive ability-<lifficulties in recalling,

memorizing, speaking, reading, writing, attention, or
concentration
Changes in physical condition-complaints of nausea,
dizziness, headache, vomiting, sleeplessness, difficulty
ill arousal from sleep, listlessness, easy fatigability,
blurred or double vision, motor weakness, clumsiness,
loss of sensory acuity, ringing in the ears, or sensations
of pain; numbness, or tingling
Changes ill behavior-becoming more hyperactive,
impulsive, withdrawn, moody, or distractible
Changes in personality-becoming more introverted
or extroverted or showing increased anxiety or fear or
increased distrust of others
Changes in cognitive ability-difficulties in recalling,

memorizing, speaking, reading, writing, attention, or
concentration
Changes in physical condition--complaints of nausea,
dizziness, headache, vomiting, sleeplessness, difficulty
ill arousal from sleep, listlessness, easy fatigability,
blurred or double vision, motor weakness, clumsiness,
loss of sensory acuity, ringing in the ears, or sensations
of pain; numbness, or tingling
Changes in behavior-becoming more hyperactive,
impUlsive, withdrawn, moody, or distractible
Changes in personality-becoming more introverted
or extroverted or showing increased anxiety or fear or
increased distrust of others
Do I need to confer with the referral source about what

questions an .assessment can and cannot answer? Identifying differences among the expectations of the referral
source, the parents, and other parties involved at the outset
of the evaluation may prevent misunderstandings after the
evaluation is complete.
Are there other professionals who are more competent
to handle the referral because of its highly specialized
nature? For example, a child who has recently sustained a
head injury would be best served by a neuropsychological
and neurological assessment rather than by a psychoeducational assessment.
Is formal testing needed? Can I answer the concerns of
the referral source with assessment procedUres other than
formal testing (e.g., by examining work samples, classroom assessments, or report cards)?
Do I need to refer the child for a medical evaluation because the referral indicates (or I have discovered in the
course of my evaluation) that the child has physical concerns that may affect the assessment or has had a sudden
change in cognitive ability, physical condition, behavior, or personality? For example, has the child displayed
changes in any of these areas?
Referral Questionnaire, and older children and adolescents

to complete the Personal Data Questionnaire (see Appendixes A-I, A-3, and A-2, respectively, in Sattler and Hoge,
2006). Second, you can interview the child, parents, teachers, and others familiar with the child's problem. Third, you
can review the child's cumulative school records (including
records from previous schools), which provide information
regarding grades, curricula, and state and district standardized testing. Finally, if applicable, you can review reports of
previous psychological or other evaluations, medical reports,
and reports from other agencies.
Note whether the child was exposed to any risk factors
during prenatal development, delivery, early childhood, or
later development (risk factors are factors that may lead to
psychological, neurological, and/or psychoeducational problems). Also' note whether the family has a history of any
disorders related to the referral question. In school settings,
you will want to note information about what the child has
or has riot learned and any corrective actions taken by the
schoohitaff (e.g., curriculum changes or behavioral or environmental interventions) and obtain samples of the child's
classroom _work (e.g., essays, writing samples, drawings,
constructions). If you plan to contact other sources to obtain
information about the child, be sure to have the parents sign
a release-of-information consent form. If the child was recently hospitalized, ask the hospital staff and tutors who have
worked with the child whether they think the child is ready to
return to school and to teU you about any factors that might
interfere with the child's schooling and adjustment.
pe~ssion
ment battery. It is also important to know your competencies.

Ask yourself questions such as these:
Step 3: Obtain Relevant

Background Information
To obtain a comprehensive evaluation of a child's problems, it

is critical that you (or a member of the interdisciplinary team or
clinical staff) interview the child's parents, siblings, teachers,
and other adults. Determine each parent's preferred language
and use a trained interpreter as needed (see Chapter 5 for information about using an interpreter). Carefully explain to the
parents the policies of the clinic, school, or your own practice. Also explain the limits of confidentiality (see Chapter 3),
fees, time constraints, and what you think you can accomplish.
Give parents the opportunity to ask questions, and answer their
questions as simply, clearly, and directly as possible.
When you interview the child's parents and teachers, find
out how they view the problem and what they have done to
alleviate the problem, and explore their roles in maintaining
the problem. Because different adults see the child in different settings and play different roles with the child, do not
be surprised to find that adults' reports about the same child
conflict. When the assessment findings do not agree with the
parents' or teachers' accounts of what the child can do, investigate the reasons for the disagreement. Do not assume
that conflicting reports are wrong; rather, consider them to be
based on different samples of behavior.
12
A thorough knowledge of a child's current problems and past

history is a key to planning and conducting an appropriate
assessment. It is important to obtain information about the
child's physical, social, psychological, linguistic, and educational development. You can obtain this information in several
ways. First, you can ask the parents to complete the Background Questionnaire, the teacher to complete the School
How do I select an assessment test battery? An

effective assessment strategy requires that you choose assessment procedures that will help you reach your goals. The
tests you select should be related to the referral question. For
PS'YCHOLOGISl"
SCflOOL.
13
--
-'
How do I select an assessment test battery? An

effective assessment strategy requires that you choose assessment procedures that will help you reach your goals. The
tests you select should be related to the referral question. For
-'-'~-'
8CflOOl..
PSYCHOLOGISi
Courtesy of Herman Zielinski and Jerome M. Sattler.
example, a reading fluency test with brief items will not address a referral question about the child's inability to comprehend textbook chapters; likewise, a short-tenn memory test
will not answer questions about long-tenn recall difficulties.The questions in Table 1-5 will help Y9U evaluate assessment
instruments and determine whether a test is appropriate for a
particular child. You should consider these questions for each
assessment instrument you use, to ensure that it is appropriate
for the child and for the specific purpose for which it will be
used. Carefully study the infonnation contained in each test
manual, such as the reliability and validity of the test and the
norm group. Use tests only for the purposes recommended
by the test publisher, unless there is evidence to support other
uses for a test.
For infonnation on a vast number of tests, consult the latest
edition of the Mental Measurements Yearbook. Consult Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (American
Educational Research Association, American Psychological
Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education, 1999) for infonnation about technical and professional
standards for test construction and use. Journals that review
tests and present research on assessment include Psychological Assessment, Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment,
Psychology in the Schools, School Psychology Review, Journal of Clinical Psychology, Journal of School Psychology,
Educational and Psychological Measurement, Intelligence,
Applied Psychological Measurement, Journal of Educational
Psychology, Journal of Educational Measurement, School
Psychology QlIaJ1erly, and Journal of Personality Assess-
Step 5: Observe the Child

in Several Settings
Courtesy of Herman Zielinski and Jerome M. Sattler.
Consider the following questions about test selection and

administration:
ITIJ
Information obtained from observations will help you individualize the clinical evaluation and will supplement the
more objective test information. You will want to observe the
child in several school settings and at home, if possible. For
example, after visiting the classroom, you should be able to
answer questions such as these: What is the classroom environment like? Is the curriculum appropriate for the child?
What instructional strategies and rewards are being used and
how effective are they? Row does the child's behavior compare to that of other children? Careful observation will help
you to develop hypotheses about the child's coping behaviors. Ask the teacher to tell the students that you are there to
observe the class so that they do not wonder about why you
are there. If you (or a social worker) visit the child's home,
ask a parent to tell the family that you are there. to observe
the family.
Classroom and home visits provide added benefits, including the opportunity to establish rapport with the child, teachers, and parents and to observe such aspects of the child's
environment as the layout and structure of the classroom and
the home (see Chapters 8 and 9 on behavioral observations in
Sattler and Roge, 2006). Developing a collaborative relationship with the child's teachers and parents will be important
both during assessment and during any subsequent interventions. When you observe in these settings, avoid interfering
with classroom or home routines, and remind the adults that
you don't want the child to. know that you are there to observe
him or her. Ask the teachers or parents to follow their usual
routines when you are present.
Also, ask the teacher, parent, or other adult whether the
behavior the child exhibited is typical and, if atypical, how it
differed from his or her usual behavior. Although you should
make every effort to reduce the parents' or teachers' anxiety about your visit, they must understand that their behavior
may be part of the problem and that changes in their behavior may be part of the solution. You should therefore observe
how the behaviors of the ,parents and teachers affect the child.
The behaviors of a child and his or her parents or teachers
are usually so .interdependent that it is almost impossible to
exariiine the child's behavior without evaluating that of the
parents or teachers.
Step 6: Select and Administer

an Assessment Test Battery
NOW
SERVING
Step 6: Select and Administer

an Assessment Test Battery
Infonnation obtained from observations will help you individualize the clinical evaluation and will supplement the
more objective test infonnation. You will want to observe the
child in several school settings and at home, if possible. For
example, after visiting the classroom, you should be able to
answer questions such as these: What is the classroom environment like? Is the curriculum appropriate for the child?
What instructional strategies and rewards are being used and
how effective are they? Row does the child's behavior compare to that of other children? Careful observation will help
you to develop hypotheses about the child's coping behaviors. Ask the teacher to tell the students that you are there to
observe the class so that they do not wonder about why you
are there. If you (or a social worker) visit the child's home,
ask a parent to tell the family that you are there. to observe
the family.
Classroom and home visits provide added benefits, including the opportunity to establish rapport with the child, teachers, and parents and to observe such aspects of the child's
environment as the layout and structure of the classroom and
the home (see Chapters 8 and 9 on behavioral observations in
Sattler and Roge, 2006). Developing a collaborative relationship with the child's teachers and parents will be important
both during assessment and during any subsequent interventions. When you observe in these settings, avoid interfering
with classroom or home routines, and remind the adults that
you don't want the clilld to. know that you are there to observe
him or her. Ask the teachers or parents to follow their usual
routines when you are present.
Also, ask the teacher, parent, or other adult whether the
behavior the child exhibited is typical and, if atypical, how it
differed from'tJis or her usual behavior. Although you should
make every effort to reduce the parents' or teachers' anxiety about your visit, they must understand that their behavior
may be part of the problem and that changes in their behavior may be part of the solution. You should therefore observe
how the behaviors of the ,parents and teachers affect the child.
The behaviors of a cIilld and his or her parents or teachers
are usually so .interdependent that it is almost impossible to
examine the child's behavior without evaluating that of the
parents or teachers.
13
Consider the following questions about test selection and

administration:
example, a reading fluency test with brief items will not address a referral question about the child's inability to comprehend textbook chapters; likewise, a short-term memory test
will not answer questions about long-term recall difficulties.The questions in Table 1-5 will help Y9u evaluate assessment
instruments and determine whether a test is appropriate for a
particular child. You should consider these questions for each
assessment instrument you use, to ensure that it is appropriate
for the child and for the specific purpose for which it will be
used. Carefully study the information contained in each test
manual, such as the reliability and validity of the test and the
norm group. Use tests only for the purposes recommended
by the test publisher, unless there is evidence to support other
uses for a test.
For information on a vast number of tests, consult the latest
edition of the Mental Measurements Yearbook. Consult Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (American
Educational Research Association, American Psychological
Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education, 1999) for information about technical and professional
standards for test construction and use. Journals that review
tests and present research on assessment include Psychological Assessment, loumal of Psychoeducational Assessment,
Psychology in the Schools, School Psychology Review, lournal of Clinical Psychology, loumal of School Psychology,
Educational and Psychological Measurement, Intelligence,
Applied Psychological Measurement, loumal of Educational
Psychology, loumal of Educational Measurement, School
Psychology Quarterly, and loumal of Personality Assess-
Step 5: Observe the Child

in Several Settings
14
CHAPTER 1 CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN: THE

PROCESS
How many tests and procedures are necessary and

how long should the assessment be? The number of
tests and procedures and the length of each assessment will
be detennined by factors such as the severity of the child's
problem, the child's age, the child's attention and motivation, and the time available to you to conduct the assessment.
Again, there are no absolute guidelines about these issues.
You will need to use clinical judgment in each case. How-
Table 1-5
Questions to Conside~ When Reviewing an Assess ment Measur
e
Information About the Assessment Measur e
1. What is the name of the assessment measure?
2. Who are the authors?
3. Who published it?
4. When was it published?
5. What is the purpose of the assessment measure?
6. What do the reviewers say about the assessment measure?
7. When were the norms collected?
8. Are the populations to which the norms refer clearly defined
and described?
9. Are norms reported in an appropriate form (usually as standard scores or percentile ranks)?
10. What was the standardization group?
11. How representative was the standardization group?
12. Are data presented about the performance of diverse
groups on the test?
13. What reliability measures are provided and how reliable is
the assessment measure?
14. What validity measures are provided and how valid is the
assessment measure for its stated purposes?
15. If a factor analysis has been performed, what were the
results?
16. How recently was the assessment measure revised?
22. How much does the assessment measure cost?

23. How long does it take to administer?
24. What qualifications are needed to administer and interpret
How much information should lobtain? Yourpriruary

goal is to help the child. You do this by obtaining infonnation
needed to answer the referral question. However, as part of the
initial assessment, you may obtain meaningful leads that need
to be followed up by administering additional tests.
Information About Scoring the Assess ment Measure

25. How clear are the directions for administration and scoring?
26. What standard scores are used?
27. What is the range of standard scores?
28. Are the scales used for reporting scores clearly and carefully described?
29. Is hand scoring available?
30. Is computer scoring available?
31. Is a computer report available?
will need to supplement a measure of intellectual ability with

other assessment measures. Your personal preferences, based
on your experience and evaluations, will also guide you in
selecting tests.
Child Considerations
32. What prerequisite skills does the child need in order to

complete t~eassessment measure?
33. In what languages or modes of communication can the
assessment measure be administered?
34. What adaptations can be made in presentation and
response modes for children with disabilities who need special accommodations?
35. Is the vocabulary level of the assessment measure's directions appropriate for the child?
36. Does the child have any physical limitations that will interfere with his or her performance?
37. How much is the assessment measure affected by gender
and ethnic bias?
38. Will the assessment measure materials be interesting to the
child?
39. Is the assessment measure suitable for indivjdual or group
administration?
,-
32. What prerequisite skills does the child need in order to

complete t~e.assessment measure?
33. In what languages or modes of communication can the
assessment measure be administered?
34. What adaptations can be made in presentation and
response modes for children with disabilities who need special accommodations?
35. Is the vocabulary level of the assessment measure's directions appropriate for the child?
36. Does the child have any physical limitations that will interfere with his or her performance?
37. How much is the assessment measure affected by gender
and ethnic bias?
38. Will the assessment measure materials be interesting to the
child?
39. Is the assessment measure suitable for indivl.dual or group
administration?
,-
Information About Administering the Assess ment Measur

e
17. Is the assessment measure appropriate to answer the referral question?
18. Does the publisher provide an administration manual and a
technical manual?
19. Does the manual include interpretation guidelines and information to support the recommended interpretations?
20. Is an alternative form available?
21. If more than one form is available, does the publisher offer
tables showing equivalent scores on the different forms?
What is the name of the assessment measure?

Who are the authors?
Who published it?
When was it published?
What is the purpose of the assessment measure?
What do the reviewers say about the assessment measure?
When were the norms collected?
Are the populations to which the norms refer clearly defined
and described?
Are norms reported in an appropriate form (usually as standard scores or percentile ranks)?
What was the standardization group?
How representative was the standardization group?
Are data presented about the performance of diverse
groups on the test?
What reliability measures are provided and how reliable is
What validity measures are provided and how valid is the
assessment measure for its stated purposes?
If a factor analysis has been performed, what were the
results?
How recently was the assessment measure revised?
Child Considerations
will need to supplement a measure of intellectual ability with

other assessment measures. Your personal preferences, based
on your experience and evaluations, will also guide you in
selecting tests.
How clear are the directions for administration and scoring?

What standard scores are used?
What is the range of standard scores?
Are the scales used for reporting scores clearly and carefully described?
29. Is hand scoring available?
30. Is computer scoring available?
31. Is a computer report available?
How much information should I obtain? Your primary

goal is to help the child. You do this by obtaining infonnation
needed to answer the referral question. However, as part of the
initial assessment, you may obtain meaningful leads that need
to be followed up by administering additional tests.
25.
26.
27.
28.
Information About Scoring the Assessment Measure
22. How much does the assessment measure cost?

23. How long does it take to administer?
24. What qualifications are needed to administer and interpret
How many tests and procedures are necessary and
how long should the assessment be? The number of

tests and procedures and the length of each assessment will
be determined by factors such as the severity of the child's
problem, the child's age, the child's attention and motivation, and the time available to you to conduct the assessment.
Again, there are no absolute guidelines about these issues.
You will need to use clinical judgme nt in each case. How-
CHAPTER 1
ment. Also check publishers' Web sites for notices of errors,

new interpretive infonnation, newsletters and technical reports (often free), and download,able updates of computer
scoring programs. In some cases, you may have to call the
publisher directly to obtain answers to your questions.
Select the test battery based on your infonna tion about
the child. Consider the referral question and the child's age,
physical capabilities, language proficiency, culture, and prior
test results. Also consider teacher, parent, and medical reports. In selecting tests, consider the questions listed in Table
1-5. Recogn ize that no one test can give you all the information you need to perfonn a comprehensive evaluation of
a child. An objective measure of intelligence, for example,
provides little or no infonna tion about the child's word recognition and reading comprehension abilities; competencies in
arithmetical operations and spelling; behavior outside of the
test situation; self-concept; attitudes toward peers, siblings,
and parents; temperament and personality; adaptive behavior;
or interpersonal skills. To conduct a thorough evaluation, you
ment. Also check publishers' Web sites for notices of errors,

new interpretive infonnation, newsletters and technical reports (often free), and download,able updates of computer
scoring programs. In some cases, you may have to call the
publisher directly to obtain answers to your questions.
Select the test battery based on your infonnation about
the child. Consider the referral question and the child's age,
physical capabilities, language proficiency, culture, and prior
test results. Also consider teacher, parent, and medical reports. In selecting tests, consider the questions listed in Table
1-5. Recognize that no one test can give you all the information you need to perfonn a comprehensive evaluation of
a child. An objective measure of intelligence, for example,
provides little or no infonnation about the child's word recognition and reading comprehension abilities; competencies in
arithmetical operations and spelling; behavior outside of the
test situation; self-concept; attitudes toward peers, siblings,
and parents; temperament and personality; adaptive behavior;
or interpersonal skills. To conduct a thorough evaluation, you
17. Is the assessment measure appropriate to answer the referral question?
18. Does the publisher provide an administration manual and a
technical manual?
19. Does the manual include interpretation guidelines and information to support the recommended interpretations?
20. Is an alternative form available?
21. If more than one form is available, does the publisher offer
tables showing equivalent scores on the different forms?
Information About Administering the Assessment Measure

16.
15.
14.
13.
10.
11.
12.
9.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Information About the Assessment Measure
Table 15
Questions to Conside~ When Reviewing an Assessment Measure
14
Copyright 1998, John P. Wood. Reprinted with permission.
ever, an efficient way of gathering relevant information is to

have a parent, a t~acher, and the child (if possible) complete
a questionnaire and a rating scale before the formal assessment begins.
15
Should I use a group test or an individually administered test? In order to decide whether to use group or
individually administered tests, you will again need to consider the referral question. How important is it that tests be
administered individually? Would group tests be as effective
as individual tests in answering the referral question? Are
there any motivational, personality, linguistic, or physical
disability factors that may impair the child's performance on
group tests?
Individually administered tests are more expensive and time
consuming than group tests, but they are essential as supplements to--or sometimes replacements for-group tests. Individually administered tests can also provide a second opinion
when results of group tests are questionable or when you need
to observe the child's performance. Finally, individually administered tests are usually reqnired when children are evaluated for special education services or when testing is court
ordered.
Group tests are valuable when a large number of nonreferred children need to be evaluated in a short period of time.
Group tests, however, are not frequently used in the assessment
of children with special needs for four reasons (Newcomer &
Bryant, 1993). First, group tests usually require some degree
of reading proficiency (e.g., to read the directions), and many
children with special needs have reading difficulties. Individually administered tests, in contrast, usually rely on examiners
to read the test directions and interact verbally with children.
(Obviously, individually administered tests designed to measure reading ability require children to read.)
Second, because children taking group tests typically complete them by filling in bubbles, circling letters, or underlining
answers instead of giving their answers orally, it is difficult
to determine whether they know the answers or are merely
guessing. (This is tru~ ef any multiple-choice test, whether
a group test or an individually administered one.) Students
with visual perceptual problems or attention problems may
have difficulty using answer sheets correctly. They may, for
example, follow instructions to skip difficult items but forget
to skip corresponding items on the answer sheet. Also, group
tests do not allow you to observe the child's behavior as he or
she solves problems.
Third, group tests tend to use recognition rather than recall,
requiring children to select one out of several answers. Although some individually administered tests require the child
to select an answer from four or five choices (e.g., WISC-N
Matrix Reasoning subtest, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-3,
Peabody Individual Achievement Test-Revised Normative
Update, and Comprehensive Test of Nonverbal Intelligence),
most have children answer questions directly rather than
choosing the correct answer from among several.
Should I use a group test or an individually administered test? In order to decide whether to use group or
individually administered tests, you will again need to consider the referral question. How important is it that tests be
administered individually? Would group tests be as effective
as individual tests in answering the referral question? Are
there any motivational, personality, linguistic, or physical
disability factors that may impair the child's performance on
group tests?
Individually administered tests are more expensive and time
consuming than group tests, but they are essential as supplements to--or sometimes replacements for-group tests. Individually administered tests can also provide a second opinion
when results of group tests are questionable or when you need
to observe the child's performance. Finally, individually administered tests are usually required when children are evaluated for special education services or when testing is court
ordered.
Group tests are valuable when a large number of nonreferred children need to be evaluated in a short period of time.
Group tests, however, are not frequently used in the assessment
of children with special needs for four reasons (Newcomer &
Bryant, 1993). First, group tests usually require some degree
of reading proficiency (e.g., to read the directions), and many
children with special needs have reading difficulties. Individually administered tests, in contrast, usually rely on examiners
to read the test directions and interact verbally with children.
(Obviously, individually administered tests designed to measure reading ability require children to read.)
Second, because children taking group tests typically complete them by filling in bubbles, circling letters, or underlining
answers instead of giving their answers orally, it is difficult
to determine whether they know the answers or are merely
guessing. (This is tru y ef any multiple-choice test, whether
a group test or an individually administered one.) Students
with visual perceptual problems or attention problems may
have difficulty using answer sheets correctly. They may, for
example, follow instructions to skip difficult items but forget
to skip corresponding items on the answer sheet. Also, group
tests do not allow you to observe the child's behavior as he or
she solves problems.
Third, group tests tend to use recognition rather than recall,
requiring children to select one out of several answers. Although some individually administered tests require the child
to select an answer from four or five choices (e.g., WISC-IV
Matrix Reasoning subtest, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-3,
Peabody Individual Achievement Test-Revised Normative
Update, and Comprehensive Test of Nonverbal Intelligence),
most have children answer questions directly rather than
choosing the correct answer from among several.
Fourth, the examiner may not even notice when children

taking a group test become lost, bored, fatigued, or indifferent. With an individual test, the examiner can monitor the
child and take steps to reduce any problems by providing encouragement, helping the child focus, taking short breaks, or
maintaining motivation.
What do I need to know about administering an assessment test battery? You need to know how to present the test materials, how to interact with children, how to
score their responses, and how to complete the record booklets (or test protocols or test forms). To score responses accurately, you need to understand the scoring principles and
scoring criteria discussed in the test manuals and guard
against allowing halo effects that might bias scoring. (Halo
effects occur when a judgment about one characteristic of
a person is influenced by another characteristic or general
impression of that person. For example, if you think a child
is bright; you may give him or her credit for borderline or
ambiguous responses.) You may also want to know how the
child functions with additional cues, a process called testingof-limits (see Chapter 6). The material in this text is intended
to complement-the material contained in test manuals and to
help you administer an assessment battery.
Step 7: Interpret the Assessment Results
After you have gathered the background and observational

information, conducted the interviews, and administered
and scored the tests, you need to interpret the findings.
C 1998 by John P. Wood
I marked them all "True."

I just can't believe that
you'd ever lie to us.
ever, an efficient way of gathering relevant information is to

have a parent, a teacher, and the child (if possible) complete
a questionnaire aDd a rating scale before the formal assessment begins.
I marked them all "True."

I just can't believe that
you'd ever lie to us.
01998 by John P. Wood
After you have gathered the background and observational

information, conducted the interviews, and administered
and scored the tests, you need to interpret the findings.
Step 7: Interpret the Assessment Results
What do I need to know about administering an assessment test battery? You need to know how to present the test materials, how to interact with children, how to
score their responses, and how to complete the record booklets (or test protocols or test forms). To score responses accurately, you need to understand the scoring principles and
scoring criteria discussed in the test manuals and guard
against allowing halo effects that might bias scoring. (Halo
effects occur when a judgment about one characteristic of
a person is influenced by another characteristic or general
impression of that person. For example, if you think a child
is bright; you may give him or her credit for borderline or
ambiguous responses.) You may also want to know how the
child functions with additional cues, a process called testingof-limits (see Chapter 6). The material in this text is intended
to complement-the material contained in test manuals and to
help you administer an assessment battery.
Fourth, the examiner may not even notice when children

taking a group test become lost, bored, fatigued, or indifferent. With an individual test, the examiner can monitor the
child and take steps to reduce any problems by providing enconragement, helping the child focus, taking short breaks, or
maintaining motivation.
Copyright 1998, John P. Wood. Reprinted with
nor,mi",,inn
15
After you interpret the assessment findings, you may need to

formulate interventions and recommendations. In school settings, for example, you may also need to determine eligibility
for a special education program and to work with a multidisciplinary team to formulate an Individualized Education
Program (IEP; see Chapter 3). To formulate interventions and
recommendations, you will need to do several things. First,
you will need to rely on the assessment findings. Second, you
Interpretations should never rely solely on scores from formal

procedures. Test scores are valuable, but so are your judgments of the child's !lpeech, voice quality, language, motor
skills, physical appearance, posture, gestures, affect, and
social and interpersonal skills, as well as judgments about
the child's family, school, and community. Interpreting the
findings is one of the most challenging of all assessment activities, as it will draw on your knowledge of developmental
psychology, personality theory, psychopathology, psychometrics, and individual tests. The interpretive process involves
(a) integrating the assessment data, (b) making judgments
about the meaning of the data, and (c) exploring the implications of the data for diagnosis, placement, and intervention.
As you integrate and interpret the assessment data, ask
yourself these questions:
will come from many different sources, the information may

not be easy to integrate. But integration is essential, particularly in sorting out findings and in establishing trends. This
text will assist you with interpreting assessment results.
As you formulate hypotheses, seek independently verifiable confirming evidence. Usually, be skeptical about hypotheses supported by only one piece of minor evidence.
However, retain hypotheses supported by more than one piece
of evidence--especially if the supporting data come from
multiple sources (e.g., test results and observations). Also, be
diligent in seeking evidence that may disconfirm each hypothesis. This process makes it more likely that you will have
testable hypotheses. Keep in mind that your interpretations
of assessment results are still hypotheses-unproven explanations of a complex set of data-but if hypotheses are supported by the data, they are explanations that you can make
with, confidence. Use your judgment in deciding whether a
response reflects the child's habitual style or a temporary one.
For example, if the child is impulsive, is the impulsiveness
related to the, test question, to the psychological evaluation,
or to temporary conditions in other areas of the child's life, or
is impulsiveness a habitual style? Although you must be careful not to overinterpret every minuscule aspect of the child's
performance, on some occasions hypotheses developed from
single responses may prove to be valuable. For example, if, in
response to a sentence completion item, a child says that he
or she was sexually molested or is contemplating suicide, you
will certainly want to follow up this response.
Recognize that test scores do not tell you about the child's
home and school environment, the quality of the instruction
that the child has received in school, the quality of the child's
textbooks, peer pressures, the family's culture, socioeconomic status, community customs, and other factors that may
influence the child's test performance. You will need to obtain
information about these factors from caregivers, teachers, and
other relevant individuals and to consider their effects on the
child's performance.
As a beginning examiner, you are not expected to have
the fully developed clinical skills and insights needed to
make sophisticated interpretations. Developing these skills
takes time. With experience, you will learn how to integrate
knowledge from various sources--class lectures, textbooks,
test manuals, practicums, and internships-and you will feel
more comfortable about making interpretations.
Are there any discrepancies in the information you obtained from the child, parents, teachers, and other sources?
If so, '?{hat are the discrepancies and what might account
for th~m? Is it possible that what appear to be discrepancies are instead context-dependent differences? For example, self-report may be the best measure of internalized
states,whereas teacher and parent reports may be the best
measur~s,of externaJized behaviors.
Are
there patterns in the assessment results? If so, what
are they?
Do the current findings appear to be reliable and valid or
did any factors undermine the reliability and validity of
the assessment results? For example, did the child have
motivational difficulties or difficulties understanding English? Were there problems administering the tests?
Do the assessment results suggest a diagnosis or approaches
to remediation and intervention? If so, what are they?
CHAPTER 1
All of the information you gather should be interpreted in

relation to the child as a whole. As you interpret the findings
and develop hypotheses, consider the relative importance of
biological and environmental factors. Because information
Step 8: Develop Intervention Strategies

and Recommendations
Interpretations should never rely solely on scores from formal

will come from many different sources, the information may
procedures. Test scores are valuable, but so are your judgnot be easy to integrate. But integration is essential, particuments of the child's ~peech, voice quality, language, motor
larly in sorting out findings and in establishing trends. This
skills, physical appearance, posture, gestures, affect, and
text will assist you with interpreting assessment results.
social and interpersonal skills, as well as judgments about
As you formulate hypotheses, seek independently verifithe child's family, school, and community. Interpreting the
able confirming evidence. Usually, be skeptical about hyfindings is one of the most challenging of all assessment acpotheses supported by only one piece of minor evidence.
tivities, as it will draw on your knowledge of developmental
However, retain hypotheses supported by more than one piece
psychology, personality theory, psychopathology, psychometof eviden ce-espe cially if the supporting data come from
rics, and individual tests. The interpretive process involves
multiple sources (e.g., test results and observations). Also, be
(a) integrating the assessment data, (b) making judgments
diligent in seeking evidence that may disconfirm each hyabout the meaning of the data, and (c) exploring the implicapothesis. This process makes it more likely that you will have
tions of the data for diagnosis, placement, and intervention.
testable hypotheses. Keep in mind that your interpretations
As you integrate and interpret the assessment data, ask
of assessment results are still hypoth eses-un proven explayourself these questions:
nations of a complex set of data-b ut if hypotheses are supported by the data, they are explanations that you can make
Are the test scores from similar measures congruent or
incongruent? For example, if you administered two dif- ' with, confidence. Use your judgment in deciding whether a
ferent intelligence tests, are the percentile ranks similar? ' response reflects the child's habitual style or a temporary one.
For example, if the child is impulsive, is the impUlsiveness
How might you account for any discrepancies between the
related to the, test question, to the psychological evaluation,
two measures? Are there differences in the standardizaor to temporary conditions in other areas of the child's life, or
tion groups, differences in item types, or differences in
is impulsiveness a habitual style? Although you must be carethe times at which the two tests were administered to the
ful not to overinterpret every minuscule aspect of the child's
child? If so, what are the differences?
performance, on some occasions hypotheses developed from
What are the similarities and differences between the
single responses may prove to be valuable. For example, if, in
child's behavior in the test session and his or her behavior
response to a sentence completion item, a child says that he
in the classroom and on the playground? How might you
or she was sexually molested or is contemplating suicide, you
account for any differences?
will certainly want to follow up this response.
What
are
the
similari
ties
and
differen
ces
between
your
Recognize that test scores do not tell you about the child's
observations of the child's behavior and those of the
home and school environment, the quality of the instruction
child's parents and teachers? How might you account for
that the child has received in school, the quality of the child's
any differences?
textbooks, peer pressures, the family's culture, socioeco Are the test results congruent with the other information
nomic status, community customs, and other factors that may
about the child, such as academic grades or scores on
influence the child's test performance. You will need to obtain
group tests?' If they are not congruent, what might explain
information about these factors from caregivers, teachers, and
the differences?
other relevant individuals and to consider their effects on the
child's performance.
As a beginning examiner, you are not expected to have
the fully developed clinical skills and insights needed to
make sophisticated interpretations. Developing these skills
takes time. With experience, you will learn how to integrate
knowledge from various sources --class lectures, textbooks,
test manuals, practicums, and interns hips-an d you will feel
more comfortable about making interpretations.
All of the information you gather should be interpreted in

relation to the child as a whole. As you interpret the findings
and develop hypotheses, consider the relative importance of
biological and environmental factors. Because information
Step 8: Develop Intervention Strategies

and Recommendations
After you interpret the assessment findings, you may need to

formulate interventions and recommendations. In school settings, for example, you may also need to determine eligibility
for a special education program and to work with a multidisciplinary team to formulate an Individualized Education
Program (IEP; see Chapter 3). To formulate interventions and
recommendations, you will need to do several things. First,
you will need to rely on the assessment findings. Second, you
CHAPTER 1
Are the test scores from similar measures congruent or

incongruent? For example, if you administered two dif-'
ferent intelligence tests, are the percentile ranks similar? .
How might you account for any discrepancies between the
two measures? Are there differences in the standardization groups, differences in item types, or differences in
the times at which the two tests were administered to the
child? If so, what are the differences?
What are the similarities and differences between the
child's behavior in the test session and his or her behavior
in the classroom and on the playground? How might you
account for any differences?
What are the similarities and differences between your
observations of the child's behavior and those of the
child's parents and teachers? How might you account for
any differences?
Are the test results congruent with the other information
about the child, such as academic grades or scores on
group tests?, If they are not congruent, what might explain
the differences?
Are there any discrepancies in the information you obtained from the child, parents, teachers, and other sources?
If so, what are the discrepancies and what might account
for thl?m? Is it possible that what appear to be discrepancies are instead context-dependent differences? For example, self-report may be the best measure of internalized
states, whereas teacher and parent reports may be the best
measures of extern3nzed behaviors.
Are there patterns in the assessment results? If so, what
are they?
Do the current findings appear to be reliable and valid or
did any factors undermine the reliability and Validity of
the assessment results? For example, did the child have
motivational difficulties or difficulties understanding English? Were there problems administering the tests?
Do the assessment results suggest a diagnosis or approaches
to remediation and intervention? If so, what are they?
16
16
L
17
will need to consider factors in the school that may interfere with the child's ability to learn. Consider, for example,
whether modifications are needed in the child's courses, the
teaching methods used in the classroom, course schedules, or
the physical layout of the building. Also consider whether the
child needs a specific type of assistance, can tolerate a full
day or only a half day, needs special equipment to help with
communication, or needs to be reassigned to another teacher
or to a new school. Note that some schools are reluctant to
reassign a student to another teacher within the same school.
In such cases, the multidisciplinary team will need to be tactful, persuasive, and persistent to arrange for a reassignment.
Evaluate how flexible, accepting, and patient the child's
teacher is and whether he or she is willing to take suggestions
and work with other professionals.
Third, you will need to be guided by the services available
in a particular school district. Some schools offer speech and
language training; remedial classes in basic academic subjects;
adaptive physical education; computer-assisted instruction;
tutoring for mainstream classes; social skills retraining; mobility and transportation assistance; academic, vocational, and
personal counseling; and career development and employment
assistance. Recommendations for these services should be
practical and should take into account the realities of classroom
and home life. However, do not let a school district's limitations prevent you from recommending a needed intervention.
If a school district cannot provide legally mandated services, it
is required to find some way to provide them, including contracting with outside agencies. Also consider family and community resources and determine the parents' preferences and
reactions to the proposed interventions.
Finally, you will need to apply the relevant information
you ha'le learned from the fields of school psychology, abnormal psychology, clinical psychology, developmental psychology, educational psychology, special education, and, of
course, your own experience.
Be cautious in naming a specific intervention program. If
you-know that a type of program would be significantly superior to all others for a child, you should; of course, give an
example of the program.,However, if you are merely citing a
program with which Yb\1 happen to be familiar as an example
ofa class of acceptable interventions, be clear that this is only
an example and that there are equally appropriate alternatives.
Unwarranted specificity in recommendations (e.g., "only the
XYZ Miracle Phonics Program" or "a class size of no more
than six children") can cause unnecessary difficulties, delays
in implementing programs, and needless conflict between the
parents and the school.
Traditional psychometric assessments usually do not provide information about the conditions that best facilitate the
child's learning-for example, how the type of material, rate
and modality of presentation, cues, and reinforcements differentially affect learning. Information about these and related factors can help us design more effective intervention
programs that might improve children's cognitive abilities
and skills. An integration of experimental, clinical, and psychoeducational approaches, which has been in the making
After writing the report, discuss the results with the child
(when appropriate), the child's parents, and the referral
Step 10: Meet with Parents, the Child

(If Appropriate), and Other Concerned
Individuals
will need to consider factors in the school that may interfor many years, has yet to occur. Until this union occurs, we
fere with the child's ability to learn. Consider, for example,
must use what we can learn from assessments to determine
whether modifications are needed in the child's courses, the
the conditions that will best facilitate a child's ability to learn
teaching methods used in the classroom, course schedules, or
and succeed in school.
the physical layout of the building. Also consider whether the
It is a complex and difficult task to design interventions to
child needs a specific type of assistance, can tolerate a full
ameliorate a child's problems and to foster behavioral change,
day or only a half day, needs special equipment to help with
learning, social adjustment, and successful participation in
communication, or needs to be reassigned to another teacher
the community. Still, we need to use our present knowledge
or to a new school. Note that some schools are reluctant to
to design interventions, apply them carefully and thoughtreassign a student to another teacher within the same school.
fully, and then evaluate their effectiveness. Some problems
may better be bypassed than remediated. For example, a child
In such cases, the multidisciplinary team will need to be tactful, persuasive, and persistent to arrange for a reassignment.
with intractable graphomotor weaknesses might be better
Evaluate how flexible, accepting, and patient the child's
served by being taught word-processing skills than by hours
teacher is and whether he or she is willing to take suggestions
of penmanship training. Currently, developing interventions
is as much an a/1 as it is a science.
and work with other professionals.
Third, you will need to be guided by the services available
This text provides general information on how to formuin a particular school district. Some schools offer speech and " late recommendations. However, it is not designed to cover
language training; remedial classes in basic academic subjects;
remediation or intervention procedures. You will obtain this
knowledge from other texts and sources that cover behavadaptive physical education; computer-assisted instruction;
ioral interVentions, educational interventions, psychotherapy,
tutoring for mainstream classes; social skills retraining; mocounseling techniques, and rehabilitation counseling. Valubility and transportation assistance; academic, vocational, and
able knowledge can also be obtained from supervision and
personal counseling; and career development and employment
clinical experience and from skilled teachers and therapists
assistance. Recommendations for these services should be
with whom you work.
practical and should take into account the realities of classroom
and home life. However, do not let a school district's limitations prevent you from recommending a needed intervention.
If a school district cannot provide legally mandated services, it
Step 9: Write a Report
is required to find some way to provide them, including conShortly after completing the evaluation, write a report that
tracting with outside agencies. Also consider family and comclearly
communicates your findings, interpretations, and recmunity resources and determine the parents' preferences and
ommendations.
It is important that you communicate the asreactions to the proposed interventions.
sessment
results
and recommendations promptl~\, because the .
Finally, you will need to apply the relevant information
referral source is no doubt anxious t9, receive Yfur report.
you hav.e learned from the fields of school psychology, abThe value of your assessment results and recommendations
normal psychology, clinical psychology, developmental psy\
will depend, in part, on your communicative ability. Your
chology, educational psychology, special education, and, of
\
report may be read by parents, teachers, counselors,\speech
course, your own experience.
and language therapists, psychiatrists, probation officers, peBe cautious in naming a specific intervention program. If
diatricians, neurologists, social workers, attorneys, prd~ecu
you~know that a type of program would be significantly sutors, judges, other professionals, and the child. Therefore:'fhe
perior to all others for a child, you should; of course, give an
report
should be understandable to any relevant parties. Alexample of the program .However, if you are merely citing a
\
though
your report may be used for purposes other than thos~
program with which Y01,,1 happen to be familiar as an example
you originally intended, it is important to specify in the report \
ofa class of acceptable interventions, be clear that this is only

its
original
intent;
doing
so
can
help
prevent
misuse.
'\
an: example and that there are equally appropriate alternatives.

One of the best ways to learn how to write a report is to
\ I
UJ;lwarranted specificity in recommendations (e.g., "only the
study
reports
written
by
competent
clinicians.
Use
these
re\
XYZ Miracle Phonics Program" or "a class size of no more
ports
as
general
guides;
ideally,
you
should
develop
your
own
I '"
than six children") can cause unnecessary difficulties, delays
style
and
approach
to
report
writing.
Because
the
psychologi'\11
in implementing programs, and needless conflict between the
cal
report
is
a
crucial
part
of
the
assessment
process,
it
de..
mf"
parents and the school.
serves your care and attention (see Chapter 19).
Traditional psychometric assessments usually do not provide information about the conditions that best facilitate the
;/',.i\',!,!,
;
child's learning-Ior example, how the type of material, rate
and modality of presentation, cues, and reinforcements difStep 10: Meet with Parents, the Child
! IJlII
i
/1;'
ferentially affect learning. Information about these and re(If Appropriate), and Other Concerned
lated factors can help us design more effective intervention
Individuals
programs that might improve children's cognitive abilities
After writing the report, discuss the results with the child
and skills. An integration of experimental, clinical, and psy,I
(when appropriate), the child's parents, and the referral
choeducational approaches, which has been in the making
ill!'
I,
/tl:1I
~<'ilr
Shortly after completing the evaluation, write a report that

clearly communicates your findings, interpretations, and recthe asommendations. It is important that you
sessment results and recommendations
because the
referral source is no doubt anxious t9 receive
The value of your assessment results and recoIILIil.(~ndlati'ons
will depend, in part, on your communicative
report may be read by parents, teachers, \"UI~U"C;lU'l",\
and language therapists, psychiatrists, probation VUJl"''''~'',
diatricians, neurologists, social workers, attorneys,
tors, judges, other professionals, and the child. Thprpf{)r,p \
report should be understandable to any relevant parties.
though your report may be used for purposes other than
you originally intended, it is important to specify in the report
its original intent; doing so can help prevent misuse.
One of the best ways to learn how to write a report is to
study reports written by competent clinicians. Use these reports as general guides; ideally, you should develop your own
style and approach to report writing. Because the psychological report is a crucial part of the assessment process, it deserves your care and attention (see Chapter 19).
Step 9: Write a Report
for many years, has yet to occur. Until this union occurs, we
must use what we can learn from assessments to determine
the conditions that will best facilitate a child's ability to learn
and succeed in school.
It is a complex and difficult task to design interventions to
ameliorate a child's problems and to foster behavioral change,
learning, social adjustment, and successful participation in
the community. Still, we need to use our present knowledge
to design interventions, apply them carefully and thoughtfully, and then evaluate their effectiveness. Some problems
may better be bypassed than remediated. For example, a child
with intractable graphomotor weaknesses might be better
served by being taught word-processing skills than by hours
of penmanship training. Currently, developing interventions
is as much an art as it is a science.
This text provides general information on how to formu. late recommendations. However, it is not designed to cover
remediation or intervention procedures. You will obtain this
knowledge from other texts and sources that cover behavioral interventions, educational interventions, psychotherapy,
counseling techniques, and rehabilitation counseling. Valuable knowledge can also be obtained from supervision and
clinical experience and from skilled teachers and therapists
with whom you work.
Ii
II
17
Comment on the Steps

in the Assessment Process
All rights reserved.
From Mainstreaming Series: Individualized Educational Programming (IEP), Copyright 1977 by Judy A. Schrag, Thomas N.
Fairchild, and Bart L. Miller, published by Teaching Resources
Corporation, Hingham, Massachusetts. Reprinted with permission.
1. Most of you will be able to master the skills needed to evaluate,

select, and administer assessment instruments and to record,
score, and interpret test responses. However, there is more to
clinical assessment than simply mastering techniques. You
will have to work with many different types of children and
families. Think about why you have embarked on the study
of assessment: of children. What experiences influenced your
decision? What do you hope to gain by completing this course
of study? What skills do you now have and what kinds of experiences do you think you will need to become an effective
clinical assessor?
YS.T?
J.lAVS-N'j YOl..l C.OMP/.-S--ret:>
l-lAVe.N',.
YOWR
."O~ C.OMPI.-E!-rep
A!>:!>e.~~Me.NT Ye.T?
1. Most of you will be able to master the skills needed to evaluate,

select, and administer assessment instruments and to record,
score, and interpret test responses. However, there is more to
clinical assessment than simply mastering techniques. You
will have to work with many different types of children and
families. Think about why you have embarked on the study
of assessment:of children. What experiences influenced your
decision? What do you hope to gain by completing this course
of study? What skills do you now have and what kinds of experiences do you think you will need to become an effective
clinical assessor?
THINKING THROUGH THE ISSUES
The steps in the assessment process represent a model for

making decisions about the child. Figure 1-4 presents a flowchart depicting a decision-making model for clinical and psychoeducational assessment. In addition to the 11 steps in the
assessment process, Figure 1-4 offers strategies for how to
proceed when the assessment findings are not clear or when
the child responds poorly to an intervention.
From Mainstreaming Series: Individualized Educational Programming (IEP), Copyright 1977 by Judy A. Schrag, Thomas N.
Fairchild, and Bart L. Miller, published by Teaching Resources
Corporation, Hingham, Massachusetts. Reprinted with permission.
All rights reserved.
18
Effective delivery of services requires close monitoring of

recommendations, interventions, and changes in the child'sdevelopment. Both short- and long-term follow-ups are important components of the assessment process. Short-term
follow-ups (within 2 to 6 weeks) help to identify interventions that prove to be ineffective because the child's situation
changed, because they were inadequate from the beginning,
or because they were not followed. Other issues may be discovered that require additional assessment after the initial
response to the intervention is reviewed. A member of the
multidisciplinary team is in an ideal position to monitor and
evaluate the child's progress.
Long-term follow-ups are important because children
change as a result of development, life experiences, and
treatment; consequently, you should not consider the initial
assessment to be an end point. For example, an evaluation
conducted when a child is 2 years old may have little meaning
a year later, except as a basis for comparison. Reevaluation is
an important way to monitor and document a child's response
to an intervention, the stability of symptoms, the progression
of a disease, or the course of recovery. Repeated assessment
is especially important when a medical intervention (e.g.,
chemotherapy or brain surgery) or a behavioral intervention (e.g., a cognitive rehabilitation or behavioral modification program) is used. Repeated assessment is also required
when you place children in special education programs or
when preschool children have developmental disabilities. If
the child has an IEP, a member of the mUltidisciplinary team
should determine whether the goals and objectives of the plan
are being met and how to change the plan if necessary.
Assessment recommendations are not the final solution to
a child's difficulties. Recommendations are starting points for
the clinician and for those who implement the interventions.
Assessment is an ongoing process that includes modifications
to the interventions as the child's needs change or when the
interventions become ineffective. Effective consultation requires monitoring the child's progress with both short-term
and long-term follow-ups. It is helpful to recommend a time
interval for the follow-up assessment in your report.
THINKING THROUGH "rHE ISSUES
source. You may also be called on to present your results at a

staff conference, at an IEP meeting conducted as part of IDEA
2004 regulations (see Appendix H in the Resource Guide), at
a due process hearing conducted under IDEA 2004 regulations, or in court. All of these face-to-face contacts will require skill in explaining your findings and recommendations.
If children or parents are at the conference, you will need to
help them understand the findings and your recommended
interventions, encourage their participation, and reduce any
anxiety or defensiveness. This text will foster your ability to
present and support your findings.
Step 11: Follow Up on Recommendations

and Conduct a Reevaluation
The steps in the assessment process represent a model for

making decisions about the child. Figure 1-4 presents a flowchart depicting a decision-making model for clinical and psychoeducational assessment. In addition to the 11 steps in the
assessment process, Figure 1-4 offers strategies for how to
proceed when the assessment findings are not clear or when
the child responds poorly to an intervention.
Step 11: Follow Up on Recommendations

and Conduct a Reevaluation
source. You may also be called on to present your results at a

staff conference, at an IEP meeting conducted as part of IDEA
2004 regulations (see Appendix H in the Resource Guide), at
a due process hearing conducted under IDEA 2004 regulations, or in court. All of these face-to-face contacts will require skill in explaining your findings and recommendations.
If children or parents are at the conference, you will need to
help them understand the findings and your recommended
interventions, encourage their participation, and reduce any
anxiety or defensiveness. This text will foster your ability to
present and support your findings.
Effective delivery of services requires close monitoring of

recommendations, interventions, and changes in the child'sdevelopment. Both short- and long-term follow-ups areimportant components of the assessment process. Short-teim
follow-ups (within 2 to 6 weeks) help to identify interventions that prove to be ineffective because the child's situation
changed, because they were inadequate from the beginning,
or because they were not followed. Other issues may be discovered that require additional assessment after the initial
response to the intervention is reviewed. A member of the
multidisciplinary team is in an ideal position to monitor and
evaluate the child's progress.
Long-term follow-ups are important because children
change as a result of development, life experiences, and
treatment; consequently, you should not consider the initial
assessment to be an end point. For example, an evaluation
conducted when a child is 2 years old may have little meaning
a year later, except as a basis for comparison. Reevaluation is
an important way to monitor and document a child's response
to an intervention, the stability of symptoms, the progression
of a disease, or the course of recovery. Repeated assessment
is especially important when a medical intervention (e.g.,
chemotherapy or brain surgery) or a behavioral intervention (e.g., a cognitive rehabilitation or behavioral modification program) is used. Repeated assessment is also required
when you place children in special education programs or
when preschool children have developmental disabilities. If
the child has an IEP, a member of the multidisciplinary team
should determine whether the goals and objectives of the plan
are being met and how to change the plan if necessary.
Assessment recommendations are not the final solution to
a child's difficulties. Recommendations are starting points for
the clinician and for those who implement the interventions.
Assessment is an ongoing process that
include
s
modific
ations
to the interventions as the child's needs
chanae
or
when
the
I::>
mterventIOns become ineffective. Effective consult
ation requires mOnitoring the child's progress with both short-term
and long-term follow-ups. It is helpful to recommend a time
interval for the follow-up assessment in your report.
18
Comment on the Steps

in the Assessment Process
CHAPTER 1 CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN: THE

PROCESS
19
and psychoe ducation al assessm ent.
Figure 1-4. Flowcha rt of a decision -making model for clinical
-I
Review referral info(lTlation
Decide whetherto accept the referral
Good response
Poor response
I~
Inform referral source
Review assessment data

Review intervention plan, including its
appropriateness and implementation
Assess placement
Assess staff and parental commitment
Discuss intervention plan with relevant individuals,
such as child, parents, teacher, physiCian,
counselor, ancL'or social worker
Conduct additional assessments as needed
Revise intervention plan and placement ,.,!Ynpl~n<,n
Poor response
Follow up periodically as appropriate
Select and administer an appr9pri<;!te tesfbattery and other 'assessment procedures
Interpret the assessment resuits
Follow up on recommendations and reevaluation 1----- ,
Meet with parents, child (if appropriate),

Develop intervention strategies

and recommendations
Conduct additiOnal. asses

..s.me.nts.ormake referrals
for appropriate assessments
Findings clear
:;
L.....-...:---lIRndi~;~~~r-
Develop intervention strategies

and recommendations
Findings not clear
Conduct additional assessments or make referrals

for appropriate assessments
Write areport
I..
Findings not clear
Meefwith parents,ci'Jild (if appropriate),

Follow'-!p onrecommendations and reevaluation 1 - - - . .

Select and administer an "'nl~rnnri,,,,t'"
Follow upp~riodiCallY as appropriate
Good response
Review assessment data

Review intervention plan, including its
apPropriateness and implementation
Assess placement
Assess staff and parental commitment
Discuss intervention p.lan with relevant in. dividuals,
such as child, parents, teacher, physician,
counselor, andlor social worker
/
Conduct additional assessments as needed , /
Revise intervention plan and placement as'needed
G.
Poor response
I 1---
~----

"
Inform referral source
~~1I0WUP
y .GO~d
response
.1 Po~;r~
Decide whether to accept the referral

Review referral infOl:mation
Figure 1-4. Flowchart of a decision-making model for clinical and psychoeducational assessment.
19
8.
7.
Types of Assessment
1. The assessment procedures covered in this text are rooted in

traditions of psychological, clinical, and educational measurement that are a century old.
2. This text is designed to help you conduct psychological and
psychoeducational evaluations in order to make effective decisions about children with special needs.
3. Effective decision making is the hallmark of sound clinical and
psychoeducational assessment.
4. To become a skilled clinical assessor, you should have some
background in testing and measurement, statistics, child development, personality theory, child psychopathology, and clinical
and educational interventions.
5. This text summarizes the reliability and validity information presented in test manuals; however, it does not provide a comprehensive review of all the published research on each measure.
6. You will want to pay close attention to new findings about children with special needs.
SUMMARY
2. The four pillars of assessment-norm-referenced measures,

procedures-provide different kinds of assessment information. How do the various assessment procedures overlap? Why
is it useful to integrate the information from the four different
methods-that is, what do you gain by using the four methods rather than using one or two methods only? What kinds
of problems do you foresee in integrating the information obtained from the four major types of assessment procedures?
What are the strengths and limitations of each type?
3. The assessment process consists of several interrelated steps.
What problems can occur at each step that might interfere with
your ability to complete the assessment? What might you do
to prevent such problems? If problems occur, what can you do
to recover and continue the assessment? What negative effects
might result from interruptions in the assessment process?
Fonr Pillars of Assessment
14. Psychological testing involves administering and scoring tests;

the focus is on collecting data.
15. Psychological assessment encompasses several clinical tools,
such as formal and informal tests, observations, and interviews.
The focus of psychological assessment is not only on collecting
data, but also on integrating the findings, interpreting the data,
and synthesizing the results.
30. This text advocates a multimethod assessment. A multimethod

assessment involves obtaining information from several sources
(including the referral source, the child, parents, teachers, and
other relevant parties) and reviewing (if avaiJable) the child's
educational records, medical reports, social work reports, and
previous evaluations; using severru assessment techniques; assessing multiple areas; and recommending interventions.
20
7. Assessment is a way of understanding a child in order to make

informed decisions about the child.
8. A screening assessment is a relatively brief evaluation intended
to identify children at risk for, developing certain disorders or
disabilities, who are eligible .for certain programs, who have
a disorder or disability in need of remediation, or who need a
more comprehensive assessment.
9. A focused assessment is a detailed evaluation of a specific area
of functioning.
10. A diagnostic assessment is a detailed evaluation of a child's
strengths and weaknesses in several areas, such as cognitive,
academic, language, behavioral, and social functioning.
11. A counseling and rehabilitation assessment focuses on a child's
abilities to adjust to and successfully fulfill daily responsibilities.
12. A progress evaluation assessment focuses on a child's progress
over time, such as day to day, week to week, month to month,
or year to year.
13. A problem-solving assessment focuses on specific types of
identification to problem analysis, intervention, and outcome
evaluation.
9.
. 16. The four pillars of assessment-norm-referenced measures,

skill, behavior, or personality.
17. The four pillars complement one another and provide a basis
for making decisions about children.
18. We have based'this text on the premise that norm-referenced
. measures are indispensable for clinical and psychoeducational
assessment.
19. Norm-referenced measures are measures that are standardized
on a clearly defined group, termed the norm group.
20. Norm-referenced measures are scaled so that each score reflects a rank within the norm group.
21. Norm-referenced measures are an economical and efficient
means of sampling behavior within a few hours and quantifying a child's functioning.
22. Norm-referenced measures allow us to evaluate changes in several aspects of a child's physical and social world. They inform
us about developmental changes, changes in the child's cognitive and neurological condition, and the effects of educational
or behavioral interventions and other forms of remediation.
23. You will gain valuable assessment information by interviewing
a child and his or her parents, teachers, and other individuals
familiar with the child.
24. Unstructured or semistructured interviews at.e le~s rigid than
formal tests. They allow interviewees to convey information
in their own words and interviewers to ask questions in their
own words--opportunities that neither may have while taking
or administering standardized tests.
25. Unstructured interviews are usually open-ended, without a set
agenda.
26. Semistructured interviews provide a list of questions, but the
focus of the interview can change as needed..
27. Structured interviews provide a rigid, but comprehensive, list of
questions usually designed to arrive at a psychiatric diagnosis.
28. You will obtain valuable information by observing the child
surroundings, such as the classroom, playground, or home.
29. You may need to supplement norm-referenced measures with
informal assessment procedures.
Types of Assessment
10.
1. The assessment procedures covered in this text are rooted in

traditions of psychological, clinical, and educational measurement that are a century old.
2. This text is designed to help you conduct psychological and
psychoeducational evaluations in order to make effective decisions about children with special needs.
3. Effective decision making is the hallmark of sound clinical and
psychoeducational assessment.
4. To become a skilled clinical assessor, you should have some
background in testing and measurement, statistics, child development, personality theory, child psychopathology, and clinical
and educational interventions.
5. This text summarizes the reliability and validity information presented in test manuals; however, it does not provide a comprehensive review of all the published research on each measure.
6. You will want to pay close attention to new findings about children with special needs.
11.
SUMMARY
Fonr Pillars of Assessment
,16. The four pillars of assessment-norm-referenced measures,

skill, behavior, or personality.
17. The four pillars complement one another and provide a basis
for making decisions about children.
18. We have based'this text on the premise that norm-referenced
, measures ,are indispensable for clinical and psychoeducational
assessment.
19. Norm-referenced measures are measures that are standardized
on a clearly defined group, termed the norm group.
20. Norm-referenced measures are scaled so that each score reflects a rank within the norm group.
21. Norm-referenced measures are an economical and efficient
means of sampling behavior within a few hours and quantifying a child's functioning.
22. Norm-referenced measures allow us to evaluate changes in several aspects of a child's physical and social world. They inform
us about developmental changes, changes in the child's cognitive and neurological condition, and the effects of educational
or behavioral interventions and other forms of remediation.
23. You will gain valuable assessment information by interviewing
a child and his or her parents, teachers, and other individuals
familiar with the child.
24. Unstructured or semistructured interviews at.e lells rigid than
formal tests. They allow interviewees to convey information
in their own words and interviewers to ask questions in their
own words--opportunities that neither may have while taking
or administering standardized tests.
25. Unstructured interviews are usually open-ended, without a set
agenda.
26. Semistructured interviews provide a list of questions, but the
focus of the interview can change as needed.
27. Structured interviews provide a rigid, but comprehensive, list of
questions usually designed to arrive at a psychiatric diagnosis.
28. You will obtain valuable information by observing the child
surroundings, such as the classroom, playground, or home.
29. You may need to supplement norm-referenced measures with
informal assessment procedures.
12.
14. Psychological testing involves administering and scoring tests;

the focus is on collecting data.
15. Psychological assessment encompasses several clinical tools,
such as formal and informal tests, observations, and interviews.
The focus of psychological assessment is not only on collecting
data, but also on integrating the findings, interpreting the data,
and synthesizing the results.
13.
30. This text advocates a multimethod assessment. A multimethod

assessment involves obtaining information from several sources
(including the referral source, the child, parents, teachers, and
other relevant parties) and reviewing (if available) the child's
educational records, medical reports, social work reports, and
previous evaluations; using several assessment techniques; assessing multiple areas; and recommending interventions.
2. The four pillars of assessment-norm-referenced measures,

procedures-provide different kinds of assessment information. How do the various assessment procedures overlap? Why
is it useful to integrate the information from the four different
methods-that is, what do you gain by using the four methods rather than using one or two methods only? What kinds
of problems do you foresee in integrating the information obtained from the four major types of assessment procedures?
What are the strengths and limitations of each type?
3. The assessment process consists of several interrelated steps.
What problems can occur at each step that might interfere with
your ability to complete the assessment? What might you do
to prevent such problems? If problems occur, what can you do
to recover and continue the assessment? What negative effects
might result from interruptions in the assessment process?
Assessment is a way of understanding a child in order to make

informed decisions about the child.
A screening assessment is a relatively brief evaluation intended
to identify children at risk for,developing certain disorders or
disabilities, who are eligible .for certain programs, who have
a disorder or disability in need of remediation, or who need a
more comprehensive assessment.
A focused assessment is a detailed evaluation of a specific area
of fun~tioning.
strengths and weaknesses in several areas, such as cognitive,
academic, language, behavioral, and social functioning.
A counseling and rehabilitation assessment focuses on a child's
abilities to adjust to and successfully fulfill daily responsibilities.
A progress evaluation assessment focuses on a child's progress
over time, such as day to day, week to week, month to month,
or year to year.
identification to problem analysis, intervention, and outcome
evaluation.
20
"
1ji!
1:
STUDY QUESTIONS

31. A clinical a~sessor should never focus exclusively on a child's
limitations.
32. Each child has a range of competencies and limitations that can
be evaluated quantitatively and qualitatively.
33. Note that the aim is to assess both limitations and competencies, not just limitations.
34. Tests and other assessment procedures are powerful tools, but
their effectiveness depends on the examiner's knowledge, skill,
and experience.
35. Clinical and psychoeducational evaluations lead to decisions
and actions that affect the lives of children and their families.
36. You must be careful about the words you choose when writing
reports and when communicating with children, their families,
and other professionals.
37. Your work is a major professional contribution tochilpcen and.
their families, to their schools, and to society.
21
'Progress evaluation assessment (p. 5)

Problem-solving assessment (p. 5)
Psychological testing (p. 5)
Psychological assessment (p. 5)
Four pillars of assessment (p. 5)
Norm-referenced measures (p. 5)
Norm group (p. 5)
Interviews (p. 6)
Unstmctured interviews (p. 6)
Sernistmctured interviews (p. 6)
Stmctured interviews (p. 6)
Behavioral observations (p. 7)
Informal assessment procedures (p. 7)
Multimethod assessment (p. 8)
Guidelines for conducting assessments (p. 10)
Steps in the assessment process (p. 10)
Step 1: Review referral information (p. 11)
Step 2: DeCide whether to accept the referral (p. 11)
Step 3: Obtain relevant background information (p. 12)
Step 4: Consider the influence of relevant others (p. 12)
Step 5: Observe the child in several settings (p. 13)
Step 6; Select and administer an ass~ssment test battery (p. 13)
Step 7: Interpret the assessment results (p. 15)
Step 8: Develop intervention strategies and recommendations
(p.16)
Step 9: Write a report (p. 17)
Step 10: Meet with parents, the child (if appropriate), and other
concerned individuals (p. 17)
Step 11: Follow up on recommendations and conduct a
reevaluation (p. 18)
Daniel Hoffman v. the Board of Education of the City of New York

(p.2)
Technical and clinic~ sKills (p. 3)
Types of assessment (p. 4)
Screening assessment (p. 4)
. Focused assessment (p. 4)
Diagnostic assessment (p. 4)
Counseling and rehabilitation assessment (p. 4)
KEY TERMS, CONCEPTS, AND NAMES
38. The assessment process comprises 11 steps.

39. These steps represent a multistage process for planning, collecting data, evaluating results, formulating hypotheses,
developing recommendations, communicating results and recommendations, conducting reevaluations, and following up on
a child's performance.
40. The 11 steps are as follows: review referral information; decide
whether to accept the referral; obtain relevant background information; consider the influence of relevant others; observe
the child in several settings; select and administer an assessment test battery; interpret the assessment results; develop intervention strategies and recommendations; write a report; meet
. with parents, the child (if appropriate), and other concerned
individuals; and follow up on recommendations and conduct a
reevaluation.
38. The assessment process comprises 11 steps.

39. These steps represent a multistage process for planning, collecting data, evaluating results, formulating hypotheses,
developing recommendations, communicating results and recommendations, conducting reevaluations, and following up on
a child's performance.
40. The 11 steps are as follows: review referral information; decide
whether to accept the referral; obtain relevant background information; consider the influence of relevant others; observe
the child in several settings; select and administer an assessment test battery; interpret the assessment results; develop intervention strategies and recommendations; write a report; meet
. with parents, the child (if appropriate), and other concerned
individuals; and follow up on recommendations and conduct a
reevaluation.
1. What relevance does the case of Daniel Hoffman have to' the
practice of school and clinical psychology?
2. Discuss the technical and clinical skills needed to be a competent clinical assessor.
3. Discuss the purposes of assessment. Include in your discussion
five different purposes of assessment, questions to consider in
an assessment, and how psychological assessment differs from
psychological testing.
4. What are the four pillars of assessment, and how do they complement one another?
5. Describe some informal assessment procedures.
6. What are some important guidelines for assessment?
7. Describe the main steps in the assessment process.
31. A clinical assessor should never focus exclusively on a child's

limitations.
32. Each child has a range of competencies and limitations that can
be evaluated quantitatively and qualitatively.
33. Note that the aim is to assess both limitations and competencies, not just limitations.
34. Tests and other assessment procedures are powerful tools, but
their effectiveness depends on the examiner's knowledge, skill,
and experience.
35. Clinical and psychoeducational evaluations lead to decisions
and actions that affect the lives of children and their families.
36. You must be careful about the words you choose when writing
reports and when communicating with children, their families,
and other professionals.
37. Your work is a major professional contribution to chilp.ren and.
their families, to their schools, and to society.
STUDY QUESTIONS
'Progress evaluation assessment (p. 5)

Problem-solving assessment (p. 5)
Psychological testing (p. 5)
Psychological assessment (p. 5)
Four pillars of assessment (p. 5)
Norm-referenced measures (p. 5)
Norm group (p. 5)
Interviews (p. 6)
Unstructured interviews (p. 6)
Semistructured interviews (p. 6)
Structured interviews (p. 6)
Behavioral observations (p. 7)
Informal assessment procedures (p. 7)
Multimethod assessment (p. 8)
Guidelines for conducting assessments (p. 10)
Steps in the assessment process (p. 10)
Step 1: Review referral information (p. 11)
Step 2: Decide whether to accept the referral (p. 11)
Step 3: Obtain relevant background information (p. 12)
Step4: Consider the influence of relevant others (p. 12)
Step 5: Observe the child in several settings (p. 13)
Step p:Select and administer an ass~ssment test battery (p. 13)
Step 7: Interpret the assessment results (p. 15)
Step 8: Develop intervention strategies and recommendations
(p. 16)
Step 9: Write a report (p. 17)
Step 10: Meet with parents, the child (if appropriate), and other
concerned individuals (p. 17)
Step 11: Follow up on recommendations and conduct a
reevaluation (p. 18)
KEY TERMS, CONCEPTS, AND NAMES
STUDY QUESTIONS
Daniel Hoffman v. the Board of Educatioll of the City of New York

(p.2)
Technical and clinic~ sKills (p. 3)
Types of assessment (p. 4)
Screening assessment (p. 4)
. Focused assessment (p. 4)
Diagnostic assessment (p. 4)
Counseling and rehabilitation assessment (p. 4)
Guidelines for Condncting Assessments
1. What relevance does the case of Daniel Hoffman have to the

practice of school and clinical psychology?
2. Discuss the technical and clinical skills needed to be a competent clinical assessor.
3. Discuss the purposes of assessment. Include in your discussion
five different purposes of assessment, questions to consider in
an assessment, and how psychological assessment differs from
psychological testing.
4. What are the four pillars of assessment, and how do they complement one another?
5. Describe some informal assessment procedures.
6. What are some important guidelines for assessment?
7. Describe the main steps in the assessment process.
STUDY QUESTIONS
21

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San Diego

Jerome M. Sattler, Publisher,Inc.

San Diego State University

San Diego State University

CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN:

Goals and Objectives

Thinking Through the Issues

This chapter is designed to enable you to do the following:

Steps in the Assessment Process

Identify the purposes of assessment

Guidelines for Conducting Assessments

Four Pillars of Assessment

Identify the purposes of assessment

Four Pillars of Assessment

Guidelines for Conducting Assessments

-Oscar K. Buros, founder of the Institute

Steps in the Assessment Process

This chapter is designed to enable you to do the following:

Goals and Objectives

Key Terms, Concepts, and Names

CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN:THE PROCESS

v. the Board of Education of the City of New York

THE IMPORTANCE OFTHE CASE FOR THE PRACTICE

Verdict and Appeals

Verdict and Appeals

THE IMPORTANCE OFTHE CASE FOR THE PRACTICE

Psychological reports do count. Psychological reports are

Removal from Training Program

Inadequate Assessment Procedures

Inadequate Assessment Procedures

Board of Education's Position

Board of Education's Position

Removal from Training Program

v. the Board of Education of the City of New York

CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN: THE PROCESS

In using this text, consider the following limitations. First,

GOALS AND OBJEC TIVES

1. Select an appropriate assessment battery

to.these words..Therefore, careful attention must be given to the

case history, should be reviewed before recommendations are

You are about to begin a study of assessment procedures that

6. Interview parents, children, teachers, and relevant

Although many issues were involved in Mr. Hoffman's case,

E.2d 317-49 N. Y.2d 121.

You are about to begin a study of assessment procedures that

6. Interview parents, children, teachers, and relevant

Although many issues were involved in Mr. Hoffman's case,

case history, should be reviewed before recommendations are

1. Select an appropriate assessment battery

GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

CHAPTER 1 CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN: THE PROCESS

conditions, eligibility criteria for special education programs,

"It's about Benny, doctor. He'sjustcome

Copyrighf 1955, Cowles Magazines, Inc.

Copyrighf 1955, Cowles Magazines, Inc.

CHAPTER 1 CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN: THE PROCESS

"It's about Benny, doctor. He'sjust come

FOUR PILLARS OF ASSESSMENT

Let's compare and contrast psychological assessment and

The"fourpillars of assessment-norm-referenced measures,

FOUR PILLARS OF ASSESSMENT

We have based this text on the premise that norm-referenced

The" four pillars of assessment-norm-referenced measures,

FOUR PILLARS OF ASSESSMENT