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Full text of "<a href="/details/cu31924015370400">Waterproofing engineering for
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<pre>
3tt)aca, Sêto lack
SOUGHT WITH THE INCOME Ol' THE

SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND
THE OlFTCfF
HENRY W. SAGE
Cornell University Library

TA 901.R82
Waterproofing engineering for engineers,
3 1924 015 370 400
Cornell University
Library
The original of tiiis book is in

tine Cornell University Library.
There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31 92401 5370400

WATERPROOFING
ENGINEERING
FOR
Engineers, Architects, Builders, Roofers
and Waterproofers
BY
JOSEPH ROSS, B.S., C.E.
WATEBPROOFING ENGINEER
FIRST EDITION
NEW YORK
JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc.
London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited
1919
COPTHIGHT, 1919
BY
JOSEPH ROSS
PRESS OF
BRAUNWORTH & CO.
BOOK MANUFACTURERS
BROOKLYN, N. Y-
PREFACE
Waterproofing engineering is not taught in any college, and

the writers of engineering papers descriptive of engineering works
only rarely embody information on waterproofing. In general, this
branch of engineering is given far too little consideration and study
in the laboratory and in construction. Its importance warrants
a better acquaintance with its laws than exists among those most
vitally interested. To remedy this condition and seemingly to
supply a real need to the profession, I commenced, early in 1914,
a systematic search and dihgent study of existing literature on
the subject of waterproofing. The field was large but the harvest
surprisingly small. Secrecy is the keynote in nearly all commercial
literature on waterproofing; but with the aid of chemistry much
of this was dispelled. The technical literature is oft^n but semi-
illuminating, though some excellent papers and reports have been
read before various engineering societies. In fact, the impression
gained from perusing the literature extant on waterproofing was,
that the subject seemed to be regarded as a sort of necessary evil in
engineering, to be overcome as best as the exigency of the case would
permit, and if this failed to try again and again until successful.
The cost of waterproofing was often the last consideration, but
it invariably became the least in the mad effort to successfully
waterproof the more important structures. This attitude is funda-
mentally and morally wrong , and economically unsound, because
we may find it expedient to justify our ignorance, but never
profitable.
In writing this book it is believed that my extensive practical
experience and experimental research work in waterproofing engi-
neering has qualified me to undertake this task, the magnitude of
which has not been underestimated. Much thought and labor
were devoted to the task of compihng and simphfsdng the text so
as to make it understandable by all interested in the subject of
waterproofing, which interest, fortunately, is gradually increasing
among engineers, architects and contractors.
An effort is also made to explain past and present methods and
IV . PREFACE
materials of waterproofing; investigate their efficiency; draw
helpful, if not perfectly exact conclusions, and, where possible,
estabhsh standard methods and materials for general waterproofing;
and lastly, to emphasize the value of careful study of the whole
subject by engineers, especially those engaged in design.
In the hope that it will engender new thought and investigation,
and in the behef that waterproofing engineering is now coming into
its own, this book is dedicated to the engineering profession.
It has been found impracticable in many cases to acknowledge
due indebtedness, for material used, to those writing in technical
and engineering society journals on waterproofing; I herewith extend
to all my grateful thanks.
Most kind acknowledgment for valuable assistance and sugges-
tions are due and gratefully given to Mr. Percy S. Palmer, C.E.,
Mr. William F. Holzschuch, C.E., Mr. Samuel G. Margies, C.E.,
Mr. Max Miller, C.E., and particularly to Mr. Raymond J.
Reddy, who, besides contributing information gained from practical
experience, has been of great assistance in the preparation of the
manuscript and drawings. I also take pleasure in acknowledging
my indebtedness to and esteem for Mr. George L. Lucas, General
Inspector of Materials of the Public Service Commission, 1st Dist.
of New York, in whose department the opportunity and material
for writing this book were secured.
Joseph Ross.
New York,
November, 1918.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
Need and Function of Watehproopinq
PAOS
Introduction 1
Conditions Creating Necessity of Waterproofing 1
Waterproofing — The Universal Structural Bodyguard 2
Density for Watertight Concrete 3
Source and Location of Ground Water, and Its Effect on Concrete 5
Waterproofing and Drainage as a Protection against Ground Water 5
Ineffectiveness of Weep Holes in Preventing Cracks in Masonry 6
Causes and Effects of Porosity in Concrete 7
Effect of Freezing Water on Concrete 7
Effect of Sewage and Sea Water on Concrete 8
Destructive Effect of Electrolysis on Concrete . . . ' 9
Elimination of Electrolytic Effects 10
Effect of Temperature Changes on Concrete 11
Effect of Expansion Joints in Masonry 12
Effect of Uneven Settlement on Masonry 13
Hygienic Need of Waterproofing 13
CHAPTER II
Systems of Watehproofing
Progress of the Art of Waterproofing _ 17
Surface Coating System of Waterproofing: Definition, Purpose and
Development '■ 18
Methods of Applying Surface Coatings 19
Preparation of Masonry Surface Prior to Application of Coating 21
Application Of Slush, Scratch and Finishing Coats 22
Materials Used for Surface Coatings 23
Application of Cement Mixtures 23
Use of Lean and Rich Mortars 25
Application of Powdered Metal 27
The Sylvester Process 28
Application of Paraffin 28
Application of Bituminous Compounds 29
Membrane System of Waterproofing: Definition, Purpose and Development 31
Surface Preparation Prior to Application of Membrane 33
Necessity of Continuity of Membrane 34
Protection of Membrane 35
v
vi CONTENTS
PAOB
Methods of Applying Membrane Waterproofing 40
Making Membrance Mats 42
Connecting New and Old Membranes 42
Placing Membranes around Projections- and in Vicinity of Steam Pipes. . . 43
Use of Special Membranes 45
Considerations for Selecting Membrane Reinforcement 46
Storing and Unrolling Felt and Fabric 48
Precautions when Heating Coal-tar Pitch and Asphalt 49
Proper Use of Kettles and Fuel when Heating Pitch or Asphalt 50
Differentiating between Coal-tar Pitch and Asphalt in the Field 51
Coal-tar Pitch Versus Asphalt for Waterproofing 51
Mastic System of Waterproofing: Definition, Purpose and Development . . 52
Applying Mastic Waterproofing 53
Precautions when Joining New and Old Brick-in-Mastic 57
Placing Mastic around Projections and in Vicinity of Steam Pipes 57
Preparation of Wall Surfaces for Brick-in-Mastic 58
Precautions for Setting-up, Filling and Stripping Forms for Brick-in-Mastic
Walls 59
Settlement and Bracing of Brick-in-Mastic Walls 61
Materials for Making Mastic — Their Properties and Proportions 62
Hand Versus Machine-made Mastic 63
Brick-heating Methods '. 65
Weather Conditions Governing Waterproofing Operations 66
Integral System of Waterproofing: Definition, Purpose and Development 66
Limitations of the Integral System of Waterproofing 68
Integral Waterproofing Materials and Their Application 69
Use of Hydrated Lime 69
Use of Inert Fillers 70
Use of Active Fillers 72
Use of Proprietary Cements 72
Use of Integral Liquids 74
Use of Integral Pastes 75
Self-densified Concrete: Definition, Purpose and Development 76
Methods of Making Dense Concrete 77
Scientific Proportioning 78
Grade of Workmanship and Supervision Necessary for Watertight Concrete 81
Grouting Process of Waterproofing: Definition, Purpose and Development 82
Application of Grout for Waterproofing 84
Cement and Sand for Grouting 85
Equipment for Grouting Process 86
Steam Pressure Concrete Mixing and Placing Machine 89
CHAPTER III
Impervious Roofing
Impervious Roofing Defined gi
Properties and Application of Shingles 92
Wood Shingles 92
Slate Shingles 93
CONTENTS vii
PAGE
Tile Shingles gg
Prepared Shingles 100
Asbestos Shingles 101
American Method of Applying Asbestos Shingles • 103
Hexagonal and French Methods of Applying Asbestos Shingles 103
Tin Roofing IO5
Properties and Application of Tin Roofing 105
Felt (or Composition, or Built-up) Roofing 108
Applying Felt Roofing 108
Varieties of Prepared or Ready Roofings 112
Applying Ready Roofings lU
Roof Flashings 116
Roof Gutters 118
Functional Roofings 120
Definition, Use and Varieties of Functional Roofings 120
CHAPTER IV
Waterproofing Expansion Joints in Masonry
Function and Properties of Expansion Joints 124
Monolithic Construction Obviates Expansion Joints 125
Design and Spacing of Expansion Joints 126
Joints in Brick Masonry 126
The Slip-tongue and Plane-of-Weak-Bond Joints 127
Illustrations of Expansion Joints 128
Cut-offs in Expansion Joints 134
Physical-acting Expansion Joint Fillers 140
Chemical-acting Joint Fillers 143
CHAPTER V
Waterproofing Materials
Selection and Adaptability of Materials 145
Materials for Different Systems of Waterproofing 145
Nature of Materials Acting Chemically as Waterproofing Agents 147
Nature of Materials Acting Mechanically as Waterproofing Agents 153
CPIAPTER VI
Waterproofing Implements and Machinery
Applicability of Tools and Machinery for Waterproofing 166
Varieties of Mastic Mixers 166
Varieties of Heating Kettles 170
Sundry Waterproofing Implements 176
The Cement Gun 184
The Grouting Machine 18S
viii CONTENTS
CHAPTER VII
Technical and Practical Tests on Waterproofing
PAGE
Necessity of Testing Waterproofing Materials 188
Significance and Description of Technical Tests on Bitumens 189
Specific Gravity 190
Flash Point '. 191
Solubility in Carbon Bisulphide 192
Solubility in Carbon Tetrachloride 194
Solubility in Petrolic Ether 194
Penetration Test 195
Methods of Determining Melting-points of Bitumens 197
Ductility Test on Bitumen 209
Evaporation Test on Bitumen 212
Determination of Free Carbon in Coal-tar Pitch 214
Ash Test ■ 217
Fixed Carbon Test 217
Paraffin Test 218
Dimethyl Sulphate Test 219
Tests on Treated and Untreated Cement Mortar and Concrete 219
Standard Instructions for Permeability Tests 220
Description of Standard Apparatus 221
Method of Testing Permeability of Waterproofed Concrete 222
Results of Permeability Tests on Waterproofed Concrete 224
Results of Permeability Tests on Plain Concrete 227
Description and Results of Practical Tests 229
Test on Absorption of Concrete 229
Test on Concrete Floor Hardeners 231
Comparison of Melting-points of Bitumsms 235
Effect of Heat on Various Pitches Mixed with Linseed Oil 236
Flowing and Bonding Properties of Pitch Containing Small Quantities of
Asphalt or Linseed Oil 238
Effect of Asbestos Filler on the Physical Properties of Bitumen 238
Ductility of Asphalt Containing Coal-tar Pitch 240
Effect of Temperature on Penetration and Ductility of Asphalt and Coal-
tar Pitch 241
Comparative Tests on Coal-tar and Asphalt Mastics 247
Volume Reduction of Asphalt Mastics 248
Mastic Bond Affected by Surface Condition of Bricks 249
Relative Compression of Plain Brick, Brick and Mortar, and Brick-in-Mastic 249
Effect of Temperature of Saturants on Waterproofing Fabrics 251
Relative Amount of Saturant and Coating Material on Treated Water-
proofing Felts and Fabrics 252
Effect of Drinking Water on Waterproofing Fabrics 254
Effect of Ground Water on Waterproofing Fabrics 255
Relative Absorption and Strength of Raw and Treated Waterproofing Felts
and Fabrics 256
Immutability Test on Various Wnterproofing Felts and Falirics 260
Compressibility of Treated Jute-fabric Waterproofing Membranes 260
CONTENTS ix
CHAPTER VIII
Waterproofing Specifications
PAGE
Specification Requisites 262

Specifications for VVaterproofing-Materials 263
Specifications for Waterproofing Concrete and Masonry Structures 273
Specifications for Waterproofing Tunnels and Subways 280
Specifications for V^'aterproofing Railroad Structures 293
Specifications for Waterproofing Concrete Floors 305
Specifications for Waterproofing Roofs 306
CHAPTER IX
Practical Recipes and Special Formulas
Origin and Nature of Special.Formulas 313
Masonry Treatments 314
Treatments for Tanks 317
Floor Treatments 3 jg
Roofings 319
Waterproof Cements 320
CHAPTER X
Waterproofing Applied
Examples of Surface-coating Applications 323
Examples of Membrane Applications 331
Examples of Mastic Applications 353
Examples of Integral Waterproofing Applications 356
Examples of Self-densified Concrete Applications 356
Examples of Grouting Applications ) 357
Examples of Special Waterproofing Applications 360
CHAPTER XI
Cost Data on Materials, Implements, and Labor
Planning and Estimating 368
Importance of Accurate Estimates 368
Accurate Estimates Dependent on Accurate Methods ' 369
Labor and Materials 370
Waterproofing Labor, Contractors and Manufacturers Graded 370
Cost Data Tables 371
CHAPTER XII
Practical Tables
Explanation of Tables 379
Thermometric Equivalents 380
Specific Gravities and Degrees, Baume, for Liquids Heavier and Lighter
than Water 381
X CONTENTS
PAGE
Specific Gravity and Coefficient of Expansion of Various Materials 387
Weight and Thickness of Burlap, Felt, and Cotton Fabric Membranes with
Coal-tar Pitch Binder 388
Thickness of Waterproofing Materials Required for Different Water
Pressures 389
Volumes and Weights of Ingredients Used in Brick-in- (Asphalt) Mastic
Waterproofing 390
Pressure Exerted by Water Beneath Floors and against Walls 392
Approximate Weights and Thicknesses of Various Sheet Metals for Roof,
Gutters and Flashings 393
Weights of Roof Coverings 395
Square Feet Covered by 1000 Wooden Shingles 396
Number of Slates and Pounds of Nails Required for Roofing £97
Size, Length, Gauge and Weight of Roofing Nails 397
APPENDIX I
Explanation of Mechanical Analysis for Grading Concrete Aggregates 399
APPENDIX II
Concrete in Sea Water 403
APPENDIX III
Report on Waterproofing — Âmerican Society for Testing Materials 408
APPENDIX IV
Glossary of Terms Used in the Waterproofing Industry 413
APPENDIX V
References : 423
Index 428
WATEEPROOFINCt ENCxINEEIMNa
CHAPTER I
NEED AND FUNCTION OF WATERPROOFING
Introduction
The art of waterproofing, while having passed its infancy, is
not yet in its adult stage of development. That it has developed
from a crude understanding and practice is evident from the fact
that the ancient Romans would waterproof their structures by
building foundation walls so thick that water could not possibly
percolate through them.
Searching through both ancient and modern annals for a his-
tory of the subject, we are consistently confronted by the scarcity
of reliable literature on waterproofing; but it is quite well ascer-
tained that the early Egyptians used asphalt * to waterproof the
foundations of the pyramids, that they waterproofed the ground
floors of some houses by internal and external applications of bitu-
minous material, and used it also in the construction of cisterns,
silos, and other works where waterproofing was necessary: that the
Romans were among the first to apply successfully the early prin-
ciples of waterproofing and were the first successful manufacturers
of hydraulic cement. This cement was a natural cement similar
to our present day puzzolan cement. Of course, waterproofing
engineering as practiced by both the Egyptians and Romans must
be taken in a restricted sense, for the art, as now developed and as
we comprehend it to-day, was quite unknown then.
Conditions Creating Necessity of Water roofing. It has been
quite definitely proven that water is practically a universal
solvent; i.e., given time and water, especially sub-surface water,
very few things will resist the deteriorating effect of the latter. At
* For earliest history of asphalt, see : " Manufacture of Varnishes and Kindred
Industries " by Livache and Mcintosh, Vol. 2, p. 33.
2 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
certain distantes below ground surface, varying both seasonally
and locally, water is nearly (within several feet) at the same level
(called ground-water level) ' throughout the year. All engineering
structures, of course, have their foundations in earth or rock (which
is the same thing so far as water pressure is concerned) and may be
partly or entirely submerged by ground water; consequently they
are subject to considerable water pressure and to the disintegrating
influences of the acids or alkalies usually present in ground water.
It is also evident that due to uneven settlement and continual
variations of temperature, cracks may develop in superstructural
and subsurface masonry, foundation walls, etc., through which water
will seep regardless of how minute these cracks may be; hence
waterproofing in some form becomes essential to the life and sta-
bihty of the structure. What this form of waterproofing should be
is a problem not susceptible to precise mathematical solution, but
by a careful study of conditions and with the help of past and present
experience, and a knowledge of the chemical and physical properties
of waterproofing materials, a form or method can be devised suitable
for any special condition. Therefore, a knowledge of all manner of
waterproofing systems and the properties of suitable materials
becomes indispensable, at least to the engineer and architect, who
usually specify how and what should be used under given conditions
or for particular structures.
Waterproofing — The Universal Structural Bodyguard. Our era
has rightly been designated the " Concrete Age." In fact, the
growth of our civilization might be measured by the quantity produc-
tion of cement, and the commercial progress of a community might
be measured by the number and size of the concrete structures
within its boundaries. In the not distant past, most solid struc-
tures were composed of ordinary brick or stone masonry, and to-day
not a few are similarly constructed, but these are rapidly being super-
seded by concrete and steel. Even for dwellings concrete is becoming
more adaptable and is being used more every day, and the prediction
is made that the future will see a predominance of concrete buildings
of all varieties.
But co-ordinately with the use of concrete, or nearly so, is the
provision of a " body guard " in the form of waterproofing. For,
as iron and steel must be protected from corrosion, so must concrete
be protected from disintegration, but unlike the former, concrete
must also be made impermeable. Water, by its capacity of alternate
freezing and thawing, reacting upon concrete as ordinarily made,
with its inherent porosity, wherein water may lodge and exert its
NEED AND FUNCTION OF WATERPROOFING 3

expansive or disintegrating forces, is the bane of such structures.
On the other hand, water pressure is an added bane of subsurface
structures. All of these causes and their effects preclude the possi-
bility of making a permanently element-resisting structure without
some form of protection. Waterproofing affords this protection.
Efficient waterproofing is therefore rightly co-ordinate with concrete,
the universal structural material, and the materials used to accom-
plish this should therefore be classed as structural materials. Water-
proofing not only protects but prolongs the life of any structure
to which it has been properly applied. Proper waterproofing
materials intelligently and adequately applied is the keynote of
success in making all engineering structures watertight. But even
appropriate materials unsystematically applied, or vice versa, will
not produce a waterproof medium. This emphasizes the necessity
of knowing all the related factors in waterproofing a structure as
well as in designing it.
Density for Watertight Concrete. In the making of concrete it
is attempted to duplicate natural stone, in form, design and color,
but especially in density. The density of average concrete is more
nearly equal to that of the fighter stones (see Table I), though in
practice the effort is universal to make it approach that of the heavier
ones, which effort has the desirable effect of reducing its porosity.
To accomplish this, engineers often and rightly resort to scientific
proportioning of the aggregates, increased time of mixing, careful
tamping, spading and closer supervision of construction, or again,
by incorporating certain water-repellent or void-filling ingredients
in mass concrete or in the mortar used for laying up the stone
masonry. Where these precautions are impossible or inadequate,
the structure may be placed in or surrounded with an impervious
bituminous sheet-layer or membrane, forming an external water-
proofing medium.
From Table I it is evident that not only concrete but all kinds
of stone are more or less porous. Hence this property, being inherent
in all stones, must not be overlooked in construction work where
it may cause damage. But this is especially true of concrete,
because, as is obvious from the table, it is very difficult to make
ordinary concrete denser than average limestone, and consequently,
its porosity being always present, is more menacing to the integrity
of any concrete structure.
Ordinary concrete will absorb water more readily than is generally
supposed. The presence of alkahne, such as magnesium or sodium
sulphate, or of acid in ground water, tends to attack the cement in
some manner not yet definitely known, and is one of the chief causes
for the disintegration of concrete. This is especially true of the
action of sea water on concrete. Other causes tending to disintegrate,
or in some manner to disrupt concrete, are electrolysis, temperature
changes and uneven settlement. A brief review will be made of each
of these causes and their effects.
TABLE I.— AVERAGE WEIGHTS, SPECIFIC GRAVITIES, AND AB-
SORPTION OF VARIOUS STONES AND CONCRETES
Stone
Kind of Stone.
Weight,
Lb. per
Cu. Ft.
Specific
Gravity.
Water
Absorbed,*
Lb. per Cu. Ft.
Trap
Marble
Slate
Granite
Limestone. . .
Conglomerate
Sandstone . . .
Brick
Gravel
Cinders
180
170
168
168
162
162
150
125
100
95
2.92
2.72
2.70
2.70
2.60
2.60
2.40
1.85
2.65
1.50
Max.
1,
1
2.
2.
6
3
11
03
04
10
77
62
71
60
18.75
■ Mill.
0.23
0.10
0.05
0.04
0.02
0.60
0.02
Concrete
Kind of Aggregate.
Weight,
Lb. per
Cu. Ft.
Specific
Gravity.
Water
Absorbed,
Lb per Cu. Ft.* t
Trap
155
150
150
148
144
143
112
2.48
2.40
2.40
2.34
2.30
2.29
1.79
3 13
Conglomerate
Gravel
Limestone
Marble
Sandstone
Cinders
3.66
3.47
2.48
9.61
* For exact method of determining absorption of water per cubic foot of rock, see
American Society of Civil Engineers Transactions, Vol. 82, p. 1437 (1918).
t The figures in the last column were estimated from testa made on 6-inch cubes of 1 : 2 :
concrete.

Source and Location of Ground Water and Its Effect on
Concrete
Since water is the all-important cause creating the necessity for
waterproofing, we will consider briefly its source and general loca-
tion in the ground.
Ground water is that part of rain, hail or snow that has percolated
through and accumulated in the ground as water, either in soil or
in rock, usually in consequence of an underlying impervious stratum
which materially retards or totally prevents its further percolation
downward. The upper surface of ground water is called the water
table, or the ground-water level. The depth of ground-water level
below the earth's surface varies with the locality, topography and
character of the earth's material.* Ground-water level has nothing
to do with mean high water, though in some localities they are at
the same elevation; the latter surface, however, is usually lower.
Proper drainage will, of course, lower ground-water level, and this
is often resorted to in order to obviate the need of more extensive
waterproofing. But as the limit of this level is mean high-water
level, its successful possibilities are not unlimited. So far as water-
proofing is concerned, therefore, the two water levels require equal
consideration, because one or the other, or both, are always operative.
A clause in the specifications for v/aterproofing the new subways
in New York reads: " waterproofing of the structure will be limited
to the roof and to those surfaces near ground water, or mean high
water, if ground-water level is found for any reason to be below mean
high water." Flood water is less difficult to control than either
sea or ground water, and only affects certain localities at certain
times, often due to accident. Its effects are readily overcome by
proper drainage, damming or simple waterproofing methods.
Waterproofing and Drainage as a Protection against Ground
Water. The most general effect of ground water on engineering
works is to necessitate these works being constructed with special
waterproofing considerations. The earth below ground-water level
remains wet constantly, often subjecting an underground structure
to a large hydrostatic head. It is this head of water which requires
careful attention and design to make it effective. And what can-
not be accompUshed by design alone can be acconiphshed by inclu-
ding a system of waterproofing to prevent the percolation of water
through the more or less porous concrete, or through sUght cracks
that may develop in it.
* Tumeaure and Russell, " Public Water Supply."
An underground system of drainage is often included even where
a complete system of waterproofing is called for and provided, as in
the above cited subway specification, to wit: " Every part of the
railroad must, so far as possible, be so arranged that saiy water
finding access thereto will be led away automatically to the city
sewers. Where the railroad is on an inclined gradient, and is con-
structed in dry, porous soil, the floor of the railroad may be depended
on to act as a conduit. At the bottom of the inclined gradient
connection must be made with a sewer or with subdrains lying
beneath the railroad and draining into the sewers.
" Along such parts of the work where the soil is not porous, or
where the floor of the railroad cannot, in the judgment of the engineer,
be used as a conduit there shall be laid, beneath the rail level and on a
continuous descending gradient, drain pipes of vitrified tile. Each
drain shall be laid in the concrete or directly in the soil with tight
or open joints, as directed, and in such manner and in such position
as, in the opinion of the engineer, local circumstances require."
Ineffectiveness of Weep Holes in Preventing Cracks in Masonry.
Concrete retaining walls and abutments, but more especially the
former, are, as a rule, provided with weep holes to take care of the
water at their backings. The practice adhered to is to let one weep
hole 3 or 4 inches in diameter suffice for every 3 or 4 yards of wall
front. But experience has demonstrated that such weep holes
do not always suffice to protect a wall against water pressure (in
so far as it affects percolation), still less against deteriorating agencies
in the water, and least of all do they prevent surface disfiguration
due to efflorescence. Neither do weep holes prevent subsequent
and uneven settlement with consequent cracking of the masonry.
The reason is quite obvious; for weep holes too often and too easily
become clogged, and are in consequence unable to carry o£f the
storm water rapidly, which is their main function, consequently the
water accumulates in the backfill and backs up behind the wall,
causing, with the aid of head and frost, the damages referred to
above.
While waterproofing would not overcome all of these defects,
it would undoubtedly eliminate to a marked degree their effects.
In fact, the tendency in present-day construction is to ehminate
weep holes and substitute a type of waterproofing meeting the
purpose and need of the structure. Thus it is seen that ground
water is the elemental cause against which concrete structures must
be protected by the application of some waterproofing material or
drainage system, or both.
Causes and Effects of Porosity in Concrete
Cement mortar and concrete, even when made under laboratory
conditions, are far from being dense enough to completely pre-
vent the percolation (independent of absorption) of water through
them if time is reckoned as a factor. The volume of total voids
in mortars averages about 26 per cent, and in concrete, of pro-
portions commonly employed in practice, the voids range from
13 to 17 per cent. That this is a common as well as a serious
condition follows from the fact that many laboratory tests show
that 70 to 80 per cent of the tempering water evaporates,
leaving behind it the cells that it formerly occupied, and as these
cells are more or less connected, a system of ducts through the
entire structure is established. This cellular condition creates
a natural capillary passageway for water to enter and be absorbed
in the mass. But the permeability of mortar or concrete is
practically independent of that form of porosity wherein the voids
form an unconnected system, but the freezing effect is quite different,
and is referred to below.
At this point it is probably well to remind the reader not to
confound porosity with either permeability or absorption, for con-
crete may be porous and yet absorb little water, and it may be
absorptive, and yet not permeable.
Porosity of concrete may be defined as the net-work of uncon-
nected voids or honeycombing of its mass by the entrained air and
water.
- Absorption of concrete is the property of drawing in or engrossing
water into its pores or voids by capillary action or otherwise.
Permeability (or percolation) of concrete may be defined as that
quality, due to cracks or connected voids, which permits the flow of a
liquid through it.
Efifect of Freezing Water on Concrete. All three states, that is
porosity, permeability and absorption, are alUed, and each one in
some way is detrimental to concrete, for, whether water is entrained
in the mass * or flows through it, or is absorbed by the concrete,
when it freezes some form of damage is done. There are but few
bonds strong enough to resist the expansive force of freezing water.
It increases its bulk approximately 10 per cent, and the consequent
expansive force is probably more than 10,000 pounds per square inch.
A section of concrete 100 feet long, under 100 deg. Fahr. (55.5 deg.
Cent.) change in temperature, will contract or expand ^ of an
* See striking example in Engineering News, Vol. 77, No. 9, p. 356.
S WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
inch. This change is infinitesimal in comparison to the volumetric
change in freezing water; hence the need for eliminating the porosity
of concrete and also preventing the percolation of water through it.
For evidence of the effect of the expansive force of freezing water,
one need but observe the physical condition of natural stones exposed
to the elements for a more or less protracted period of time. Even
mountains, with their proverbial strength, are crippled by this agency.
A very striking example of the effect of this tremendous mechanical
force is seen in the crumbhng of the exposed portions of the rocky
Palisades on the New Jersey shore of the Hudson River.
Effect of Sewage and Sea Water on Concrete.* That the dura-
bihty of concrete is materially impaired by its porosity is strikingly
illustrated by the easy prey it falls to the action of alkali waters,
sewage and sea water.
The alkalies contained or formed by or in these waters, which
are most active in causing disintegration of concrete, especially
when allowed to penetrate into the interior of the mass, are the
sulphates of sodium, magnesium, and calcium.
Disintegration of concrete in sewers and sewage disposal works,
whether due to the use of poor materials, poor workmanship, or lean
mixtures, each of which tends to decrease the density of concrete,
has been found to take place above the normal surface of the liquid
contained. This action probably results from the fact that quanti-
ties of hydrogen sulphide are evolved from the sewage. This sul-
phide is produced in two ways: (a) By the bacterial decomposition
of sulphur-containing proteins and related compounds, and (6) the
reduction of sulphates which are contained in unusual amounts in
some water supplies. Of the two, the second seems to be more
important. The hydrogen sulphide which escapes as gas from the
sewage is partially dissolved in the moisture on the under side of the
roof and concrete walls. Here it is oxidized to sulphuric acid partly
by atmospheric oxidation and partly by bacterial action. The
sulphuric acid acts upon the calcium compounds in the concrete,
forming calcium sulphate, thus breaking down the concrete.
Where the effect of sea water on concrete has been other than
mechanical, it is probable that disintegration is caused by the sub-
stitution of magnesium oxide (MgO) from the sea water in the place
of the calcium oxide (CaO) of the cement, as well as to the decrease
in the proportion of silica and the increase in sulphuric anhydride
(SO3). Interesting examples of these processes will be found in
Engineering and Contracting, Vol. 57, No. 26, p. 580. The United
States Bureau of Standards, after some extensive tests on the " action
* American Railway Engineering Association, Vol. 14, p. 834. '

of the salts in alkali water and sea water on cements," described in
Technologic Paper No. 12 of the Bureau, remarks as follows:
" The cause of the disintegration of cement structures is not
certain, though it is almost universally believed that it is the reaction
of sulphate of magnesia of the sea water with the lime and the
alumina of the cement, resulting in the formation of hydrated
magnesia and calcium sulpho-aluminate, which crystaUizes with a
large number of molecules of water. Other constituents of sea
water, especially sodium chloride and magnesium chloride, have also
been noticed to attack the silicates of the cement and produce rapid
disintegration."
To safeguard concrete structures against the destructive action
of the above agents, it is necessary to make dense, impermeable
concrete by the use of a well-graded aggregate, moderately rich
mixture, proper consistency* and good workmanship, and allowing
the concrete to harden under favorable conditions before being
exposed; or, where practicable, by applying a surface mortar coat
from 1 to 2 inches thick. Both of these methods are included in
distinct systems of waterproofing, which are explained in Chapter II.
In Appendix II will be found more explanatory information on this
interesting phenomenon. For experimental confirmation the reader
is referred to the above Technologic Paper.
'Destructive Effect of Electbolysis on Concrete
In the principle of electrolysis we have a very formidable
agent at work against the integrity of concrete structures; one
that requires careful study and attention in structural design
and during construction. Its effect is mechanical and, though
not widespread, is as disastrous as the freezing of water in
concrete. The passage of an electric current through reinforced
concrete causes, amongst other effects, oxidation of the iron rein-
forcement. The oxides formed occupy 2.2 times as great a volume
as the original iron and the pressure resulting from this increase
of volume is very great. That it is possible to damage re-
inforced concrete structures by stray currents from electric
railways, power-houses, and general ground connections is an
established fact.* Electric currents passing from the reinforcing
material into the concrete — for electrolytic action takes place only
where the current leaves the conductor — cause corrosion of the
reinforcement and cracking of the surrounding concrete more or
less seriously, but always sufficiently to permit the percolation of
water through it, which further aids electrolysis; this, in turn,
* Technologic Paper No. 18 of the Bureau of Standards, U. S. A.
10
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING
creates more cracks, thus permitting more water to enter and attack
the reinforcement, whence the action is further enlarged until there
arises serious danger that rupture may ensue.*
Elimination of Electrolytic Effects. Partial elimination of elec-
trolysis is possible by the selection of courses of masonry or con-
crete of a, high specific resistance and their careful distribution about
the structure. As an illustration: If blocks of granite are inter-
posed between the footings of a building and the soil, the tendency
of the building to pick up stray currents is materially reduced because
of the high electrical resistance of the granite. It may be impractic-
able to take these precautioris, but it is nearly always possible to
surround the footings with a waterproofing membrane which will
accomplish the desired end. See Fig. 1.
Various proportioned concrete aggregates offer greater or less
resistance to electrolysis with a showing in favor of what would
ordinarily be called a poor concrete.
Table II f shows the specific resistance of concrete made of Old
Dominion cement, river sand and crushed trap. The specific resist-
ance of concrete will, of course, vary greatly with the aggregate,
method of making, etc., and the values given below are indicative
only of the order of magnitude of the specific resistance that may be
expected.
TABLE II.— ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE OF MORTAR AND CONCRETE
Proportion
of Mortar.
Resistance
in OhmR cm. 3
Proportion
of Concrete.
Resistance
in Ohms cm.^
Neat cement
1 :2
1 :4
3500
2300
2100
1 : 2i : 4
1:3 :5
1:4:7
8000
8200
9900
In general, complete protection from electrolytic effects is not

practically possible by any other means than efficient waterproofing.
What form of waterproofing should be used for this purpose depends
on local conditions and the type of structure, but invariably that
system which is of a membraneous nature will be most efficient.
Precautionary measures against electrolysis must be taken both
in the city and in the country, but perhaps more so in the country
because electrical feeders are usually much better protected in cities,
where laws are enacted for this purpose.
* Engineering News, Vol. 66, June 8, August 3 and 17, 1911; Vol. 68, July 12,
December 19, 1912.
t Technologic Paper No. 18 of the Bureau of Standards, U. S. A.
NEED AND FUNCTION OF WATERPROOFING
11
Effect of Temperature Changes on Concrete

A fourth disrupting force, and one not easily overcome, is
change of atmospheric temperature, to which influence can be
ascribed many concrete failures. Additional steel embedded near
Fig. 1. — Methods of Waterproofing around Coluton Bases and Footings to

Prevent Electrolysis.
the surface of the concrete is one of the means employed to combat

this force. The effect of the temperature change, however, is
never wholly lost, especially, though rarely, where concrete is
depended upon to take tensUe stress. Just to Ulustrate: Assuming
the coefficient of expansion of concrete as .0000055 per deg. Fahr.,
and its modulus of elasticity as 2,000,000 pounds per square inch,
then the stress due to temperature is 11 pounds per square inch per
degree change of temperature, or, for 60 deg. Fahr. it is 660 pounds
per square inch, which is double the ultimate unit tensile stress for
concrete. A temperature difference between summer and winter of
twice 60 deg. Fahr. is not uncommon in certain parts of the United
States.* Fortunately, in this country, tensile strength of concrete
is neglected. It must not be supposed, however, that steel rein-
forcement, however efficiently placed, does more than diminish
the size and distribute the cracks which are caused by temperature
changes. But this result is sufficient to materially increase the
impermeability of the structure.
Effect of Expansion Joints in Masonry. In steel, a change of
temperature of 1 deg. Fahr. causes a stress of about 200 pounds per
square inch if resisted. In concrete a change of 18 deg. Fahr. causes
an equal stress if likewise resisted; that is, if expansion joints are
not provided to take care of the expansion and contraction, the
resulting stresses may cause cracks in the structure, with the usual
result of disfigurement due to efflorescence and damage due to seepage.
But, on the other hand, these very expansion joints create one of the
most urgent needs for waterproofing a concrete, or for that matter,
any form of masonry structure.
Expansion and contraction in a structure and their resulting
stresses are due to changes in atmospheric temperature or change
in temperature of the concrete while it is setting and hardening.
This latter temperature change may be as high as 150 deg. Fahr.,
depending on. the thickness of the masonry, f With steel rein-
forcement to take care of stresses resulting from temperature
change, the cracks are kept small, but not entirely prevented. The
expansion joints necessary to relieve the atmospheric temperature-
change-stresses require special study. Their form and location in a
structure not only have a great bearing on the stresses set up in it but
also on their effectiveness. ■ While expansion joints tend to relieve the
effects of these stresses, they are not always effective in preventing
hair cracks or cracks at angles in the structufe, or leakage through
the joints themselves as commonly constructed. Hence the need of
an efficient type of waterproofing, in conjunction with well-designed
expansion joints, which together will most effectively overcome
these defects.
* American Civil Engineers' Poclcet Book, 2d Edition, p. 1255.
t Taylor and Thompson, "Concrete, Plain and Reinforced," 2d Edition, p. 285.

Effect of Uneven Settlement on Masonet
A fifth important destroying agency to consider in concrete con-
struction is uneven settlement. An inequality of bearing power will
. cause uneven settlement in a structure. Only the most careful de-
signer can minimize and perhaps eliminate settlement, which some-
times causes unsightly cracks, and, of course, reduces the imperme-
abihty of the structure. Retaining walls are particularly subject
to stresses of this character. Bridge abutments and building foun-
dations sometimes suffer a good deal from this cause. When to this
is added the vibration in each, due to traffic or the operation of
machinery, the injuries are enhanced in a manner that invites further
damage when water enters the cracks.
Where masonry walls support backfill behind them and tracks
above them, settlement may occur due to pounding of trains on
the tracks. Or, if drainage behind the walls is, or becomes, inade-
quate for any unforeseen reason (due to clogging of weep holes, for
instance), the earth underneath the foimdation may be imdermined,
causing more or less settlement with consequent cracking and the
percolation of water. Concrete reservoirs often develop cracks
from this cause, and in spite of their eventual silting-up often con-
tinue to be troublesome until properly waterproofed. In fact, it most
generally happens that settlement cracks are too large to be closed
up by silting, or there may be no silt to depend on, as when building
in rocky strata. But even where sUt is abundant and is depended
upon to close up any cracks, it always takes time, invariably defaces
the structure, and the cracks may reopen by further settlement.
Consequently, nothing remains to be done but to waterproof the
structure, in a manner that will minimize or vitiate the effects of
this agent.
Hygienic Need of Waterproofing. The above considerations
undoubtedly establish the fact that the ill effects of the inherent
porosity of concrete and the perviousness of general masonry should
be eliminated as far as possible as a matter of economy and safety.
And, incidentally with the exclusion or repulsion of water (which
action depends on the system of waterproofing employed) from a
concrete structiu-e, that is, with a dampproof and waterproof
condition of a structure, follow other results and benefits that have
both an aesthetic and hygienic effect which can ill afford to be over-
looked. Concrete construction which proceeds with the idea of
permanency should embody the co-ordinate functions of damp-
proofness and waterproofness and uniform surfaces, free from
14

unsightly blotches and discoloration by efflorescence. (See Fig. 2.)
The latter defect in concrete and brick masonry is mainly due to the
absorption of atmospheric moisture, which dissolves the salts of soda,
potash, magnesia, etc., present in the cement and, on evaporating,
deposits them on the surface. But in many instances rain or
ground water from behind walls or other structures percolates
through the mortar or expansion joints, day's-work planes, cracks,
or through the very body of the masonry, carrying with it also various
oxides which leave rusty looking streaks or white and yellow patches
on the face of the masonry that often makes an eyesore of an othei-
Pjq 3 — Evidence of Exudation of Lime Salts through Wall Unprotected by-

Waterproofing or Dampproofing.
wise beautiful engineering structure. (See Fig. 3.) This condition
is true of masonry both above and below ground, although in the
latter case it is usually neglected. Where only this condition is
to be prevented, the incorporation of a bona-fide integral compound
is the most efficient means of accomplishing the desired end. Where,
however, cracks are inevitable, only a membraneous system of
waterproofing can overcome this defect.
In building construction, the absorption and retention of moisture
in walls above ground, and moisture and water in cellar and founda-
tion walls and floors below ground, cause dampness which is harm-
ful to health. Hence dampproofing, particularly in exposed build-
ings, assumes grave importance, and further emphasizes the njed of
waterproofing, because this always acts as an effective dampproofing;
that is, any structure that has been waterproofed has necessarily
been dampproofed. There are conditions, however, where damp-
proofing alone is necessary or possible, as for instance, exposed walls
of buildings. These are usually and successfully coated with a bitu-
minous compound or covered with a thin (J inch to i inch) layer
of plaster or cement mortar. Sometimes a waterproofed cement
mortar coat is applied an inch or less in thickness for this purpose,
and if the work is carefully done so that no separating plane is left
or peehng follows, proves an efficient dampproofing medium.
From the foregoing it may be concluded that waterproofing
requires as careful consideration in engineering work as fireproofing
does in building work. With so many deleterious agents constantly
at work, not only on concrete but on all masonry, the imperative
need of protecting all manner of structures against them, or against
their effects, becomes apparent. The form of this protection is
known by the broad name of waterproofing, and the art of applying
it as waterproofing engineering. To dampproof is to make a struc-
ture impervious to moisture. To waterproof is to render a structure
impervious to moisture and water. To accomplish this is to preserve
and lengthen the life of a structure, and this in turn tends towards
economy, which is an equally important consideration to the archi-
tect or engineer in design and construction as to the builder or owner
of a structure.
CHAPTER II
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING
Progress of the Art of Waterproofing. The progress that the art of
waterproofing has made since it began to receive serious consideration
is quite notable. It is difficult to affix any definite date to the adop-
tion of scientific waterproofing, but even as late as 1870 waterproofing
engineering, in the broad sense we are now considering it, was more
speculative than experimental. About this time the " Sylvester
Process " of waterproofing (originated in England) came into vogue
among American engineers, and while it still is sometimes employed,
it has, in the main, been superseded by better methods and materials.
Not that asphalt was unused prior to this date for waterproofing
purposes, but there seems to have been no certainty of results con-
nected with its use.
Since this period and up to comparatively recent times there were
developed four distinct systems of waterproofing, namely, " Mem-
brane," " Mastic," " Siirface Coating," and " Integral." In the
last decade, a fifth system — one that will often obviate the need
of any of the first four — has received wide experimentation with
very good and consistent results. This system is applicable only to
concrete structures and is designated ' " Self-densified Concrete."
Another recent system of waterproofing is known as the " Grouting
Process," which is especially applicable to subsurface structures
such as tunnels and cutoff walls either in rock or earth. Both of
these systems will be considered in due order.
The modern systems of waterproofing then, if arranged in the
order of their development, appear to be as follows:
(1) " Surface coating." (4) " Integral." t
(2) " Membrane." * • (5) " Self-densified concrete."
(3) "Mastic." (6) " Grouting process."
* Mr. E. W. DeKnight claims to have introduced this term in 1902; but
this term as appUed to waterproofing has only been used extensively in the last
decade
t This term as applied to waterproofing was used as far back as 1875 but not
extensively until the last decade.
17
Surface Coating System of Waterproofing
Definition, Purpose and Development. The surface coating
system of waterproofing refers to the appUcation of: (1) In imper-
vious coating of plastic or Uquid bituminous materials; (2) various
liquid hydrocarbons, and chemical salt solutions forming, usually,
water-insoluble compounds; (3) a wash or plaster coat of neat
cement or cement mortar, the former varying in thickness from
Y2 inch to ^ inch, used principally on brick walls, and the latter
from J inch to 2 inches; both applied either to an interior or
exterior surface of concrete or other masonry. The cement
mortar coating, again, may be composed of: (a) cement, sand
and water mixed in any efficient proportion that will produce
a dense and impervious coating; (6) cement, sand, water and a pow-
der, paste or hquid waterproofing compound (usually of a proprietary
nature) which is mixed in specified proportions for the purpose of
producing similar or more impervious coatings.
The surface coating system of waterproofing is adapted to water-
proof structures either during construction or after erection. It is
apphcable either to the external or internal surfaces of the structure,
depending on the physical condition of the surface to receive the
waterproof coating, the water pressure behind the surface, the kind
of material used and the thickness of the coating to be apphed. This
method is comparatively cheap and has a wide application in spite
of the few materials (other than proprietary ones) adapted for such
coatings.
Amongst the oldest preserving processes in construction work
are plastering and painting. Since paint forms an impervious coat-
ing easily and cheaply applied, it was utihzed not only for decorative,
but also for dampproofing purposes. It was a matter of general
knowledge that hnseed oil paints and varnishes, besides serving
other obvious purposes, were also a dampproofing medium; that
lime plaster and cement mortar, especially the latter, apphed in
comparatively thin coats, performed the same function. Hence the
next step in the development of this system of waterproofing was to
apply a coat of bituminous paint or a mortar coat, thick and dense
enough for each material to act also as waterproofing. Eventually
there came into use proprietary waterproofing compounds employed
directly as surface coatings or incorporated in the plaster or mortar
coat to increase its imperviousness.
The surface coating system of waterproofing is in common prac-
tice to-day, especially the mortar surface coat, because with it the
19
engineer encounters the least difficulties. The invention of the

" cement gun " has made this possible more so than any improvement
in the grading or proportioning of the ingredients for producing
impervious mortar. The history of this invention is rather inter-
esting. About 1895 Mr. C. F. Akeley, a taxidermist of Chicago,
invented the cement gun for the special purpose of coating the
framework of a dilapitated house with mortar to save it from de-
struction. This proved so successful that he coated other frame
buildings by the same means. In 1911 engineers in the United
States service in the Phihppines experimented with a similar machine
until they perfected it, and then used it quite extensively. Since
then the cement gun has come in modified and improved form,
into quite general use.
Fig. 4. — Âpplying Plaster Coat Over Bituminous Dampproofing Coat.
Methods of Appl3ring Surface Coatings. There are three com-

mon methods of applying impervious coatings: (1) by brush, (2)
by trowel, (3) by machine. All hquid compounds are appHed with
a brush (see Fig. 4), or paint-spraying machine, both processes being
done in the same manner that paints are applied. When thus applied,
the compound either forms a film on the surface or penetrates the
surface of the mortar or concrete, and by capillary action is drawn
further in to a depth varying between | and J inch (see Fig. 5),
depending on the solvent, porosity of the surface and density of the
mortar or concrete. As a plaster coat, the given waterproofing
material is applied with a trowel by hand (see Fig. 4). In this proc-
ess pressure and uniform motion are essential, but most essential
is the continuity of the coating. As a mortar coat it may be applied
either with a trowel or with the cement gun. When the plaster,
neat cement, or mortar surface coatings are applied with a trowel,
as on the back of a retaining wall, the outside of a brick sewer or
manhole, the inner face of a tunnel or swimming pool, they should
be finished off to bear a smooth or granolithic face. The granolithic
surface on these coatings, produced only by careful troweling,
materially increases their imperviousness. The coatings should
not be made too thin, as peeling, bhstering, and cracking inevitably
follow, especially if used where they are subject to atmospheric
changes.
When mortar is applied with the cement gun, the coat can be
made a very efficient waterproofing medium, provided the materials
are properly used and proportioned. In no case should a leaner
mixture than 1 : 3 be used and the best results will follow the use of
Fig. 5. — Ideal Penetration of Surface Coating.

a clean, somewhat moist arid coarse, but graded sand in the mixture.
In operating the cement gun (see Fig. 6) the dry materials are forced
through a hose by means of compressed air, hydrated at the nozzle,
and apphed with any desired velocity. This velocity of approach
of the mixture produces a considerable rebound of the sand, which
is wasted; this leaves, however, the adhering mixture richer in
cement. The combination of cement, sand and water which pro-
duces the plastic material, takes place in transit, i.e., the hydration
takes place immediately before and during the placement; the
chemical combination or initial set of the cement takes place in its
final resting place. If the surface is floated immediately after placing,
a smoother finish is obtained. Troweling, however, will not always
increase the iihperviousness of the mortar, and may even offset the
good effects of floating, hence it should be practiced with great care
or not at all. The technique of cement-gun applications requires
thorough famiharity with the machine and proportioning of aggregate
21
before any important waterproofing work can be prosecuted success-

fully. Chapter VI contains a more detailed description of the
modern cement gun.
Preparation of Masonry Surface Prior to Application of Coating.
Before applying any of the danipproof or waterproof coatmgs, all
masonry surfaces should be prepared by chipping off all skins of
dried or hardened cement or other material, so that practically an
entnely new surface is produced. It is best to do this not more
than a few days prior to the application of the coatings. Chipping'
Fig. 0. — Applying Mortar Coat with Cement Gun. (Operated with Power
from Automobile Engine.)
the surfaces will be facilitated and a much better bond secured by a

previous application of muriatic acid of about 1 to 10 solution, the
strength of the solution depending on the age of the structure to
be treated. The acid should remain on the surface until it has
exhausted itself. This will require about fifteen minutes. Then
a second coat, and if necessary a third coat of acid solution should
follow the first and be brushed in with a stiff wire brush. When
sufficient aggregate has been exposed and the entire surface cleaned,
all traces of the acid must be removed. This is best accomphshed
by a rigid apphcation of water from a hose immediately after the
acid treatment has reached a satisfactory stage. This slushing,
which should be done with perfectly clean water, should continue
until all the salts (formed by the chemical action of the acid on the
cement) are removed and the surface is free from acid. All holes,
large or small, should be plastered up independently of the surface
coating unless the coating is a waterproofed mortar.
Application of Slush, Scratch, and Finishing Coats. If the wall
or other surface is not washed with acid it should at least be chipped
and brushed, and just before the mortar coating is to be applied,
the surface should be thoroughly drenched and soaked to its full
absorbing capacity. Then, before the walls or other surfaces show
marked signs of drying, a " slush coating " should be applied over
the entire surface. To prepare this slush coat some of the mixed
ready-for-use coating material may be thinned with water to the
consistency of cream. It is then applied with a. stiff brush, with a
scouring effect, care being exercised to fully cover the inner surfaces
of all crevices and holes.
Before the slush coating has dried, the first application of the
regularly mixed coating material should be applied as a scratch coat,
from J to J inch thick, and pressure brought on the trowel to push
the coating on, and so obtain a uniformly thick layer, well bonded.
The best practice is to trowel the scratch coat to a fairly good sur-
face, and then to scratch criss-cross over the entire surface before it
hardens. This insures a better bond for the finishing coat.
Upon the scratch coat, and before its final setting, a finishing
coat of sufficient thickness to obtain the required thickness of mortar
coat should then be applied. If this required thickness is more than
IJ inches, the thickness of the scratch coat should be increased
accordingly. The finishing coat, too, should be pushed on hard and
uniformly troweled and floated to a true surface, free from pits,
pin holes, sagging cracks, projections or other defects. The floating
of the finished surface is best done from the bottom of the wall up.
These instructions are applicable whether the coating contains a
waterproofing compound or not.
In general, also, the surface of masonry to be waterproofed by
the surface coating system of waterproofing should be cleared of
any interference from timbers and temporary struts, because the
presence of such false timbering interferes with the proper and con-
tinuous application of the waterproofing. If such false timbering
is not readily removable, then the locations of struts and posts, etc.,
resting on or against the surface to.be waterproofed, require very
careful workmanship and close inspection to insure the proper and
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING 23
Complete waterproofing of holes left by removal or shifting of such
false work on the completion of the construction in hand. This
is especially true when such timbering is situated in poorly illumined
and cramped areas. A method of overcoming these difficulties is
explained in the article on the membrane system of waterproofing.
Other means of procuring a continuous surface so as to avoid leaving
unwaterproofed areas will suggest themselves as the occasion arises;
the important point to remember is that every temporarily unsur-
faced spot constitutes a weakness in the waterproofing system.
Materials Used for Surface Coatings. The materials generally
used for surface coatings are: (1) neat cement, cement mortar,
and proprietary cements, i.e., ordinary cements containing void-
filling or water repelling substances; (2) finely powdered metals, as,
for instance, powdered pig iron; (3) mixtures of soap and alum;
(4) paraffin, either in hquid form, or in sohd form, but melted, or in
solution with petroleum oil or coal-tar naphtha; (5) patented bitu-
minous products, i.e., mixtures of asphalt, hnseed oil or wood oil
and resin with some form of inert filler, as powdered or shredded
asbestos; (6) proprietary hquid hydrocarbons, i.e., solutions of
paraffin in benzine or benzol, or emulsions of petroleum oil and fat
oil. Some of these can be appUed to a wet or submerged surface
(varieties of the patented bituminous products), but a dry surface is
always preferable. The general properties of some of these materials
are treated in Chapter V.
Practical but simple illustrations of the manner and method by
which coatings are appUed are shown in Figs. 4, 7, 8. Fig. 4 shows
a brick wall below ground surface, coated with a liquid bituminous
paint which in turn is surfaced with a treated (i.e., waterproofed)
mortar. This process is most effective as a dampproofing rather
than as a waterproofing. Fig. 7 shows a culvert arch waterproofed
with a plastic, bituminous compound. Fig. 8 is a cross-section of a
swimming pool waterproofed with a cement mortar coating. To
this mortar was added a definite amount of a proprietary powdered
metallic compound to increase its imperviousness.
Application of Cement Mixtures. In applying either neat cement
or cement mortar, the engineer is not handicapped by lack of knowl-
edge of the materials or results. The required information is readily
obtainable with considerable certainty. However, when patented
cements are used this is not true to the same degree. Experiments
and experience have proven the waterproofing qualities of the former,
but the same cannot be said of the latter. In fact, in many instances
ordinary well-made and applied mortar will be more effective.
24
The United States Army engineers recommend the use of sand-

cement for mortar coatings.* Tliis cement is sometimes substituted
for the natural, liut Portland cement has been found to be the best
to use for waterproofing purposes. For coating sea walls and other
marine constructions, puzzolan or slag cement mortar is well adapted.
For coating exterior concrete wall surfaces and interior surfaces of
cisterns or tanks, and especially any masonry below ground-water
level, Portland cement mortar in proportions 1 : 1 or 1 : 1| will
create watertightness. The mortar should preferably be applied
against the surface which is to come in contact with the water.
Fig. 7.— Applying Bituminous Coat with Brush to Arch of Culvert.
But where a good hold can be secured for the mortar and if made
thicker than f of an inch, it may be applied to the other side. In
Table XXXII are given suitable thicknesses apphcable to varying
heads of water. Where imperviousness is desired both ways, both
sides should, of course, be coated. Increased watertightness will be
secured under all conditions, whether the mortar coat be applied
by hand or machine, by troweling the surface to a granolithic finish.
However, this granolithic finish must be produced with the greatest
care, otherwise it will vitiate its purpose.
* Taylor and Thomp,son, " Concrete, Plain and Reinforced," 2d Edition.
25
Use of Lean and Rich Mortars. The use of lean or rich mortar is
mainly dependent on the purpose each is to be put to. Mortar
contracts on drying and expands on wetting, hence cracking invari-
ably results. This is greatly reduced by reducing the proportion
of cement, which alone is affected and causes the cracks. In stucco
work or on other superstructural applications the leaner mortar
is most advisable. The sand should be graded so that the pro-
portion of medium-sized grains is small, and the coarse and fine grains
are about equally mixed.
Experience shows, for instance, that a plain 1 : 3 stucco, prop-
erly appUed, remains free from cracks, but is rather porous. A 1 : 2
stucco, however, while less porous, is subject to considerable crack-
ing, unless well protected during the setting period. But such pro-
tection (i.e., protection against freezing, or exposure to the sun and
quick drjdng out) besides being a good deal neglected, is often
impossible.
12 Concrete
Fig. 8. — Swimming Pool Waterproofed with Waterproof Mortar Coat.
Hence it resolves itself to a question of how to make stucco

mortar lean enough to avoid cracks, yet dense enough to be damp-
proof. This difiiculty is often overcome by the use of a suitable
integral waterproofing compound, or a surface coating material
which evaporates slowly and leaves the surface pores filled.
Since the strength of mortar here is of least consideration, and
absolute impermeability of the mortar of secondary consideration,
(i.e., the mortar for stucco work need but be made dampproof) these
waterproofing materials find a very good field of usefulness. But
the indiscriminate use of such compounds as, for instance, soap and
alum washes, caustic potash, stearin and resin compounds, or
chloride of lime and other metaUic salts, or, for that matter, any
of the many waterproofing or dampproofing compounds, without
test or careful investigation is unwarranted. The architect who
specifies any of these compounds without investigating or experi-
menting (and all too many do so) to ascertain their value for this
particular purpose is wasting his clients' money and hazarding his
own reputation. The many worthless and the few worth while
compounds on the market make it imperative to search most con-
scientiously for a material that will not wash out after a few rain
storms; that will not discolor or disintegrate, or induce disintegra-
tion; that will prevent hair checks and remain cementitious while
creating imperviousness in the stucco, and that will not induce
peehng or blistering of the stucco. Service and practical tests are
the best, and in fact, the only means for determining the effectiveness
of any of these materials.
In connection with the use of a large proportion of cement in
mortar or excess cement in concrete, it must be borne in mind that
the practice is wrought with many dangers for vitiating its ostensible
purpose, i.e., increasing the density of mortar or concrete. For
underground construction this practice is entirely warranted and
efficacious, but for superstructural work of any sort this practice is
successful only on the performance of the work with the most pains-
taking precautionary measures for curing, drying, and seasoning the
structures.
Only a few of the many patented cements and bituminous paints
on the market for waterproofing by the surface coating system
possess the requisite properties for efficient usage. In general, these
properties are: (a) That -absolute dampproofness or waterproof ness
be effected by their use; (6) reasonable cheapness; (c) appUcability;
(d) durability. Experience and experiment have shown that only
a very few of these special dampproofing and waterproofing com-
pounds possess the same effectiveness as a moderately thick coating
of neat cement or cement mortar, the latter of a maximum thickness
of about 2 inches for the most adverse conditions.
Cement mortar, as ordinarily mixed, can be made practically
impervious by the addition of alum and potash soap. One per cent
by weight of powdered alum added to the dry cement and sand and
thoroughly mixed, and about 1 per cent of any potash soap (ordinary
soft soap) dissolved in the water used in mixing the mortar will make
it remarkably impermeable, but the results are not lasting. A dry
clay mixed with cement in equal proportions and applied as a coat-
ing is also effective as a waterproofing agent, provided any form of
cracking is prevented.
A surface coat of cement mortar of a thickness and proportion
best judged from requirements at hand, is sometimes used for
creating a dry surface upon which to apply a different system of
waterproofing.
Systems of waterproofing
27
The impermeability of plain cement mortar is well shown in

Table III, which is adapted to our purpose from the United States
Bureau of Standards, Technologic Paper No. 3.
TABLE III.-PERMEABILITY OF MORTAR OF QUAKING
CONSISTENCY
Proportion by
Volume of
Portland Cement
to Meramic River
Sand.
Ago in Weeks
wlien Tested.
1 :2
1 :4
1 :6
1 :8
4
8
26
26
26
26
Cubic Millimeters of Water Passed per Minute per

7'.?V''fw Centimeter of Surface Subjected to 1.4 km
td.l lb.) Hydrostatic Pressure.*
Thickness of Test Pieces in Inches.
1.0
31.2
.8
1.9
149.0
90.5
9.0
1.0
24.0
17.0
2.0
5.0
.8
.5
324.0
749.0
132.0
126.0
9.0
43.0
* Average value of three test pieces tested for six hours.

Application of Powdered Metal. The waterproofing effective-
ness of powdered metal, such as powdered pig iron or other iron oxide
depends upon the barricading effect of its increased bulk due to
corrosion while it is held in suspension in the gaging water, which,
of course, permeates the mass. When mixed with the cement,
which is the most usual way, the moist particles of iron oxidize and
expand, thus filling the voids in the concrete mass; or, when applied
to the surface of concrete, either as a slush coat or thin mortar coat,
its action results in the production ox a hard, dense, and impervious
finish. The corrosion is often assisted by the addition, in very small
quantities, of some oxidizing agent such as sal-ammoniac or sulphur.
This same mixture is often used, under various trade names, as a
concrete floor hardener. In fact, powdered metal finds its greatest
usefulness in this field. When so used it should be floated on the
surface and then finished off with a trowel. Success in the use of
this material necessitates the employment of very careful and skillful
labor. Quantities and rules for applying powdered metal are usually
issued by the manufacturers of these materials, and should be care-
fully followed.
The Sylvester Process. The use of soap and alum solutions for
coating a masonry surface is known as the Sylvester Process of damp-
proofing and waterproofing. It is applicable alike to concrete and
other masonry. It does not, however, form a permanent water-
proofing, and is not much used at the present time. In using these
materials the following precautions must be observed: (a) Each
should be perfectly dissolved before being apphed. (6) The masonry
surface should be dry and clean before apphcation. (c) The air
temperature at the time of application should be between 50 and 60
deg. Fahr. (10 and 15.5 deg. Cent.), (d) The soap solution should
be boihng hot and applied first, using a flat brush for this purpose.
The alum solution is then brushed on at a temperature between 60
and 70 deg. Fahr. (15.5 and 21 deg. Cent.), thoroughly covering the
first coat. An interval of one day should elapse between the apph-
cation of each set of coats. The number of coats is dependent
on local conditions, including water pressure and exposure to the
elements.
The proportion of soap and alum giving the best results is f pound
of castile soap to 1 gallon of hot water; J pound of common alum
to 4 gallons of lukewarm water. The action is chemical. The two
materials combine to form a stearate of aluminum, which fills the
voids in the concrete and is insoluble in water. A solution con-
sisting of 1 pound of concentrated lye, 5 pounds of alum, and 2
gallons of water, applied while the concrete is green and until it
lathers freely, has been successfully used. A cheap and effective
substitute is a mixture of 1 part of aluminum sulphate and 3 parts
of hard soap, by weight. This may also be used as an integral
compound, in proportions determined by experiment, for mass
mortar or concrete.
Application of ParafSn. The application of paraffin is universal
and adapted to all classes of masonry above ground. If apphed
cold it is specially treated, e.g., it is boiled to rid it of water, the
presence of which renders it difficult to apply, and dissolved in a
highly volatile compound. Being an almost colorless, translucent
liquid, it does not change the color of the surface to which it is
apphed. It is easily apphed with a stiff flat brush, and the best results
are obtained by thoroughly rubbing it into the surface, using three
coats if the surface is rough. If the surface is clean and smooth,
two coats are sufficient, because the solvent has a high penetrating
capacity, by which function it leaves the pores filled with paraffin
after the volatile matter has evaporated. Most paraffin compounds
are prepared for use by the manufacturer, who usually issues direc-
tions for their apphcation, but ordinary commercial products
may. be used. In general, however, the following precautions should
be observed: (1) The surface treated should be made smooth
and dry, the first by chipping all projections and rubbing with a
stiff wire brush if necessary, the second by doing the work after a
dry period. (2) No fire should be near the material when applied,
because the volatile solvent is very combustible.
If the parafl&n is to be applied hot, it is merely melted and
thoroughly rubbed into the surface, which has been previously pre-
pared and warmed, to be waterproofed. The latter is most economic-
ally done with improvised salamanders, using charcoal as fuel. If
dissolved in the proportion of one-third paraflBn and two-thirds
kerosene, it remains soft longer and penetrates the stone further.
Paraffin is the very best waterproofing material for exposed work
of all kinds, but needs to be applied by men experienced in this work.
With a sufficient penetration, durability and effectiveness is assured
because of the natural inertness of the paraffin.
Application of Bituminous Compounds. There are many bitumi-
nous paints, pastes, and enamels offered by manufacturers for use in
the surface-coating system of waterproofing. Compounds of this
nature are also used for dampproofing. When used for this purpose,
the film or coat is usually applied somewhat thinner than for water-
proofing. For the latter purpose, the film or coat does not exceed
J inch, except when the material is a bituminous mastic, in which
case it is applied in thicker form. If employed as dampproofing for
exposed walls of buildings or other superstructures, these bituminous
compounds are usually applied on the interior or between wall sur-
faces. As waterproofing, these compounds are applied either on the
exterior or interior surfaces of underground works, depending on
conditions. In structures already erected some of these compounds
are well adapted to remedy leaky conditions because they can
be applied on the inside and sometimes to a moist surface.
This obviates the expense of excavating around the foundation.
Allowing bituminous waterproofing materials to remain in direct
contact with earth or other backfill, i. e., unprotected, is poor practice
because the acids or alkalies present in the backfill will eventually
destroy such materials. Bituminous coatings are sometimes applied
to the inner surface of foundation walls and tunnels even where a
water pressure exists, but they are not dependable to withstand
this condition unless backed up with an inch or two, or more, of
cement mortar or concrete, and the work done with care.
A priming coat should always be used before applying liquid
bituminous surface coatings to waterproof a structure, and in this
connection field engineers and inspectors will do well to guard against
the following practices: (1) Failure to apply a continuous priming
coat; (2) the use of a viscous material as a priming coat. On cer-
tain construction work, especially municipal work, it is often to the
advantage of the manufacturer or his agent to supply material of
the same consistency for the priming coat as for the other coats,
because very much more of it is required for the first than for the
succeeding coats on account of the usual roughness of the surface.
The waste of material, however, is the least objectionable in this
case. The serious nature of such practice lies in the failure to utilize
the priming coat for what it was intended to accomplish, namely,
to enter the surface pores of the concrete or other masonry, to find
every little depression or small hole and coat it, and to assure the
adhesion of the coats which follow. These objects are not well
accompHshed by using a viscous material for a priming coat. The
right consistency of a priming coat is one as liquid as water or milk,
in which state it can penetrate deeper below the surface.
The composition of most surface coating compounds is kept
secret by the manufacturer, and the only real safeguard one has in
purchasing them discriminately is to observe the results on structures
already waterproofed with any of these products. In general, the
following precautions should be observed when buying and applying
such materials: (1) Chemical test on a representative sample of
the material should show (a) preponderance of bitumen, (6) resistance
to acids and alkalies, (c) strong adhesion to concrete or other ma-
sonry, (d) toughness at low temperatures. (2) Results of tests on
representative specimen should be checked with material as received
and then applied according to the manufacturer's directions. (3)
The surface to be waterproofed must be made clean and dry,
applying not less than two coats; the first coat, usually a primer
(that is, the same material, or ordinary asphalt or tar, thinned to a
more liquid consistency) is allowed to become dry or nearly so,
before the second is applied. (4) Great care is required (a) to
obtain a continuous film of coating, (6) to fill all corners, recesses and
depressions, (c) to leave the final surface roughened, yet coated,
if a plaster or mortar coat is to be applied directly on the film, (d)
not to injure the film in applying these coats, and (e) not to expose
the applied material unduly.
Straight-run coal-tar products are often and successfully used
in the surface-coating system of waterproofing. For example, in
protecting abutments and retaining walls from disintegration due
to their natural permeability, various dampproofing bitumens are
successfully and cheaply made and applied, of common creosote oil
and coal-tar pitch. The creosote oil is applied first and penetrates
the wall to a degree depending on its quality and the density of the
masonry, and this is followed by at least two moppings of the coal-
tar pitch. In some instances where the concrete is very porous, a
third and fourth mopping may be required in order that the entire
surface may be well- covered. Dull spots on the surface are evi-
dence that the pitch has only penetrated into the pores of the con-
crete but the outer surface is not completely coated. A mixture
of coal-tar and powdered slate of the consistency of molasses is often
used for similar purposes. Occasionally, a 2 or 3-ply felt- and pitch-
membrane is applied to such structures.
Instead of the tar products, refined asphalts of good grade may
be also used. Where a first or priming coat is required, and it is
practically always advisable to apply one, this usually consists of
asphalt diluted in naphtha or gasolene. Of course, both the pitch
and asphalt must be of a consistency and melting-point to withstand
the local climate or special condition of the work. Either of these
materials will be benefited by a protective coat of some form, especi-
ally when this waterproofing is in the form of a felt or fabric mem-
brane. A bituminous paste composed of chinawood oil, asbestos
and pine tar is well adapted for such and similar purposes, but its
consistency and appUcation must be carefully watched. Coating the
surface with boiled linseed oil until the oil ceases to be absorbed is
another method that has been used with success. In Chapter IX
are to be found various formulae of compounds usable for damp-
proofing and waterproofing purposes.
Membrane System of Waterproofing

Definition, Purpose and Development. The membrane system
of waterproofing refers to: (1) a built-up, elastic, continuous bitumi-
nous blanket or membrane composed of one or more layers of water-
■ proofing felt or fabric cemented together with asphajt or coal-tar
pitch, and which more or less completely surrounds the structure
waterproofed; (2) metal linings, which usually also constitute an
integral part of the structure, as in steel-plate or ring tunnel
tubes* wherein the ipetal lining is protected within and without by-
masonry. (3) Any method or material which permits the more or less
complete enveloping of a structure to prevent the passage of water
through its exterior parts, but which is itself not in direct contact
with the water, that is, which is itself protected by some other cover-
ing. Such protective covering may be of concrete, vitrified hollow
tile, or brick in cement mortar and sometimes a layer of mastic.
The purpose of the membrane system of waterproofing is princi-
pally to waterproof structures in course of erection, particularly those
below ground surface, such as subways, tunnels and building founda-
tions; but it applies equally well to retaining walls, arches, reser-
voirs, etc. It is not so well adapted to the waterproofing of structures
already erected or to remedy leaky conditions developing subsequent
to erection, owing to the fact that the membrane must be appUed
to the outside of the structure, thereby usually necessitating con-
siderable excavation.
In the very earliest times, asphalt was used simply as a surface
coating, that is, to serve as dampproofing. In this condition it was
not well adapted to resist water pressure, even when placed between
two masonry surfaces. To overcome this defect, fibrous paper was
introduced between these surfaces, with a coating of bitumen on
either side. For greater water pressures, the number of plies of
paper was increased, each being coated with bitijmen as applied.
Paper was gradually superseded by waterproofing felt; this was
largely composed of rag and wool, or pulp. The wool variety of
felt has had until comparatively recent times a very extensive use,
but because of the unreliable quality of wool purchasable now, and
to an extent, its high cost, rag felt and pulp felt are now more com-
monly used. These felts are now in sharp competition with cotton
and jute fabric. Commercially, refined asphalt and coal-tar pitch
have been used for a long time in connection with the treatment of
paper, felt, jute and cotton fabric, and also as a binder for forming
waterproofing membranes of these materials. Now there is some-
times incorporated in these bitumens mineral fillers, such as shredded
asbestos for instance, for the purpose of increasing their plas-
ticity and substantiality
Applying the felt or fabric membrane to a structure calls for
certain precautions which can ill afford to be neglected. These pre-
* Metal linings or castings may be used anywhere, but especially where
great stresses are anticipated or where it is practically impossible to apply the
ordinary membrane. This type of construction, however, requires special
design for each case.
cautions are embodied in three fundamental requirements to be care-
fully observed in order to insure good waterproofing by the membrane
system. These are (1) surface preparation; (2) continuity of
membrane; (3) protection of membrane.
Surface Preparation Prior to AppUcation of Membrane. It is
impossible to make a bituminous sheet adhere properly to a wet or
rough masonry surface, but it is advisable to make it adhere to what-
ever surface it is applied. The surface to be waterproofed should,
therefore, be prepared by chipping all projections and smoothing off
with mortar and trowel all depressions; cleaned by sweeping or
scraping off all foreign matter of whatever nature; dried (when water-
proofing must proceed during rainy weather, or before the concrete
has completely dried after setting), by heating the surface, if not
large, with a gasohne torch, by burning gasoline on the surface to
be waterproofed, or by employing salamanders; or again, by pro-
viding a temporary drainage system that will keep the surface dry
during the application of the waterproofing. If these measures are
impracticable or insufficient, then one or two plies of felt, with the
first laid dry, that is, without a bituminous binder on the under side,
and nailed to or against the wet surface, if necessary, will create a
dry area for the application of the waterproofing proper. Where it
is difficult or impossible to apply this dry-ply, as on arches of tunnels,
a thin sheet metal lining nailed to the. masonry, or a cold apphcation
of asphalt dissolved in naphtha, or a reasonably thick plaster coat
of neat cement or mortar, provides a dry surface on which to start
waterproofing. Of course the concrete in all cases must be thoroughly
set before any waterproofing is applied. As an illustration of how
such problems are met in practice, may be cited the following
instance.
In building the east face of the south Manhattan shafts of the
Pennsylvania Railroad tunnels,* preparations were made to place
the felt and coal-tar pitch waterproofing in the ordinary way, but
it soon became necessary to drain away water that was running down
over the face of the wall from the exposed rock above. To accom-
plish this a drain was constructed on the face of the wall near its
top. This consisted of a strip of tin set in a ridge of plaster of Paris
stuck on the face of the wall. The drain had a slight grade down-
ward. It answered the purpose very well, allowing the wall to
dry out below the drain. This type of drain was found useful at
many points, because it could be applied quickly and at small
cost.
* Transactions, American Society Civil Engineers, Vol. 69, p. 80.
34 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERINC
Necessity of Continuity of Membrane. Continuity of the mem-
brane is more important than the preparation of the surface to be
waterproofed, for it is not always necessary to make the membrane
adhere to a surface as long as the sharp projections have been removed
and a reasonably smooth surface obtained; but lack of continuity
creates a condition directly opposed to the purpose of waterproofing;
for water will find the break, large or small, percolate through it,
and be a source of annoyance at first and danger at last.
The continuity of a waterproofing membrane may best be secured
by breaking joints systematically and leaving sufficient lap to form
a good connection with the adjoining section. In applying the
bituminous binder it is necessary to avoid blowholes, " dryspots,"
and other common defects. But these dangers are partly obviated
by the very method of building up a membrane (see Fig. 14). In
using either felt, fabric or cotton drill for this purpose, such defects
will be greatly reduced by lightly pressing into the hot binder, which,
incidentally, prevents " kinks " and also insures better adhesion
between successive plies as well as to the original surface. Where
the fabric is of the open mesh variety, the formation of air pockets
between successive plies is automatically prevented, and pressing
it into the binder will insure the filling up of all the interstices of the
fabric.
Where a connection is made between a wall and roof of a structure,
the lap should be about 1 foot wide. The successive plies of the
membranous mat forming the lap on the wall should be interwoven
with those of the roof mat and stuck fast against the side of the wall
with binder. In joining the floor membrane with that on the wall,
the latter should be interwoven as shown in Fig. 9A, with the lap
ends of the floor membrane turned up an amount depending upon
local conditions, but never less than 6 inches.
One of the most important matters in regard to the continuity
of the waterproofing membrane, and one requiring careful attention,
is the joining of new work to old. The old waterproofed surfaces,
or the old laps, should be cleaned of all foreign matter, and, where
necessary, softened by heating, as explained in " Surface Prepara-
tion." Such laps should receive a coat of bituminous material
before the new strips of fabric are applied and pressed down
as previously explained. Where possible, a mesh joint should
be made of the laps of the old and new fabric as the plies are laid up.
After long exposure of a portion of a membrane or its end lap, as
on an uncompleted portion of work, the felt or fabric may have
deteriorated or have been torn off. It is absolutely necessary to
35
provide sufficient lap width to properly join the old and new water-
proofing; hence the safest expedient is to recoat the membrane with
a thick binder film in the first instance, and to cut back at least 6
inches of the concrete or other masonry to secure sufficient lap in
the second instance.
<?^?^3<^(3S^?J^S^^^^<5^S^^^
DURING PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION

A
4 '^^MXi?^kiim¥s^;i?my&0$i
WALL ALREADY IN PLACE

B
Fig. 9. — Methods of Applying Membrane Waterproofing to Walls and Footings.
Protection of Membrane. The third fundamental requirement

of the membrane system of waterproofing is the protection of the
membrane during construction, but more particularly after. During
construction the waterproofing membrane may be injured by the
workmen carelessly throwing about iron tools which sometimes
puncture the membrane. The placing of temporary struts on the
membrane may have a similar effect. Dumping of bricks and the
unrestricted hauling of material, or walking on the membrane is
particularly harmful to its continuity. A waterproofing membrane
applied to vertical masonry tends to sag and produce a rippled
surface, especially in warm weather or when a particularly soft
binder is used. In fact, no bituminous membrane, no matter how
well applied or what binder is used, will stand up completely intact
without support of some sort under such conditions.
After construction the waterproofing membrane may be injured
by the impact of stones in the backfilling material, or by the large
aggregate in the protective concrete if this is deposited from an
undue height; or by bulging and running of the bituminous material
due to heat, or cracking and chipping due to cold. Where there is
any considerable hydrostatic pressure behind the membrane it may
be perforated in a weak spot, or where a slight bulge or " ripple "
has occurred in it, the added weight of the water on the bulge may
drag the membrane down.
A- serious menace to bituminous membranes surrounding under-
ground structures arises from leaks in gas mains and sewers in city
streets. All gas mains collect a kind of a pungent oil called gas-drip,
which frequently comes out of leaky joints in the mains, saturating
the ground over considerable areas. This oil will, in a comparatively
short time destroy a portion of a waterproofing membrane by dis-
solving the bituminous binder, and, where felt is used, turn it into
a soft, mushy and worthless material. Then again the membrane
may be attacked by lubricating oil and other solvents from leaks in
underground pipes or from machinery, as for example, where switch
pits for surface railroads are in close proximity to the waterproofing
of the structure.
Nearly all sewers, besides carrying sewage (which is sometimes
acidulated and sometimes alkaline), carry steam and other gases,
and where leaks occur, which happen quite often, the ground becomes
saturated over a considerable area. The deleterious effect on the
membrane in this instance is quite the same as in the case of gas-drip
or oil, but not so marked.
Again, if a membrane is injured in any way, then the worst and
perhaps the only serious drawback of the membrane system of
waterproofing is encountered. The leak in the membrane is usually
inaccessible from the outside without costly excavation, and cannot
be gotten at on the inside except by removing considerable masonry.
But what is still worse, it is almost impossible to tell where to begin
excavation or tearing out the inner masonry, due to the fact that
water is likely to travel a long way between the membrane and the
wall so that the location of the leak or leaks on the inside may be as
much as 150 feet from the injury in the membrane. This, incidentally,
37
emphasizes the need for making the membrane adhere to the

structure.
To avoid possible injuries to the membrane during construction
due to the causes mentioned above, temporary protection should be
provided according to circumstances; for example, on the floor
of a structure, by laying a gang-plank or enclosing the area with
an improvised board fence; or if on a wall, by bracing strips of
wood against it, especially to hold up the loose lap of the membrane
and not allow it to dangle. Other expedients will suggest themselves
as the need arises; the important thing to remember is that any
properly designed protection will greatly minimize the above dangers.
After construction there should be placed on or against the water-
proofing a protective coat of metal at the most vulnerable points.
2 Layers of Brick
Id Asphalt Mastic
UWM::^ 18 I
•1- -;-.■^«'^. ■■-■"■
nil I
mil
I!'! I
II
Fig. 10. — Roof of Ventilating Chamber Waterproofed with Sheet Lead Membrane.
and a protective coat of cement mortar or concrete, 2 to 4 inches
thick, over the rest of the waterproofing. Fig. 10 shows one way
of avoiding these dangers, by substituting a sheet lead trough
for the regular waterproofing between a sewer and the top of a bay
over a subway ventilating chamber. The protective concrete
should preferably be reinforced, though this is not always necessary.
A course or two of bricks, or a wall of fiat or hollow terra-cotta tile
are also good protective mediums. On horizontal surfaces, the
hollow terra-cotta tile should not be used. The 3- or 4-inch concrete
protective coat is the best in most instances because it is the least
pervious. But in all cases the protective medium should be com-
plete and cover every inch of membrane, and not as shown in Fig.
11 or Fig. 12A. Fortunately engineers are fast learning the folly
of such malpractices as are depicted in these illustrations.
38
Then again, in protecting waterproofing membranes or surface

coatings, insufiicient consideration is often given to the end laps.
Yet it is no less important and necessary to protect the ends than
the rest of the membrane or surface coating.' It should also be
observed that in placing the protecting covering of whatever material,
it is of primary importance not to make water seams of construction
joints; in other words, joints in protective coverings or layers should
be made to offer the greatest resistance to the passage of water.
A case in point is well illustrated and self-explained in Fig. 12
wherein the conditions referred to here are manifested in a striking
- Exposed Membrane
Fig. 11.— Application of Waterproofing Membrane with InsuflBcient Protective

Coating.
way on a very important work. The improved methods of pro-

tecting such ends are simple, easily constructed in the field, and
cheap from every point of view. A waterproofing membrane of any
material or a surface coating of bituminous material will last very
much longer and render better service when properly protected.
In fact, even a 1-inch mortar coat is remarkably effective in this
direction, and is sometimes used even on bridge floors. But, in
general, for railroad bridges, whi(jh are subject to considerable
vibration, a sheet mastic of about this thickness is preferable.
It is best to place the protective medium not later than one or
two days after the waterproofing is completed. Where concrete
constitutes the protective medium, it should be poured from the
bystemS of waterProomng
S9
least height possible, as depicted in Fig. 13. Also, in depositing

heavy backfill on or against such a comparatively thin layer of
concrete, care and judgment must be exercised not to break or
SHOWING WRONG METHODS OF IMPROVED METHODS OF

FINISHING OFF WATERPROOFING PROTECTING WATERPROOFING ENDS
4, ^Concrete ,Wate^r^ô ofingC ^°*^ Qverlappipg of protective concrete^
Line indicated T 1
on drawings .__jV
Line actually // \*
worked to in ^ / \
the field.
Note constmc— -^
tion joint.
M.H.W,
Alternate method of
impeding water which
may enter construction
joints by lowering con-
dtructioQ joint at leaet
to the depth of one brick .
Brick in Asphalt Maatio

■ 1 Ply Waterproofing
-Concrete
Fig. 12.-Good and Bad Practice in Membrane and Brick-in-mastic Water-
proofing.
crush it. A practical and instructive illustration of this danger
is given in the following instance: . „ ., , rr i
On the New York Terminal of the Pennsylvania Railroad Tunnel
Extension, the protective cover over the waterproofing membrane
was designed to be of plain concrete from 5 to 6 mches thick. As
long as the backfilling was kept well back of the completed work
40
and was stepped off in bench formation, the plain concrete cover
served its purpose; but in one case, when the backfiUing was advanced
in bank formation close upon the completed construction work,
the concrete cover broke and the waterproofing was damaged,
requiring the removal of much backfilling to effect proper repairs.
After this occurrence, the cover was reinforced with wire cloth and no
further trouble was experienced.
Methods of Applying Membrê Waterproofing. In applying the
membrane to any masonry surface, the latter is first mopped with
bitumen, then the first strip of felt or fabric is unrolled thereon,
tightly stretched, smoothed, and pressed into the film of bitumen.
This strip is best made continuous over the width or length of the
Fig. 13. — Height from which Protective Concrete Should be Poured on Water-
proofing Membrane.
structure where possible. In this " continuous type " the second
strip is laid to break joint with the first in a manner depending upon
the number of plies usod. The various methods of building up a
waterproofing membrane are shown in Fig. 14. The portion of each
strip of fabric to be lapped should be carefully mopped as the next
strip is laid over it. When several strips have thus been laid, the
second ply is similarly laid, then the third, fourth, fifth and sixth
plies, as required. As each strip is laid or applied, it is important
to seethat no kinks have formed at the lap joints, for this leaves an
opening for water to enter either between or under the membrane.
The top ply should always be mopped completely over the entire
surface, leaving no bare spots or other imperfections. See Table
XXXII for the number of plies necessary to resist various heads of
water up to 42 feet.
SYSTEMS OP WATERPROOFING
41
LAYER TYPE
CONTINUOUS TYPE
One Ply
Two Ply
Three Ply
Four Ply
Five Ply
Six Ply
COURSE TYPE
One Ply
Two Ply
Three Ply
STAGGERED TYPE
Six Ply
Fig. 14.— Four Methods of Building up Waterproofing Membrane. Applicable
to either Felt or Fabric,
42
Making Membrane Mats. Where it is impossible to build up

the membrane directly on any part of a structure, due to physical
obstructions, a mat of the required number of phes may be laid
up and completely formed in any convenient place and applied as
noted below. This mat is best made as follows: The required
length of felt or fabric is rolled out on some clean surface, and the
top surface of the strip mopped; then the second strip is placed
thereon, breaking joint at the one-third, one-sixth or other portion
of the width of the lower strip, depending upon the number of plies
required. After mopping the second strip, the third is applied,
making an equal lap with the second strip, and so on. The completed
mat then receives a top coat of bitumen and is applied on the work
in a manner similar to applying separate strips of fabric; that is,
i_i
Single 3-Plj' Mat before Laying

~ PLAN
J_L
>K l' > l ^ 1' >l
t-;^--'-'^-- •■■■■■■' ■;■■■ -. ■- -^Concrete SurfaoS:

SECTION A-A
SECTION,
Fig. 15. — Method of Making Membrane Mats.
the concrete surface is first mopped to receive the mat. Each mat
should lap over the membrane and other mats already in place, at
least 4 inches (see Fig. 15). In no case should the mats be placed
so that the membrane formed has less than the specified number of
plies in the membrane proper. All exposed joints must receive a
final mopping and be made as smooth as possible. When a portion
of the structure being waterproofed is on a gradient, care should be
exercised in making and applying the mats so that the joints lap
each other in the direction of the down grade of the structure. This
precaution applies as well to the application of any built-up mem-
brane, whether vertically or horizontally applied.
Connecting New and Old Membranes. Joints form the weakest
part of a membrane; therefore too much care cannot be exercised
in making a joint between an old and new membrane by a proper
lap. Joints should be so made as to form as little bulge in the
membrane as possible, but no butt joints should be used on any form
of waterproofing. Laps exposed for any length of time should be
carefully examined for any defects before connecting up, and where
any defects or insufficient lap areas are found, the concrete or other
masonry should be cut back sufficiently to give a proper lap between
the sound membrane in place and the new work. Laps should not
be less than 4 inches wide for each strip of fabric, or in any case not
less than a total of 1 foot.
Timbers and temporary struts interfering with the proper apphca-
tion of waterproofing membranes present peculiar difficulties, and
their locations require very careful worlananship and close inspec-
tion. The best method to insure the proper and complete water-
proofing of the holes left by the removal or shifting of such false
timbering, especially when they are located in poorly illumined
and cramped areas, is as follows: All posts, struts or other tem-
porarj^ supports, whether on a floor or roof, or against a wall, should
be shifted so as to avoid breaking the continuity of the membrane,
otherwise holes are left not waterproofed. Where it is impossible
to so shift these posts and holes must be left in the membrane, then
it is necessary to paint these posts red or white, or otherwise to
distinctly mark them, in order that they may be identified later
when removed and the space occupied by them waterproofed. In
waterproofing the space left by the removal of a post, or other sup-
port, a strip of fabric is cut to a size not merely sufficient to com-
pletely cover the space, but large enough to lap 2 inches on every
side of the waterproofing in place as illustrated in Fig. 16; this total
-area is then mopped and successive phes of fabric are applied in the
usual manner. Each strip should extend with a 2-inch lap over the
one directly underneath it. The entire patch should then be
thoroughly and heavily coated with bitumen. In no case must the
fabric be cut to fit only the space occupied by the opening. Pre-
pared mats fitted into the hole is also poor practice.
Placing Membranes around Projections and in Vicinity of Steam
Pipes. Where pipes or rods project through parts of a structure
that are to receive the membrane waterproofing, it is very important
to make an absolutely watertight joint around these objects. These
joints are best made as follows: As the first ply of felt or fabric is
apphed or laid against the surface, a hole ^should be cut in it. fitting
snugly around the previously cleaned and mopped pipe or other
projection. Then a fairly large strip of felt or fabric, as the case
may be, is placed completely around the object so that half adheres
44
-3i
,.-■
1' ~
P&-
<— 7;(F^
\
to it and the other half slitted radially adheres to the first ply on
the wall or other surface. The successive plies are laid in the same
manner. A finishing ply is then placed covering the slitted fabric
and this plj^ is cut only to allow the pipe to pass through.
Satisfactory and permanent waterproofing in the vicinity of
steam pipes is difficult to obtain. This may be accomplished,
however, by placing a strip of sheet lead of sufficient length and
width, and about |-inch thick, between the waterproofing and the
supporting material of the steam main. It is understood, of course,
that the main itself is first adequately insulated to prevent its radia-
ting heat from affecting the waterproofing. A satisfactory method
for insulating steam pipes is to surround them with a blanket of ten
or twenty plies of untreated asbestos felt, encasing this with large
semi-sections of vitrified sewer tiles, and packing the space between
the two with coarse asbestos fiber. The whole must be well sup-
ported on concrete or vitrified two- or four-way tile ducts or other
suitable non-conductive material, all depending on the size of the
steam main, location and worldng conditions.
The above expositions are general. Modifications will often be
necessary on such structures as railroad bridge floors, reservoirs and
buildings, but the fundamental principles are the same. Hence,
it is not necessary to consider here how each kind of structure is to
be waterproofed. The main point to remember in regard to all
types of waterproofing and all manner of structures is to suit the
waterproofing to the structure, taking all local conditions in to con-
sideration, including climate, purpose and type of structure. In
the majority of cases, it may here be noted, successful and durable
waterproofing depends not only on conscientious labor, but more
particularly on expert supervision.
Use of Special Membranes. A modification of the usual long-
strip, built-up, elastic type of membrane consists of a membrane
made up of small, square layers of cotton fabric,* thoroughly satu-
rated and heavily coated on both sides with a suitable bitumen
and often with a special, that is, a proprietary bituminous compound.
The cotton fabric commonly used has a thread count of 66 by 44 per
square inch, weighing about 4f ounces per square yard. When
treated, the fabric has an average thickness of i inch, and weighs
about 4i pounds per square yard. The operation of saturating
and coating the strips of fabric is done in the field immediately
adjacent to the work because the compound used must possess
considerable adhesiveness so as to stick well to the apphed surface
* Developed in 1907 by Oscar Sheffield, and in practical use since 1909.
46
and to itself when lapped to form the membrane, hence it is imprac-

ticable to handle the finished sheets between the factory and the
field work.
The treated sheets, which are best handled when about 1 yard
square, are laid over the surface to be waterproofed with not less
than a 2-inch lap. The laps are then sealed with a hot smoothing
iron to insure perfect adhesion, after which they are recoated with
an additional layer of the bituminous compound. The membrane
is laid so as to be continuous and unbroken over the entire area
waterproofed. See Fig. 17. The protective masonry is then applied
as on the built-up membrane.
Fig. 17. — Applying Treated Cutton Fabric.
Any good quality of cotton or jute fabric is suitable for this type
of membrane, but only a strongly adhesive, tough and elastic
bitumen, and one that will remain plastic at all seasons, can be used
satisfactorily for this purpose. At the present time only one pro-
prietary compound is extensively used for this modified membrane.
This compound consists of several hydrocarbons, each possessing
different phj^sical properties but mixed in proportions to secure the
desired consistency.
Considerations for Selecting Membrane Reinforcement. The
following question often arises in waterproofing design: What
reinforcing material is best adajited for the membrane system of
waterproofing? In other words, is treated felt, jute fabric or cotton
drill to be preferred, and under what conditions or for what types of
Structures is each best suited? This can best be j udged and answered
from experience. Felt was used extensively on the old Manhattan
subways in New York City, in the form of a membrane composed
of six pUes of felt and seven coatings of asphalt, surrounding the
structure like an envelope. But it has not given entire satisfaction
apparently because this type of membrane has insufficient tensile
strength, so that when cracks developed in the concrete shell, it too
would break somewhere. Had this membrane been reinforced
with two or three plies of jute or cotton fabric, this fault would not
be operative in producing leaks. Then again, the felt in the mem-
brane forms a stratified sheet with as many laminations as there are
plies used. This creates many surfaces where water may creep
along under certain conditions, and cause damage. Its close texture
also prevents the escape of entrained air during its application,
which tends to create air pockets between the plies. Besides, there
is also present the capillary action of the felt fibers, though this is
not peculiar to felt alone. It has, however, a very extensive and
successful use on all manner of structures notwithstanding, and is
cheaper per unit of area than either cotton or jute fabric.
Jute fabric, on the other hand, such as was used on the new
Dual Subways in New York, also in the form of a membrane (com-
posed of three to six plies of fabric with from four to seven coatings
of coal-tar pitch), has thus far given entire satisfaction, and apparently
for the following reasons: The fabric being of the open-mesh variety
(and only such was used), permits the bonding of successive plies,
thus forming a unit-membrane of bituminous material with the
fabric acting as so much reinforcement. The open mesh automati-
cally prevents the formation of air pockets between the plies. This
fabric has considerable tensile strength and can easily stretch, with-
out tearing, over ordinary cracks. This allows the bitumen to heal
on favorable occasions. There is also somewhat more bitumen
present in this membrane than is ordinarily present in a felt mem-
brane of an equal number of plies. Tests by the author have proven
that jute fabric can be thoroughly saturated and coated with either
asphalt or coal-tar pitch, and when so treated is well preserved
against decay. It is from 50 to 100 per cent more expensive than
treated felt.
On some construction work raw burlap has been used (that is,
burlap not treated), but such practice is open to the following
objections: The hot bituminous binder applied to it in the field
cannot properly saturate it, neither is the workmanship in the field
always conducive towards such accomplishment, if that were at all
48 WATERPROOFING EiSTGINEERING
possible. And without proper treatment, the jute fabric will be
comparatively short-lived, especially if exposed in the earth with
insufficient binder; but this is equally true of the felts and cotton
fabric.
The use of treated cotton drill is undoubtedly very good for
membrane waterproofing, especially if it is strong and well-treated.
In fact, its use is only prohibitive on account of its relatively high
cost when compared with either treated felt or jute fabric, especially
in view of the fact that the latter is not less efficient in any regard.
All are vegetable products and therefore require equally thorough
saturation. The cost of the cotton drill, which is at least double
that of jute fabric and quadruple that of treated felt, also because a
more or less laminated sheet rather than a reinforced unit membrane
is formed, especially with the ordinary variety of close-woven
cotton fabric, suggests that it be given preference only after careful
economic consideration. Saturated cotton drill has been used quite
extensively on the Boston subways, and, except for some few leaks
that have developed, has given reasonable satisfaction. The very
best and most efficient type of membrane is one composed of treated
fabric, with small (in size and numbe'r) open mesh, united with a
uniformly thick bituminous binder. However, for ordinary purposes
and for rigid structures, felt is entirely serviceable. ■
Storing and Unrolling Felt and Fabric. All waterproofing mate-
rials are injured by improper storage and usage, particularly the
felts and fabrics. Fabric and felt are delivered on the work in rolls
usually wound on wooden cores (for types of cores see Fig. 82), from
100 to 150 yards in length and in varying widths from 32 to 50
inches, the 42-inch fabric and 36-inch felt being most common. The
rolls should be stored in a dry place, and in warm weather the fabric
rolls must not be stood on ends. The most satisfactory way is to
pile the rolls not more than 2 or 3 feet high, so as to insure uniform
bearing along their length, and never to pile them criss-cross. As
it is possible to wind felt much tighter than fabric rolls, they may be
stored lying down or standing up. In all cases, both materials
should be protected from the weather and from heat at all times.
^ Due to improper storing, fabric rolls become distorted and other-
wise injured, and are therefore often difficult to unwind, resulting
in tearing the fabric. Distortion is a defect which tends to create
" waves," which persist when the roll is unwound and tend to
occlude air in the membrane. Torn or badly wrinkled fabric should
not be used. The surface on which the felt or fabric is unrolled
preparatory to its use in the membrane should be clean.
Precautions When Heating Coal-tar Pitch and Asphalt. Where
coal-tar pitch is used as the binder for membrane waterproofing, it
should be heated gradually up to the proper consistency for applica-
tion. This is usually at a temperature between 250 and 350 deg.
Fahr. (121 and 149 deg. Cent.) for a coal-tar pitch with a melting-
point between 115 and 125 deg. Fahr. (46 and 51.6 deg. Cent.).
Where asphalt is used, it too should be heated gradually, but its
working temperature is higher, hence it may be heated to a tem-
perature between 300 and 350 deg. Fahr. (149 and 177 deg. Cent.).
Having reached the proper temperatures, the fire should be banked.
Heating a 50-gallon kettle full of coal-tar pitch or asphalt to the
required temperature for application, by means of a wood fire,
should take not less than three to four hours, for the pitch, while in
the case of asphalt heat may be applied more rapidly, but should
take not less than two to three hours. A more violent heating in
either case destroys these materials, especially the coal-tar pitch.
The danger of overheating, burning or coking (particularly the
pitch) is constantly present, and cannot be too strongly guarded
against. One way to prevent overheating is to stir the pitch occa-
sionally during the melting process, and frequently after it has melted
until it is all used. Overheating is preceded by the rising of excessive
fumes of a Hght bluish tinge. Burning is indicated by the rising of
yellow fumes from the surface of the pitch. The odor or cackling
sound is not an indication of the condition of the bitumen. Neither
is the practice of sticking a piece of wood into the molten bitumen a
real indication of its degree of heat or of its condition. Coking the
pitch is indicated by the formation of a more or less thin crust or
coating on the bottom and sides of the melting kettle.
When by accident or otherwise the pitch is slightly burned,
new pitch should be mixed with it before using, and, if badly burned,
the pitch should not be used at all. It is very essential to the " life "
of the pitch not to subject it to prolonged heating, even at a low
temperature, as this drives off some of the volatile oils which are a
valuable constituent of the pitch. The best practice is to heat
only sufficient material for one day's use.
Asphalt, though not as readily affected by heat as coaUar pitch,
also requires in its use the observance of the above rules. The burnt
condition becomes manifest by the rise of blue fumes from the sur-
face of the asphalt, and when this happens, the fire should immediately
be extinguished, and additional asphalt put into the- kettle. If
the heat has been excessive and protracted, and if the blue fumes
have been excessive and constant for more than an hour, the asphalt
should not be used, because it will undoubtedly have changed or
lost some of its properties. The effects of prolonged heating are
inversely proportional to the natural hardness of the bitumen.
Precautions should always be taken against fire in the heating
kettles, and if one starts water must not be used to extinguish it.
As the temperature of the pitch or asphalt during use is far above
the boiling-point of water, the result of throwing on water may be
serious. Fires may best be put out by the use of sand or steam.
As pitch and asphalt hold heat for a considerable time, the workmen
should be warned of the danger of being burned by these materials.
Whenever it becomes necessary to transport bitumen, as when the
particular waterproofing job is beyond a 500-foot radius from the
location of the heating kettles (which is quite common on large
construction work), small portable kettles are used for transporting
the pitch or asphalt. The same precautions must be taken to avoid
burning and coking the bitumen in these kettles as was previously
explained for the stationary heating kettles. Where the bitumen
is carried in buckets, it is best not to allow these to stand more than a
few minutes before using, as the temperature falls rapidly and the
material thickens. This condition prevents uniform spreading
when the bitumen is mopped on the felt or fabric in making the
membrane.
Proper Use of Kettles and Fuel when Heating Pitch or Asphalt.
Coal-tar pitch and asphalt have no serviceable affinity in water-
proofing by the membrane or sheet-mastic systems. Their mixture
produces a product which resembles putty in some of its physical
properties, except when the amount present of one or the other
does not exceed 5 per cent. Hence the heating kettles should not
be alternated; i.e., kettles used for melting pitch should not be used
for melting asphalt or making mastic, and vice versa. Where kettles
must so be used, it is necessary to clean them, especially where either
material has caked on the sides and bottom of the kettles, as often
happens. In fact it is good practice to thoroughly clean the heating
and mastic-mixing kettles, portable kettles and pails not less than
once a week even though their use was intermittent. Kettles
encrusted with bitumen or mastic require more fuel and time for
heating the contents. The life of the kettle is also reduced by
the presence of caked bitumen or mastic.
The easiest obtainable and cheapest fuel for heating kettles is
discarded construction timber. Staves of asphalt or pitch barrels
are objectionable on account of the unbearable volumes of smoke
they produce. Much trouble and a public nuisance would be avoided
if there was a law prohibiting their use in city streets. Cord wood
is the best to use, because with it a smouldering fire may be main-
tained for a long time. This keeps the bituminous material hot
without burning it.
Differentiating between Coal-tar Pitch and Asphalt in the Field.
Engineers unfamiliar with bitumen find it difficult to distinguish
between coal-tar pitch and asphalt, consequently, mistakes some-
times occur by using one for the other. Asphalt may be a product
of asphaltic petroleum, a refined natural asphalt or a mixture of
both. Coal-tar pitch is a product of the destructive distillation
of coal in the manufacture of coke or illuminating gas. The follow-
ing characteristics will aid in identifying each on the work. Asphalt,
when newly cut, is a bright, lustrous black. It has a pungent and
somewhat rancid odor and taste. With the apphcation of heat of
equal intensity, it requires longer heating than coal-tar pitch to be
brought to the samB Uquid condition or equal temperature. When
asphalt burns without flame its fumes are decidedly blue. Coal-
tar pitch, when newly cut, is somewhat of a dull black and more
brittle, as compared to asphalt. It has an aromatic taste and odor,
which is characteristic of pitch only. When coal-tar pitch burns
without flame, its fumes are a dense, greenish yellow. The safest
and most advisable thing to do where both materials are used on
the same work is to require the manufacturers to mark or label the
containers, so as to make identification easy and certain.
Coal-tar Pitch Versus Asphalt for Waterproofing. Whether
asphalt or coal-tar pitch is to be preferred for membrane water-
proofing is still a mooted question. No doubt, for certain special
uses, as for instance, where the temperature varies widely, the
asphalt is a preferable material because it remains soft and workable
through wide temperature ranges; if the temperature varies but
little, as it often does in underground work, straight-run coal-tar
pitch will give better results on account of its greater chemical
stability But on general construction work, a good quality of
either material is equally serviceable, the prevalent contrary view
among engineers notwithstanding. The author's experience has led
him to the conclusion that certain brands of asphalt now on the
market are even to be preferred to some grades of pitch, for this
reason: The asphalts (all too few, though) as now refined, have
been constantly improving in quality, while coal-tar pitch did not
keep pace. In fact, in the last decade or so, on account o the
increasing value and importance of the by-products from coal tar,
and due to the keen competition in the waterproofing field, the
quality of pitch has materially suffered. Where the quahty of
pitch or asphalt can be controlled or ascertained and verified, how-
ever, their preference for waterproofing purposes, assuming the con-
sistency to be right for the climate or local requirement, becomes a
question of cost. The heretofore superiority of pitch was due to the
fact that asphalt was often produced as a by-product in oil refineries.
Now the practice is being reversed, hence the improved quality of
asphalt now available. But of course, good straight-run coal-
tar pitch is also available. The point to remember is that both
materials, if of good and certified quality, are practically equally
serviceable, with the exception noted above with regard to
adaptability.
Mastic System op Waterproofing
Definition, Purpose and Development. The mastic system of
waterproofing consists of (1) the application of sheet mastic (com-
posed of asphalt or coal-tar pitch, sand, grit and cement or stone
dust), in the form of a comparatively thin layer, which more or less
surrounds the structure to be waterproofed; (2) a brick-in-mastic
or tile-in-mastic layer composed of a course or two of bricks or tile,
the joints being filled and all faces covered with a bituminous mastic,
the course or courses covering the structure below ground-water level.
The sheet mastic varies between J inch and 2 inches in thickness;
the brick-in-mastic varies between 2^ inches and 8 inches in thick-
ness. The brick-in-mastic layer, being between five and eight times
as thick as a 3- or 6-ply membrane, and from four to five times as
thick as the sheet mastic, is usually used where great water pressure
exists. It is the most dependable system of waterproofing, though
also the most expensive. In underground construction where head-
room is a factor, or in general where insufficient space exis'ts for the
application of one or two courses of brick-in-mastic, and where
sheet mastic cannot be used, as for instance, on sidewalls of subsur-
face structures a fabric membrane of from 4 to 8 plies is usually sub-
stituted. A felt membrane of an equal number of plies should be
used only when reinforced with 1 ply of fabric for at least each 3 plies
of felt. This precaution is not necessary, however, on very rigid
structures, or where expansion joints properly distributed in the
structure, are provided.
Almost simultaneously with the development of the fabric
membrane went the development of the sheet mastic and the brick-
in-mastic layers. Originally, a coating of mastic (composed of rock
asphalt, fluxed to the proper consistency) between | and li inches
thick, was used mainly on horizontal surfaces.* In an effort to
increase the depth and weight of this coating for waterproofing
purposes, both on horizontal and against vertical surfaces, bricks
or tiles were introduced between thinner layers of mastic. Finally,
even the brick joints were filled with mastic, resulting in the present
day brick-in-mastic layer or envelope. Where this scheme is used
for waterproofing, the materials are always incased between concrete
or other masonry surfaces.
Appljring Mastic Waterproofing. Sheet mastic for waterproofing
is mostly used on railroad bridges though it has been employed on
utiderground construction. It is most extensively used as a water-
proof floor for buildings and railroad stations. Sheet mastic is,
however, subject to abuse in its manufacture and application. For
instance, the quantities of the various mineral ingredients might be
poorly proportioned, resulting in a mastic that is too soft or too
hard; the quantity of bitumen might be insufficient to give good
cohesiveness and elasticity to the mastic. The sheet mastic might
be apphed without sufficient precautions to prevent cracks produced
by movement due to temperature changes especially over large
areas. While the particular purpose in hand should always be
considered in proportioning of the ingredients for making sheet
mastic, still the following general directions should be adhered
to: the bitumen and the sand should each be not less than 10 per
cent of the finished mastic; the fine mineral dust, whether limestone
dust or cement, should be not less than 45 per cent, and the grit
not more than 30 per cent of the finished mastic; the remaining 5
per cent is sufficient, if carefully apportioned, to take care of any
special requirements of the mastic.
When serving onlj' as a waterproofing medium, sheet mastic
must be continuous over the surface to which it is applied, but its
abutting extremities must not be relied on to make a watertight
connection with steel or concrete without special provision being
made to obtain such a condition. This may be accomplished by a
cove finish of the ends or by the use of an adhesive, plastic joint filler.
Often sheet mastic is used in conjunction with other systems of water-
proofing as, for example, to cover a felt or fabric membrane. With
due precautions in its application, sheet mastic constitutes a good
* The use of sheet mastic (or sheet asphalt as it is popularly called) dates back
to 1838, when it was used to make sidewalks in Paris. It was made of a bitu-
minous limestone from Seyssel and Valde Travers, and since then nearly all
European asphalt paving has been done with this asphaltic limestone.
64 Waterproofing ENGiNEEJiiNGt
waterproofing medium, comparable to the briek-in-mastic system.
Sheet mastic can be made to withstand shock and vibration without
cracking by introducing a wire mesh or cloth reinforcement between
equal thicknesses of mastic forming the layer. It is much cheaper
than brick-in-mastic, but is not as generally applicable.
Compared to felt or fabric membranes, the use of brick-in-mastic
to waterproof a structure is more costly, and its application often
more difficult and more exacting. The reason for this is that the
amount of labor necessary for preparing the mastic and laying the
courses to form the envelope about the structure is considerably more,
as also the quantity of material required for equal areas to be cov-
ered, than the bituminous membrane. Figs. 19 and 20 illustrate
some of the difficulties contended with in the apphcation of brick-
in-mastic to an underground structure, such as a subway. The
section in Fig. 18, representative of the construction of the new
Dual Subway in New York City, shows a typical arrangement of the
waterproofing used on this work. The brick-in-mastic, by its sub-
stantial nature, protects the floDr from percolation due to pressure,
and the bituminous membrane protects the roof from seepage of
ground water.
The condition of a structure to be waterproofed is not always
what it should be to receive the envelope of brick-in-mastic, hence
the structure must be made adaptable by artificial means such as
smoothing, drying, cleaning, etc. It may not be feasible to wait
until the concrete dries before applying the briek-in-mastic, or the
weather may make it difficult to obtain a dry surface. Where a
wet or damp surface is unavoi lible, a ply of felt or fabric or a mem-
brane consisting of the two co nbined should be placed thereon and
its surface mopped with asphilt if asphalt mastic is being used, or
with coal-tar pitch is pitch mastic is used. Pools of water and a
decidedly wet concrete should first be made reasonably dry by suit-
able means before this dry ply is laid. But no dependence for water-
proofing is to be placed on any form of dry ply.
The waterproofing mastic is usually brought to the place of
application in portable fire kettles or small pouring pails. The
mastic should not be allowed to stand in these for more than a few
minutes before using. Failure to observe this results in a loss of heat
and uniformity of mixture due to the quick settling of the mineral
aggregate. In any case the mastic should be well stirred before
pouring it on the prepared surface. The carrying pails must be
scraped after each pouring to avoid caking of the mastic on the
bottom by continued settlement. The mastic should always be
55
Bpw '^9^^%^ 0,8 7,0,5
spread out to a uniform and reasonably thick film (about 5 inch)
before laying the bricks therein.
The bricks, whose function is to give a substantial and thick
waterproofing layer, are laid in the mastic so as to be completely
surrounded by a film not less than |-inch thick. In no case should
brick touch brick. A simple method of obtaining good and com-
pletely filled joints around the bricks is to slide each brick into place,
somewhat diagonally and with a slight pressure downward. This
will invariably bring the bed mastic up into the joints. Spalls
should not be used under any circumstances. An effort should be
made to use whole bricks, and bats but sparingly. In applying
more than one course of brick-in-mastic it is best to build each
almost simultaneously, with the lower course not more than a few
feet in advance of the upper. Where two courses are decided on
(in which the bricks are ordinarily placed on their largest bed) it
will often be found profitable without materially reducing the, effi-
ciency of the envelope to build a one-course envelope, but with the
bricks laid on the narrow side. This scheme will effect a saving
of 22 per cent in material alone.
Each course of bricks is to be covered with mastic so that all
joints and hollows are filled, making the surface even. When
spreading the top coat of mastic, care is to be exercised in joining
successive pourings. This top coat sometimes becomes pitted or
perforated with numerous pinholes exposing the bricks. This may
be largely overcome by increasing the amount of the fine mineral
aggregate or by adding a small amount of asbestos fiber. When
such a perforated condition is detected in the finished envelope
it should be resurfaced with the pure bitumen.
Laying protective concrete should proceed immediately or
shortly after the surface mastic has cooled. The top or exposed film
of mastic covering the bricks must be cleaned in a manner similar
to that previously described for membranes. Where temporary
construction timber cannot be removed during waterproofing opera-
tions, these locations must be taken care of similarly as described
under the " Membrane system." The forms placed about post
holes to prevent the protective concrete from flowing into the same,
should be made watertight to avoid coating the asphalted bricks
as it is difficult to remove the set mortar afterwards. In
pouring the protective concrete on the mastic, it is safest not
to exceed a drop of 6 feet in height to avoid injuring the top
coating. The surface of the protective concrete should be troweled
smooth.
Precautions when Joining New and Old Brick-in-Mastic. The
ends of the courses at the finish of each day's work, or when work
. is temporarily discontinued, must be well mopped with asphalt or
coal-tar pitch, depending on the kind of mastic used, leaving no
bricks uncoated. To preserve the physical condition of these ends,
2-inch boards may be laid up against them, especially where resump-
tion of work may be delayed for a long time. In commencing the
new work, the old surface should be cleaned and softened so as to
properly join with the new mastic. The use of a gasoline torch
or the burning of some gasoline on the surface is sufficient to accom-
plish this.
Where temporary braces, posts and other supports are used on the
work and are not moved to accommodate the brick-in-mastic layers,
all four sides of such post holes should be stepped when more than
one course is used (see Fig. 16). In waterproofing these post holes
after removing the posts, all surfaces are to be carefully cleaned and
remopped with bitumen. The mastic is then poured on the pre-
pared area and the bricks embedded therein in the ordinary way.
It is advisable to dip these bricks in bitumen or mastic before laying.
In fact, all possible precautions should be taken to secure an absolutely
watertight joint on all kinds of patch work.
Placing Mastic around Projections and in Vicinity of Steam
Pipes. If, through a masonry surface which is to be waterproofed
by the apphcation of a layer of sheet mastic or brick-in-mastic, such
objects as pipes or rods project, careful workmanship is required
to make these locations watertight. Whatever the object be, that
part of its surface which will be included in the waterproofing layer
must be cleaned thoroughly. If these objects project through a
floor or roof, then it is well to leave an open ring about 2 inches wide,
completely around them, as the course or two of brick-in-mastic
is laid down. Then this ring space is preferably filled with a mastic
of softer consistency than that used ordinarily, or with pure asphalt.
Sheet mastic may be appHed without this temporary space around
projecting objects. If objects project from vertical surfaces, it is
first of all necessary to make the form (required for placing brick-
in-mastic against walls) fit snugly around the object. Then the
bricks should be so laid in the mastic at these projections as to leave
a space about 1 inch wide around them, to be filled by the mastic.
A better bond will be secured between the mastic and the pipe, rod,
or other projecting objects, if these are first swabbed with pure
bitumen. In some instances, where the importance of the work
warrants it, the efficiency of these connections will be enhanced
by the judicious application of waterproofing felt or fabric, as for
instance, if the joints were made as described under " the membrane
system"; then, by the further fiUing of the ring spaces with
mastic or pure bitumen, more positive joints are secured.
In the event that steam or hot- water pipes or mains project
through the masonry, then it is first necessary to insulate them so as
to reduce the effect of their radiating heat to a minimum. The usual
method for doing this is also described under " the membrane
system."
Preparation of Wall Surfaces for Brick-in-Mastic. When exterior
waterproofing is intended for an underground structure running
through rock, an effort is made while excavating to leave the natural
sides as vertical and smooth as possible. But this is never attained.
Hence a sand wall of concrete is applied against the natural rock to
supply a vertical and smooth surface. This acts as the " armor-
coat " for either the membranous or mastic type of waterproofing.
Excavation in earth requires the customary sheet piling and bracing.
This sheet piling is generally placed sufficiently outside the neat line
to permit the building of either a one-course brick or terra-cotta
hollow-tile wall. This wall then acts as an " armor-coat " for the
waterproofing. In some instances steel or wooden sheet piUng is so
placed as to preclude the possibility of building a masonry wall within
its confines, then this piling is made to act as the armor-coat for
receiving the waterproofing. (Fig. 19.) These conditions, however,
only occur on large and difficult work where they must be given
special consideration.
If the masonry armor-coat against the rock surface or sheet
piling is too wet to receive the waterproofing, or when the sheet-
pihng armor is in a similar condition, then a so-called dry ply of either
felt or fabric, or a combination of the two, is first applied. Where
water is actually running over the face of the wall or sheet 'piling,
it should be diverted temporarily. This may be done either by
inserting sufficient bleeders at the best elevation, or by attaching
a strip of tin in the shape of a trough above the space to be water-
proofed. Plaster of Paris or cement may be used for attaching this
strip. If, by these methods, the surface cannot be made thoroughly
dry, a dry-ply of felt and fabric combined is to be hung up against
the surface. The brick-in-mastic is then laid against it in such a
manner as to permit the water to flow down and progressively forward
and out from behind this dry ply. Wherever there is no direct water
to contend against, as above noted, the dry ply may consist of strips
of felt or fabric, mopped in the usual way. In building the armor-
59
coat of concrete, the form for it should be made rigiil so as to avoid

bulging. Neglect of this precaution causes a reduction in ihe cross-
section of the brick-in-mastic wall, a condition to be avoided, as
eventually it may be the cause of leaks, due to the careless practice
Fi(j. 19.— Showing Partly l)uilt Mam \\i\l\, 1, and Fonn.s for Brick and Mastic, 2.
Note Top Row of Bricks Covered witli Mastic, and Sln'ct Piling left in
Place .Acting as Armor for Watcr|)rooling.
of filling the narrow parts of the forms with .small pieces of brick, or
squeezing in wliole bricks and thus thinning the joints.
Precautions for Setting-up, Filling and Stripping Forms for
Brick-in-Mastic Walls. In building brick-in-mastic walls, forms
are necessary niainh' to allow the mastic to set, and in warm weather,
even after. Fig. 19 shows a form for a two-course mastic wall in
60
WATERPROOFING EXC;l\EERL\G
Fig. 20.— Building of Two-course Brick-in-mas(ic \\'all, Showing Form, Form

Bracing, and Sand \\"all.
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING , 61
course of construction against a sand wall preparatory to the placing
of the finished wall within. Therefore, after the surface of the
armor-coat has been properly prepared, the forms should be placed
the required distance from it. This distance is governed by the
manner of laying up the bricks; i.e., if the longest edges of the bricks
are perpendicular to the wall (all bricks being laid as headers) 85
inches form space is required; if they are laid parallel to the wall
in two courses, 8 inches are required, and in single courses, 4 inches.
Of course this assumes the use of common red brick, as no better
or special kind is necessary. The height of form sections are not to
exceed 3 feet, so as to enable the waterproofer to easily reach the
bottom in laying the bricks. In bulkheading the forms, tight
joints are necessary.
To insure the easy and successful stripping of forms, the inner
surfaces of the forms are to receive a wash coat of neat cement, or
have a strip of felt attached. Washes of lime or clay may also be
used to good advantage, but in no case should lumpy clay • be
appUed. Any of these coatings are best appHed before the forms
are set up.
When the forms are erected, a pail of mastic is poured and spread
uniformly therein. The bricks are immediately embedded in the
mastic, usually on their largest bed and with their longest edge
parallel to the wall. In la3'ing the brick no mastic should be allowed
to collect or extend beyond any course of bricks. In laying the
successive courses of brick, they may be made to break joints in the
same manner as in a brick and mortar wall, but this is not essential.
Where the space between the wall and the form is not wide enough
to allow one or two bricks as the case may be to be laid on their
largest bed and with proper joints (in the manner described above)
due to bulging of the sand wall or armor-coat, the bricks should be
laid so as to leave more mastic in the joints and faces. Sometimes
a ply of fabric is added for each inch of reduction of form width
due to this bulging, but this is inadequate and should be guarded
against.
Settlement and Bracing of Brick-in-Mastic Walls. Where the
mastic forms must be removed prior to the building of the main
wall, the mastic wall should be well braced to prevent budding and
undue settling. In warm weather the removal of mastic forms should
be done only shortly before building the main wall. Where failure
to observe this rule has caused anj- decided deformation in the mastic
wall, this portion should be cut out and properly replaced with new
materials. But quite often it will be possible to push the bulge back
into place by applying a constant force, pressing on as large an area
of the bulge as possible.
All asphalt mastic on cooling will reduce in volume and settle,
(about I inch in a height of 10 feet per 30 deg. Fahr. (16.5 deg. Cent.)
change in temperature for a 2 : 1 : 1 mastic) therefore no concrete
should be placed on top of a mastic wall until complete coohng and
settlement has taken place in it. Neither should a mastic wall be
counted on to carry any weight at any time because it cannot per-
form this function by the very nature of its make-up. On extended
flat surfaces, however, it can be made to safely carry about-300 pounds
per square inch at about 60 deg. Fahr. (15.5 deg. Cent.) if movement
in the layers is impossible.
Where a mastic wall is to join the brick-in-mastic on the roof of a
structure, it should be brought up to the level of the roof-masonry,
and allowed to settle and cool, then the mastic on the roof should be
laid and joined to the wall mastic. The protective concrete or other
masonry is then laid so that its joints are not directly over the joints
in the mastic waterproofing.
Materials for Making Mastic : their Properties and Proportions.
Asphalt or coal-tar pitch may be used for making mastic. Both must
be carefully selected and tested to insure their adaptability. The
usual practice is to use a minimum of 33 per cent of bitumen, but this
may be decreased to 25 per cent where a stiff mastic is required, or
increased to 50 per cent where a less viscous mastic is desired. The
mineral aggregate, the presence of which tends to increase the tensile
strength of the binder, is usually sand, cement or limestone dust,
and sometimes asbestos fiber is added as a filler. The proportions
are often arbitrarily and carelessly specified. The aim in this regard
should be to proportion the mineral filler to produce maximum den-
sity which insures maximum strength.
The sand for making mastic should all pass through a 10-mesh
sieve. It should never be used when wet or moist, and in general,
should be heated before using. (Figs. 77 and 78 show the customary
ways of doing this.) This will lessen the formation of bubbles and
pin holes in the mastic caused by the escape of the occluded moisture.
The sand should also be clean, free from dirt, silt, or vegetable
matter.
Any cement in good condition is suitable for making water-
proofing mastic. Fineness of the material is the important factor,
because the finer the grain, the more intimate is its incorporation
with the bitumen. The limestone dust need not be as fine as the
cement, but it should pass at least 80 per cent through a 100-mesh
sieve, and 10 per cent through a 200-mesh sieve. Slate dust is
sometimes substituted, but it usually lacks the fineness of either
cement or limestone dust.
Bricks used for brick-in-mastic waterproofing should be of good
quality common brick, burned hard entirely through, regular and
uniform in shape and size and of compact texture. They should
also be heated to complete dryness before using, and so heated as to
remain practically clean, i.e., free of excessive soot. The various
methods for doing this are discussed below.
The two-thirds mineral aggregate referred to above may consist
of a mixture of sand and cement or sand and limestone dust with a
reasonable amount (not more than 1.5 per cent), in either case, of
asbestos fiber. The latter material, however, may be dispensed with,
as it is only necessary in special cases, as, for instance, on the top
or final coating of the mastic layer when this is located a few feet
below ground surface. The sand and cement is usually mixed in
equal proportions by weight or volume, but it would be much
better to mix these with due regard to the percentage of voids in
the sand. In the rare instances where mastic is to be laid in a very
wet location, more mineral matter should be used, as this will
increase the weight of the mastic and decrease the tendency to create
bubbles in the asphalt due to the steaming and upward pressure of
the water, also when it is to be used on an incline, as more sand
stiffens the mastic. In the mastic that is used as a top coating for
the upper course of bricks, less sand should be used. This will
leave the mastic more ductile and plastic, permitting it, if cracked,
to heal more readily when the temperature is suitable An addition
of asbestos fiber may be made instead of reducing the sand, as this
also gives a more flexible coating.
Hand- versus Machine-made Mastic. When making water-
proofing mastic by hand, it is important to see that the sand and
hmestone dust are thoroughly dry. The sand and cement or lime-
stone dust are first mixed in proper proportions and then put into
the mixing kettle after sufficient asphalt has been melted therein.
The temperature of the asphalt mastic should be kept between 350
and 400 deg. Fahr. (177 and 204 deg. Cent.) and coal-tar pitch mastic
between 275 and 325 deg. Fahr. (135 and 163 deg. Cent.). The
aggregate should not be dumped into the melted asphalt but sprinkled
into it. Stirring the mastic must be continued until a uniform mix-
ture has been obtained. This requires at least twenty minutes of
continued stirring for a 50-gallon kettle.
On large work a battery of mixing kettles is usually centrally
located, but where the particular waterproofing jobs are beyond a
500-foot radius from the mixing kettles, the mastic must be trans-
ported in portable fire kettles. The mastic in the mixing kettles
is to be stirred before pouring into the portable kettles, and when it
arrives at the place of waterproofing, the mastic should again be
stirred before pouring into the carrying pails. No mastic from the
hot portable kettles must be poured into the carrying pails unless
it is to be used immediately, otherwise settlement of the aggregate
results and the uniformity of the mixture is destroyed.
The practice of making mastic by hand in open fire-heated kettles
is as old as the mastic industry, which began between 1880 and 1885.
But, though paving mastic has for many years been made by machine,
floor and waterproofing mastic continue to be made by hand. This
is partly due to the fact that (1) heretofore such mastic was not a
commonly used material, (2) natural rock asphalt was mostly used
in the belief that an artificial mastic was impossible or very inferior,
(3) the secretiveness with which the mastic industry was developed,*
and (4) the comparatively small quantities of floor mastic generally
called for on any particular job.
Making reasonably good mastic by hand is of course possible.
But there are many drawbacks not usually considered. For instance;
the consistency of the mastic is usually determined by the operator
and hence no two batches arc alike; neither are the proportions of
ingredients constant, for they are usually dumped in by "eye";
then, what is worst of all, the man mixing the mastic naturally
desires to lighten his labor and occasionally either does not sufll-
ciently mix the batch, or adds more bitumen than the amount
pecified. All of these objections would be absent in a machine-
lade mastic, because the ingredients would necessarily have to
be weighed or measured, as is done in mixing concrete by machine.
The quality would also be easily regulated and the engineer could
better inspect the work to see that his specifications were lived-up to,
especially in the matter of cooking the mastic. On large work this
is very important.
A type of mastic-mixing machine which makes this possible,
and indeed, makes a superior mastic, is shown in Fig. 67. The
author, who has experimented with and observed the product of a
machine of this type for a long time, can state confidently that it
would be to the interest of the mastic industry to abolish the hand-
mixed product and resort to a machine-mixed mastic, especially
'■' In the early days of the mastic industry it was not beneath some of those
engaged in it to employ the tricks of witchcraft to fool the inquisitive,
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING " 65

because of its economy. This economy results from the fact that
the asphalt does not have to be first melted and heated as with the
use of open kettles, and also because none of the mineral aggregates
needs preheating. This is all accomplished in the drum of the
machine, which, besides, can mix a much larger batch in considerably
less time than men can mix it in open kettles. Machine-mixed
mastic is, however, admittedly impracticable on small jobs, and has
not yet been used for making waterproofing mastic such as described
above, that is, its use heretofore has been limited to floor and paving
mastic.
Brick-heating Methods. In the use of bricks for brick-in-mastic,
the question often arises as to (a) when the bricks should be heated,
(6) to what extent they should be heated, and (c) by what method
they should be heated. In answering these questions experience
is the best guide. Bricks used as above noted should be heated (a)
when the temperature is below 40 deg. Fahr. (4.5 deg Cent.), (b)
when they are moist or damp (because either condition prevents
good bonding between the bricks and the mastic) , (c) they should be
heated to a degree not exceeding that which permits their being
handled with the bare hands (because otherwise the mastic film
surrounding the bricks will be melted off), and (d) the method of
heating should be such as will not cover the bricks with an over
amount of soot, because this tends to prevent proper bonding, and
bonding is very essential to the continuity of the layer or envelope
of brick-in-mastic.
A method of heating bricks to be strictly avoided is the following:
A small make-shift furnace, constructed by enclosing three sides of a
convenient area with walls of either brick or stone, laid dry. These
walls are of any convenient length and about a foot high; the fourth
side remains open and through it the fire is fed. On top of the walls
is placed a wire screen strong enough to support about 200 or 300
bricks piled promiscuously. A wood fire is kindled underneath
and the heat and smoke pass up between the bricks. This method
not only fails to heat the bricks alike but also covers them with more
or less soot, and is slow and wasteful.
A better method is the following: A hollow cyKnder about
4 or 5 feet in diameter is made by piling bricks one upon the other
with loose joints, but interlocked so as to make the entire cylinder
self-supporting. The bricks are laid on their largest bed and built
up to a convenient height, say 3 or 4 feet. Next, a wood fire
is made within the cylinder, or, better still, a coke fire is main-
tained in a salamander placed within the cylinder. If a wood
fire is used the flames should be kept low. This scheme permits
the escape of smoke without covering the bricks with soot. The
radiating heat dries the bricks to any desired degree depending
on how long they remain near the fire. If a second row of bricks is
built around the first one it will receive its incipient heat and as the
inner cyhnder of bricks is used up the outer one will gradually receive
its share of heat. This method, however, is also slow. A mechani-
cal brick heater is described in Chapter VI, and is the most efficient
means for heating and drying bricks known to the author.
Weather Conditions Governing Waterproofing Operations. To
obtain the best results, no waterproofing should be done wherein
ordinary bitumen is used as the cementing or binding material,
especially in the form of a membrane, sheet mastic, or brick-in-
mastic layers, when the air temperature is below 40 deg. Fahr.
(4.5 deg. Cent.), nor during snow, rain, or drizzle. Coal-tar pitch
chills rapidly in cold weather and will not stick well to cold masonry;
and asphalt is even less adhesive to cold masonry. Neither pitch
nor asphalt will adhere to a wet surface, therefore these conditions
must be avoided. However, if the work be amply protected from
cold and wet weather, waterproofing may proceed with due precau-
tions for eliminating the hazards of these conditions. On the other
hand, in warm weather, care must be taken to protect the finished
waterproofing promptly, especially if it is exposed to the sun, other-
wise expensive repairs may become necessary, before or soon after
completion of the work.
Integral System of Waterproofing
Definition, Purpose and Development. The integral system of
waterproofing is the process of making impermeable mortar or con-
crete by incorporating in the mass, certain ingredients which act
either as void fillers, as lubricants for the aggregate, or chemically
upon the cement, thus densifying the mass. These ingredients con-
sist of (1) finely ground powders, such as clays, silicates, feldspars
and hydrated lime, which are usually mixed with the dry cement
at the mill or on the work; (2) liquids and pastes such as stearate of
lime (water-insoluble soap), sodium or potassium oleate (water-
soluble soap), aluminum stearate, calcium chloride and oil com-
pounds, which are usually mixed with the gaging water, though
they are sometimes added to the mixed mass to form an integral
part of the resulting mortar or concrete.
The fillers may be inert or active. If inert, as the above powders
are, they merely fill up the pores or voids inherent in the concrete,
but if active, as the above soap compounds are, they may either
unite with the cement or crystallize in themselves. The resulting
compounds tend either to fill the voids and barricade the pores or to
become water repellent. Most of the hquids and some of the pow-
ders are inactive lubricants of a fatty nature, and these assist the
aggregates to sHde more compactly into place.
The purpose of the integral system of waterproofing is to make
concrete and mortar impermeable by the apphcation of the water-
proofing materials during the process of mixing, thus reducing the
cost of the construction by ehminating the necessity for any addi-
tional treatment. This system of waterproofing, however, does not
remove the need for thorough mixing and careful placing of the
concrete.
The integral system of waterproofing is best adapted for treat-
ment of structures in the course of construction, principally of the
type not subject to vibration or shock. For water tanks, dams,
foundations, and other stationary or rigid concrete structures, where
absorption or percolation through the concrete may work serious
havoc, it is particularly well adapted. However, the possibilities of
making mass concrete impermeable by the simple expedient of care-
fully grading and correctly proportioning the aggregate and pro-
longing the time of mixing should not be forgotten. For railroad
subways and bridge floors, this system should not be specified, no
matter how promising may be the materials offered; for, even if the
waterproofing materials added do not weaken the concrete (as
sometimes happens when inferior compounds are used), they cannot
prevent its cracking under vibration of traffic and the consequent
percolation of water through such cracks.
The incorporation of foreign ingredients in mass concrete to
increase its density, or, what amounts to the same thing, decrease
its permeability, is not so very old. Originally quick lime was used,
then certain patented compounds began to appear on the market,
such as stearates and resinates (water-insoluble substances), and
finally hydrated hme began to be used for this purpose. In recent
times numerous secret and patented compounds have been exten-
sively used, but owing to a general dissatisfaction with the results
obtained, they have received a considerable setback. And with
them some v^ty good materials were thrown into disrepute. The
practice of adding an arbitrary but small percentage of cement
over and above the calculated amount is quite prevalent, and often
accomplishes the results claimed for many of these special compounds,
Limitations of the Integral System of Waterproofing. The use
of integral waterproofing compounds should be limited to conditions
where certainty exists regarding character of stresses in the structure,
and then only after the materials have been analyzed, tested and
proven efficient. The following pertinent remarks by the U. S.
Bureau of Standards* corrobate the foregoing: " The addition of
so-called integral waterproofing compounds will not compensate
for lean mixtures nor for poor materials, nor for poor workmanship
in the fabrication of the concrete. Since in practice the inert
integral compounds (acting simply as a 'void-filling material) are
added in such small quantities they have very little or no effect
on the impermeability of the concrete. If the same care be taken
in making the concrete impermeable without the addition of water-
proofing material, as is ordinarily taken when waterproofing materials
are added, an impermeable concrete can be attained."
The incorporation of any kind of integral waterproofing material
into a mass of concrete will not materially prevent the formation of
hair cracks or temperature cracks or cracking due to uneven settle-
ment. Results with different materials will vary, but very few
have .proven entirely satisfactory. Neither can this system prevent
seepage through day's work planes, and expansion joints, or joints
between steel and concrete. Furthermore, this system of water-
proofing, or rather the materials used in connection therewith, may
reduce the strength of concrete and sometimes may even induce
disintegration in the concrete. The integral waterproofiing materials
that will not do these things are, in fact, few, and their successful
use requires so much care and labor that better results may often
be obtained by the self-densified system of waterproofing, f In the
light of present-day knowledge and experience with integral water-
proofing compounds, their use and need are debatable on the basis
of real efficiency. There are many cases, nevertheless, where any
other system of waterproofing as well as the integral system might
be used with equally good results, the selection under such cir-
cumstances, being, of course, a comparison of costs. The integral
system has, however an advantage always worthy of consideration,
* Technologic Paper No. 3, p. 83.
t The author is able to say that several manufacturers of integral water-
proofing materials have admitted this to him, but they asserted that these
materials are worth their cost merely by acting as a factor of safety. It seems
more probable, however, that these materials act more psychofogically than as a
safety factor. That is to say, workmen will probably feel more inclined to
prolong the mixing and tamp more vigorously when told or shown that some-
thing has been added, but which will really be effective only by such activity.
namely, it requires no additional excavation or protective masonry,
and the waterproofing operation proceeds with the construction,
which is often a great advantage. In justice to some materials of this
type that have apparently given satisfaction, it must be admitted
that there is really great need for more extensive, and exhaustive
practical tests, that is service tests, on this entire class of materials.
Integral Waterproofing Materials and Their Application
The types of materials above mentioned namely, powders,
pastes and liquids, will now be considered in a more detailed manner.
The many integral compounds appearing on the market are mostly
of a water-repellent nature, but their compositions are seldom
divulged, except those which are patented. The powders are usually
of a white, floury consistency, and water-repellent. This property
is imparted to them by the addition of some metallic stearate such as
limesoap, which is of a fatty nature. The fineness of the powders
gives them their void-filling properties, while those of a fatty nature
act also as a lubricant for bringing into closer proximity the con-
stituent materials of the concrete. The addition to the concrete
mass of various amounts of hydrated lime also creates a dense mixture
by the same procress.
Use of Hydrated Lime. In regard to the addition of hydrated
lime, experience has demonstrated that it serves to increase the
plasticity and also to lubricate, as it were, the aggregate of the con-
crete, resulting in a denser and more uniform mass. But the United
States Bureau of Standards* states that the value of hydrated lime
as a waterproofing medium is probably due to its void-filling prop-
erties, and that the same results could be expected from any other
finely ground inert material, such as sand or clay. While this is
true, it is none the less an indisputable fact that hydrated lime acts
in a greater measure as a lubricant, which the others would only do
in a very limited way. Many proprietary compounds are composed
mainly of finely ground sand and clay.
By adding from 10 to 15 per cent of hydrated lime, the tendency
of concrete to check and hair crack is materially reduced, as the
lime absorbs and retains a large percentage of water and therefore
holds the moisture in freshly poured concrete until the slower acting
cement can utilize it.
Mr. Sanford E. Thompson,! in a series of experiments on the
* Technologic Paper No. 3.
t American Society for Testing Materials, June, 1908.
70
effects of hydrated lime in concrete, arrived at the figures in Table

IV in regard to the effective proportions of hydrated lime for pro-
ducing water-tight concrete.
TABLE IV.— PROPORTIONS OF HYDRATED LIME FOR IMPERVIOUS
CONCRETE
Portland
Cement
(Parts).
Sand
(Parts).
Stone
(Parts).
Hydrated
Lime
(Per Cent).
1
1
1
2
2.5
3
4
4.5
5
8
12
16
The percentage of lime is in terms of weight of cement. The

sand and stone are representative of average materials throughout
the country. The coarser the sand, however, the more lime should
be used.
Lime paste occupies more than two times the bulk of paste made
from an equal weight of Portland cement. Hence, by replacing
the cement in ■ mortar by about 15 per cent of hydrated lime,
its density, and in consequence its strength and permeabiHty are
increased.
But even with the addition of hydrated lime, the concrete
materials must be graded, and the proper proportions of cement and
hydrated lime used. If the concrete is poorly mixed or made with
insufficient water, or improperly placed, or if joints are left unpro-
tected, the structure will inevitably leak. The mixing must be
thorough, sufficient water must be employed to give a " mushy "
mixture so that it will settle into place with the least amount of
ramming. Fully as important as the care in mixing is the bonding
of one day's layer of concrete with the next; even small inter-
ruptions of an hour on a hot day will materially injure the bond of
the concrete.
Use of Inert Fillers. Inert fillers vary greatly in durability and
resistive properties, and should therefore be selected with con-
siderable care. A governing property of all inert fillers is that they
should not only be inert in the presence of the cement but also to
atmospheric moisture and gases and percolating waters.
Many fillers now used consist of clay, sand, lime and ordinary
natural or Portland cement, this latter in a form exceedingly finer
than ordinarily used, or in the form of " excess quantity " to make
a rich mixture of the mass of mortar or concrete.
71
The chemical composition of some inert powder fillers are given

in Table V together with a comparative analysis of average Portland
and natural cements. The first two are taken from a Technologic
Paper of the United States Bureau of Standards* together with part
of the following remarks:
" Those materials which act as void fillers or increase the density
of the concrete and are without any action on the cement and do not
themselves change, are known as inert fillers. Included in this class
TABLE v.— ANALYSIS OF INERT FILLERS

(Clays, Sand, Feldspar and Hydrated Lime)
N. Y.
Clay.
Mo.
Clay.
Feldspar.
Sand.
Hydrated
Lime.
Silica
58.30
16.85
6.41
.06
4.22
2.92
.12
.77
2.71
.60
7.00
72.91
15.01
2.79
.03
.59
.85
.12
.80
2.12
1.12
3.81
64.02
19.38
.70
trace
.87
.33
.10
2.52
11.76
.06
.54
89.50
2.36
2.58
.12
1.37
.57
.21
.26
.70
.20
2.35
1.34
.45
Ferric oxide
.13
46.90
Magnesia
32.19
Sulphuric anhydride (SOO -

Sodium oxide
4.02*
Potassium oxide
Water (105°)
15.05t
Ignition loss
99.96
100.15
100.28
100.22
100.08
*Cart
on dioxide.
tl
Potal water.
are hydrated dolomitic hme, clays, finely ground sand, and finely
ground feldspar. Some of these may be partly changed in time
when in the concrete. The hydrated Ume may be partly carbonated,
especially on the surface; the feldspar may decompose by the
leaching out of the alkaUes; the sand will change but very Uttle,
if composed of a high-grade quartz sand; the clays will be very inert,
although some theories have been brought forward which assume a
very important role for clay when mixed with concrete; this is to the
effect that the colloids of the clay protect the calcium compounds
from quick hydration, and consequently prevent increase in volume
due to chemical action." However, reliable data show that the
addition of clay to concrete or mortar decreases their permeability
considerably and even increases their strength to a shght degree.
But the use of clay as balanced against the addition of extra cement
* Technologic Paper No. 3, p. 44.
to accomplish the same results should be carefully considered,
especially in the light of a comparison of costs. For, reasonably good
clay must be used, and unless cheaply obtained the balance will
invariably be in favor of the cement. Plain blue brick clay and pure
white Georgia clay may be used with good results as inert void
fillers.
Use of Active Fillers. Active fillers consist of compounds which
react with certain constituents of the cement, thus forming new
compounds which are themselves inert and either b!:rricade or fill
up the voids. In most of these compounds on the market the active
fillers form, but a small percentage of the compound proper as
illustrated by the analysis in the first column of Table VI. " This
compound was a white powder with a strong aromatic odor of
Kauri resin. It was in fact partly a resinate of potash, which
would be decomposed by the lime present to the corresponding lime
resinate, which is comparatively insoluble. The great part of the
compound is entirely inert, being china clay and hydrated lime.
"As, however, in themselves these materials are not waterproofing,
but become so only as a result of a series of reactions, it would be
better to use the result of these reactions directly and not depend
upon something that may not always take place either wholly or
in part."
Use of Proprietary Cements. Some proprietary cements are
compounds made of Portland cement that has been altered by the
addition of either stearates of lime, or soda and potash, sand, and
other materials and specially treated until the mass becomes a water-
repellent cement. Again, some waterproof cements are made by
mixing about 5 per cent (by weight) of a lime-oil compound in
clinker form, with Portland cement clinker and grinding them
together. The powder formed is then used as ordinary cement,
and results in a more or less dense concrete, not, however, in-
dependent of the necessary care in mixing and placing. Another
form of compound of this nature consists of fish-oil boiled in hydro-
chloric acid, then mixed with burnt lime while slaking with water,
the resulting product being a paste which dries and hardens as
clinker. Another similar compound is made by combining a pow-
dered resinate compound consisting of copal gum, hydrated lime and
fine clay in proportion of 1 : 1 : 1 by weight with Portland cement,
the use of which tends to make waterproof mortar or concrete. These
compounds are also used for surface coatings as well as direct cements.
When used as a direct cement, the lime-oil cement compounds depend
for their impervious tendencies upon the formation of stearates of
73
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74
lime which are practically insoluble in water, and the presence of a

large amount of hydrated lime, which also acts as a lubricant and
inert void filler. On the other hand, the stearates of soda and potash
are ordinary soap, readily soluble in water. With these soaps a
reaction occurs when they are treated with water in the presence of
cement; the soda or potash is dissolved and the more insoluble
Hme soaps are precipitated. If this kind of cement is used as a sur-
face coating, however, it is doubtful whether the above reactions
take place in a sufficient quantity of the soap to effect proper water-
proofing properties before it is dissolved and washed off the surface.
Experience indicates that in general, soap solutions do not bring
lasting results as a waterproofing agent. Several cements of this
nature have been analyzed by the United States Bureau of Standards
with the results shown in Table VII.*
TABLE VII.— ANALYSES OF PROPRIETARY CEMENTS USED FOR

WARERPROOFING
Compound Used as
Direct Cement
Compound Used as
Coating*
(Cement Content) .
Silica
Alumina
Iron oxide
Lime
Magnesia
Sulphuric anhydride (SO,-.)
Sodium oxide
Potassium oxide
Ignition loss
Carbon dioxide
fOrganic (fat acid)
Water
23.75%
5.96
1.97
64.44
0.91
1.21
0,11
0.73
1.07
100.15
22.40%
7.98
3.63
59.34
1.85
1.15
0.52
0.10
0.45
2.16
0.32
0.93
99.76
* This compound consists of Portland cement (27.73%) and sand (72.27%). The sand
(all passing one-eighth sieve), is mixed with the cement, and is composed of quartzite and
dolomite; there is also a trace of fat acids present.
t The organic is fat acids with a melting point of 52 deg. Fahr. and present as a Ume soap.
Use of Integral Liquids. The liquids are mainly composed of
metallic salts, such as chloride of hme; they also consist of oil
emulsions and soap solutions, and solutions of paraffin in benzine
* Technologic Paper No. 3, pp. 41 and 47.
or benzol. But the paraffin solutions are usually not added to the
gaging water, these being appUed to a masonry surface with a brush
as explained under the surface-coating system. The waterproofing
properties of these Hquids are derived from the formation of gela-
tinous coatings around the smallest particles of the constituents
of the masonry. Of course, this would tend to decrease the strength
of the concrete, and often does. There is also a coal-tar product
used as an integral waterproofing from which the volatile oils have
been almost entirely removed, and the remaining materials tend to
bind together the particles of cement and fill the voids in the concrete.
Some other compounds are composed of fish oil and water glass
(sodium silicate). The fish oil, which is semi-drying, is slowly
saponified by the lime of the cement, and the water glass forms a
lime silicate, both actions, however, being incomplete, due to the
insufficiency of lime present in the cement for such action. Analyses
of a fish-oil compound and one of calcium chloride follow.*
Fish-oil Compound. Calcium Chloride Compound.
Soap 1 .05% Silica trace
Oil 47.29 Alumina and iron oxide 0.25%
Ash water glass 11 . 64 Calcium chloride 27 . 19
Volatile (water) 40 . 02 Magnesium , 04
Water (and iron resinate 15%) 72 . 52
Use of Integral Pastes. Most pastes are soluble mixtures of
secret ingredients which derive their waterproofing properties by the
precipitation of insoluble materials in the voids of the concrete.
Some also act so as to consolidate the mass by increasing its
plasticity. These contain either fine clay, lime, or colloidal matter,
or all of these.
Sometimes pastes are made by mixing a powder, such as alum, to
the cement, and a soap solution to the tempering water. In making
the concrete this paste is added, and the two constituents combine
to form a stearate of aluminum which, as noted before, is a stable,
water-insoluble, void-filling compound.
In the employment of integral pastes or any of the above com-
pounds it is advisable first to investigate the efficacy of the materials
by inspection of results accompUshed on previous work. By sub-
mitting samples for analysis to qualified chemists, or by sending
them to the United States Testing Laboratory the following neces-
sary information can be obtained for a nominal cost: (a) effect on
the strength of the concrete; (b) waterproofing properties when
subjected to extreme ranges of temperature; (c) effect of common
* United States Bureau of Standards, Technologic Paper No. 3, p. 48
acids and alkalies on their waterproofing properties; (d) effect oil
steel reinforcement, i.e., if productive or preventive of corrosion, etc.
In all cases the manufacturer's written instructions should be
followed with due observance, of course, to any special conditions
arising on the work necessitating variation or change of manipulation.
Self-Densified Concrete
Definition, Purpose and Development. The system of water-
proofing, or, more properly speaking, the practice of making imper-
meable concrete or mortar by means of self-densification, is, as the
name implies, a process of proportioning the constituent materials
and mixing them so as to create as dense a finished mass as possible.
This is as difficult to obtain as it is finally effective in producing
watertight concrete. The reason for this difficulty is that the
requisite density is dependent upon varying factors, the ones most
frequently militating against density being the lack of interest and
inevitable fatigue of the labor employed together with the uncer-
tainty of obtaining the specified quality and exact amount of materials
for each batch without exceptional precautionary measures.
The self-densifying system of waterproofing like the integral
system is adapted to any kind of mortar or concrete structure not
subject to severe vibration, undue settlement or extreme variations
in temperature, unless the movements due to such settlement or
temperature changes are taken care of by properly located and
waterproofed expansion joints. Its main purpose, however, is to
eliminate the use of any form of waterproofing, because of the extra
cost of materials, and the requisite time, labor, and attention r.eces-
seary in the application or incorporation of most forms of water-
proofing compounds. If the energy spent in preparing and applying
waterproofing materials were expended on careful proportioning,
mixing, and supervision in making the mass concrete or the mortar,
the engineer would obtain more nearly impervious masonry. The
supervision required in either case, to obtain the best results, is in
fact, about the same.
The origin of self-densified concrete is probably coincident with
the origin of making concrete. In attempting to duplicate natural
stone in strength, it was but one step further to attempt to make the
concrete as dense as such stone. This probably led to the develop-
ment of a form of cement so fine in itself as to have practically no
voids whatsoever. Such a fine-ground cement carries more sand,
and makes denser and more impervious concrete than the cement
of the old standard of fineness. This standard of fineness was 5
per cent passing a 2500-mesh sieve, as against 78 per cent passing a
200-mesh sieve of the present-day standard. But only in com-
paratively recent times was the further discovery made of the value
of proportioning the constituents of concrete in such a manner
that the voids of the stone, or largest aggregate, are completely
occupied by the sand, the voids of the sand by the cement, and
the whole united by the hydration of this cement in the presence of
water. Though this is theoretically correct, in practice it is found
necessary to use about 10 per cent of extra cement to obtain the best
results; first, because of incomplete hydration of the cement;
secondly, because of the practical impossibility of exact grading ot
aggregates; thirdly, because of insufficient mixing, tamping and
supervision of details.
Methods of Making Dense Concrete. Concrete may be mixed
either by hand or by machine, both methods, if properly appUed,
giving about the same grade of concrete, though the balance is
always in favor of machine-mixed concrete. The work done by
hand is likely to be uneven in quality, and some batches will be less
thoroughlly mixed than others, while machine-mixed concrete is
usually of a more uniform quality and is generally less expensive.
Hand-mixed concrete is employed only when the quantity is small
or when machinery is unobtainable, but not where uniformly dense
and impervious concrete is an essential factor.
The fundamental requirements for obtaining self-densified
mortar or concrete are: (1) destruction of the inherent porosity
of the mortar or concrete; (2) scientific proportioning of aggregates;
(3) careful supervision and good workmanship.
The inherent porosity of concrete is due partly to the fact that
only about 20 per cent of the cement* used in making concrete is
hydrated, or, in other words, acts as a cementing material, the other
80 per cent remains lying in the pores as so much inert matter, but
only partly closing the pores; and partly to the fact that since every
62J pounds of water weight in concrete occupies 1 cubic foot of space,
which amount of water, if lost by evaporation or drainage during the
setting period, means 1 cubic foot of voids remaining in the mass.
Again, improperly graded aggregate or poorly proportioned mixtures,
or both, are very conducive to porosity in concrete and not so easily
remedied. Too much water and too Little mixing are factors in the
workmanship which often results in porous concrete.
* See series of articles on microscopic study of concrete by N, C, Johnson,
in Engineering Record, January, February, March, 1915.
The porosity due to the first two causes, i. e., insufficient
hydration and excessive evaporation, may be reduced, first, by
mixing each batch longer than is now common in practice (with the
significant slogan in the industry of " a batch a minute "), and,
secondly, by mixing with just sufficient water to obtain a medium
or mushy consistency. Concrete of this consistency may be defined
as a mixture of cement, sand, and stone or gravel of jelly-like con-
sistency, which is not watery, but can be spaded and readily
worked into place in the form. This consistency is illustrated
in Fig. 21.*
Coarseness of sand and aggregate, is also effective in reducing
porosity and absorption, although gravel seems to produce the
denser concrete, f In fact, gravels are preferable to crushed-stone
aggregate, particularly for underwater work, because they mix
and settle in place more easily. Either crushed stone or gravel
may be used, however, if carefully handled. But bank-run gravel
should never be used, as its quality is not uniform.
Scientific Proportioning. The second essential requirement for
the production of impermeable mortar or concrete is scientific
proportioning. It is of the greatest importance that concrete
should be made as dense as possible if it is to be made impervious,
that is, that it should have the smallest practicable percentage of
voids. This is best accomplished, or, at least, the various methods
tending toward this result in practice are as follows:!
(1) Arbitrary selection; one arbitrary rule being to use half as
much sand as stone, as 1 : 2 : 4 or 1 : 3 : 6; another, to use a volume
of stone equivalent to the cement plus twice the volume of the sand,
such as 1 : 2 : 5 or 1 : 3 : 7.
(2) Determination of voids § in the stone and sand, and pro-
portioning the materials so that the volume of sand is equivalent to
the volume of voids in the stone and the volume of cement slightly in
excess of the voids in the sand.
(3) Determination of the voids in the stone, and, after selecting
the proportions of cement to sand by test or judgment, proportion-
ing the mortar to the stone so that the volume of mortar will be
slightly in excess of the voids in the stone.
* Technologic Paper No. 3, Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.
t Engineering News-Record, Vol. 79, No. 16, p. 740. 1917.
t " Proportioning Concrete," by Sanford E. Thompson, Journal, Association
Engineering Societies, Vol. 36, April, 1906, ^ . 185.
§ Proportioning by voids has seemingly been proven fallacious. Se^ TecJmO'
logic Paper No. 58 of the IT. S, Bureau of Standards, p. 39,
79
QUAKlriG CONSISTENCY
MUSHY CONSISTENCY
FLUID CONSISTENCY
Fig. 21. — Appearance of Gravel Concrete of Three Consistencies. (From

United States Bureau of Standards Technologic Paper No, 58,)
(4) Mixing the sand and stone and providing such a proportion
of cement that the paste will slightly more than fill the voids in
the mixed aggregate.
(5) Making trial mixtures of dry materials in different pro-
portions to determine the mixture giving the smallest percentage of
voids, and then adding an arbitrary percentage of cement, or else
one based on the voids in the mixed aggregate.
(6) Mixing the 'aggregate and cement according to a given
mechanical analysis curve. (See Appendix I.)
(7) Making volumetric tests or trial mixtures of concrete with
a given percentage of cement and different aggregates, and selecting
the mixture producing the smallest volume of concretes; then
varying the proportions thus found, hy inspection of the concrete
in the field.
The two most practical methods, however, for accurately deter-
mining the proportions of each material is by mechanical analysis
of the aggregates and volumetric synthesis, or proportioning by
trial mixtures. The method of proportioning concrete according to
Fuller's curve gives 1 : 1.41 : 4.34 as an ideal mix for producing the
densest concrete.
From the above methods of proportioning the following laws,
which relate especially to the grading of the aggregate, have been
evolved :
1. Aggregates in which- particles have been specially graded
in sizes so as to give, when water and cement are added, an artificial
mixture of greatest density, produce concrete of higher strength
than mixtures of cement and natural materials in similar proportions.
2. The strength and density of concrete is affected but slightly,
if at all, by decreasing the quantity of the medium size stone of the
aggregate and increasing the quantity of the coarsest stone. An
excess of stone of medium size, on the other hand, appreciably
decreases the density and strength of the concrete.
3. The strength and density of concrete are affected by the
variation in the diameter of the particles of sand more than by
variation in the diameters of the stone particles.
4. An excess of fine or medium sand decreases the density and
also the strength of the concrete, as will also a deficiency of fine
grains of sand in a lean concrete.
5. The substitution of cement for fine sand does not affect the
density of the mixture.
6. In ordinary proportioning with a given sand and stone and
a given percentage of cement, the densest and strongest mixture is
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFIXG 81
attained when the volume of the mixture of sand, cement and water
is so small as just to fill the voids in the stone. In other words, in
practical construction, use as small a proportion of sand and as
large a proportion of stone as is possible without producing visible
voids in the concrete.
7. The best mixture of cement and aggregate has a mechanical
curve resembling a parabola, which is a combination of a curve
approaching an elhpse for the sand portion and a tangent straight
hne for the stone portion.
Grade of Workmanship and Supervision Necessary for Water-
tight Concrete. The third requirement is careful workmanship and
supervision, particularly the latter, for obviously, where the engineers'
directions are not followed, or orders are neglected; where supervi-
sion or inspection is lax, httle can be done in the way of making
dense concrete, in spite of willing and conscientious help. In this
connection it is also well to remember that when inexperienced
laborers or foremen are depended on to produce an impervious
concrete, no scientific proportioning or prolonged mixing will turn
the doubtful balance in favor of the concrete. To produce impervious
concrete it is imperative to give strict supervision to details, and
this phase is usually neglected by inexperienced labor. To accom-
pHsh these various objects, alert foremen and experienced workmen
should be selected, and details of design and construction carefully
attended to.
From the foregoing articles it may be seen that a 1 : 2 : 4 con-
crete is for all practical purposes impermeable, and that with scientific
proportioning of ingredients and grading of aggregates, as outlined
above, a 1 : 3 : 7 concrete can be made almost equally impervious.
Further, the maximum density of concrete is obtained when the
particles lay as close together as possible. Consequently its imper-
viousness depends upon the varying degree of roughness of the
stone and sand, the relative sizes of stone, sand and cement, the
proportionate quantities of the various sizes, the readiness with
which the materials compact, and the amount of water used. The
sizes and quantities being determined and adhered to, careful work-
manship and cautious supervision will do the rest.
The use of these ingredients according to the varied but specific
methods outlined, in no waj^ alters the present standard methods of
mixing and laying concrete. A variation though, in the general
method of mixing concrete by machine must be noted because of
its successful accomplishment in the matter of producing dense and
impervious concrete. Contrary to the prevalent adverse opinion
of the practice of mixing concrete by first turning on the water and
then dumping the aggregate into the mixer, this practice, shghtly
modified in that each material is put into the drum separately,
starting with the water, followed by the cement, the sand, and
finally the large aggregate, the drum revolving continuously, actually
produces very impervious concrete. This practice is now resorted
to in the manufacture of reinforced concrete water pipe.
Wherever the three essential requirements can be fulfilled and
the suggestions for making them effective followed, there is but
little need to add any waterproofing compound, providing the struc-
ture is not subject to vibration and other harmful physical influences.
If it is subject to such influences, then the only systems well adapted
for the waterproofing, especially on large engineering structures,
under these conditions, are the membranous or sheet mastic sys-
tems, or, possibly, the surface coating system and in some cases, the
grouting process. However, by the judicious arrangement and
distribution of well-made and watertight expansion joints, all water-
proofing may sometimes be eliminated, even in the non-rigid type of
structure.
The general subject of the self-densification of mortar and con-
crete is treated exhaustively in standard works on concrete, and
for more particular and detailed information, these may be con-
sulted to good advantage.
Grouting Process of Waterproofing
Definition, Purpose and Development. Waterproofing by the
grouting process means the placing (usually) of a very wet cement
mortar behind and around a finished iron or masonry tunnel or other
underground structure, injected through the walls or some portion
of its body. The mortar or grout is forced, generally by means
of a pneumatic grouting machine, through cracks, joints, or pipes
suitably located in the structure, until refusal, or until there is
evidence of the grout having filled all the seams in the rock, or per-
meated the ground in the immediate vicinity of the structure. The
purpose of this is to force the ground water to find or make new
channels for itself, so that it will not come in direct contact with the
structure, which may not be sufficiently watertight in itself to prevent
seepage. The mortar or grout is, of course, in itself very impervious.
This follows from the richness of the mixtures used, in many instances
being nothing more than a neat cement. In fact, such mixtures,
that is, either neat cement, grout, or mortar, form the most imper-
vious materials, and constitute the best waterproofing mediums if
applied in the proper place and manner. For the grouting process,
these materials are well adapted, and serve their purpose admirably.
This system or process of waterproofing is well adapted for solidi-
fying masonry, various soils * and fissured rock, for sinking wet con-
struction shafts, and for driving tunnels in unstable and water-
bearing material, for cutoff walls and in general where great water
pressures are to be resisted by the finished structure as, for instance,
around tunnels underneath river beds. Grout is also used in tunnel
headings which must pass through water-bearing ground, to fill
the voids in the dry packing over a tunnel arch or elsewhere, to
cut off heavy flows of water from cracks, seams, and fissures in the
rock about the tunnel or its shafts, in the solidification of rock and
quicksand at dam sites, and to insure a watertight contact with,
and the complete protection of, steel work imbedded in the masonry.
In fact the grouting process has a wider field of usefulness than is
generally known.
The grouting process originated or was invented before 1891, but
was only patented in that year. The inventor, Mr. Robert L.
Harris, set forth many of the possibilities of this process, and to-day
it is a recognized engineering procedure and is used on practically
all tunnel construction, though somewhat modified in method.
One of these modifications, perhaps the most radical and of very
recent origin, consists of a pneumatic concrete machine that mixes,
conveys and places the concrete in one continuous stream and
operation, producing a reasonably dense, and impervious concrete.
This process eliminates dry packing over arches of tunnels, permits
the placing of the complete ring of tunnel or hning but does not
readily fill up seams or fissures in the natural rock. This particular
apparatus is still undergoing improvement and promises fair to be a
most important addition to the engineer's equipment of machines
for making and placing dense mortar and concrete. The grouting
process in general will have a wider field of usefulness when its
operation and manipulation, its simplicity and effectiveness are
better understood, and the apparatus perfected, resulting also in
greater economy in its application.
* In sinking a large steel caisson shaft for constructing a tunnel under the
East River to connect the new subways between Brooklyn and Manhattan,
New York City, the bulkheads of the caisson contained a number of 2|-inch
diameter openings, capped during sinking, and used for coneolidating the sur-
rounding material by grouting. Public Service Record, Vol. 3, No. 3, March,
1916. Published by the Public Service Commission, 1st District, State of New
York.
Application of Grout for Waterproofing. To secure good results
from the grouting process, great care must be exercised in conducting
the work. This worii is most advantageously carried on at a rea-
sonably low temperature. Attention to details and a thorough
understanding of the nature of the problem at hand are necessary.
In the case of driven tunnels, for instance, great judgment and care
are required in panning off running water so that none of it will come
in contact .with fresh concrete; and such considerations as the best
method of drilling and placing holes for grouting, the proper con-
sistency of the grout mixture, the best cement to use, what injection
pressure should be applied, the best means of producing and control-
ling the flow of grout, are matters vital to the success of the process.
But these are not difficult to determine as a rule by the performance
of a few preliminary field tests.
In tunnels grouting under pressure is not done until some time
after placing the complete ring of masonry lining at the location
to be grouted, except to reduce leakage in wet ground, or in connec-
tion with sections of masonry lining built to control such leakage
or to support wet and heavy ground. Generally, grout is mixed
as thick as can, with certainty, be made to completely fill the voids.
Good proportions for grout are 1 : 1 (or I5) : 1. Sand or stone dust
and either Portland or natural cement can be used to equal advantage.
Grouting should be carried on continuously at any particular seam
or void until completed, without intermission sufficient to allow
the grout to take an initial set. The grout should be delivered uni-
formly and steadily to avoid occluding air in the interstices of the
dry packing. This is usually accomplished by using two grouting
machines so that while one is shooting grout the other is being
charged. This is especially necessary where large seams or voids
in rock are to be grouted.
For filling large voids thick grout is best, but for small cracks
and fine seams a thin mixture should be used, as, for instance, a
mixture so lean that the water will carry the cement as far as possible
into the fine seam and so avoid blocking up close to the drill hole.
In tunnels through rock, all voids over the arch should be filled
without requiring the grout to travel a great distance, not more than
25 feet after leaving the grout pipe. Grouting of any section of
tunnel should begin at the bottom and proceed uniformly upward.
Unless some other order is found more desirable. If the upper ends
of each series of grout pipes are at different elevations, the grouting
should invariably begin at the lowest pipes, and no higher pipe con-
nected until the grout from a lower pipe begins to flow out of it (see
85
Figs. 22 and 134). Cutoff walls of masonry are sometimes built

tight against the roof and across the arch of the tunnel, dividing
the space above the arch into sections. This. makes more certain
the filling of the voids in the packing of that section, except in unsound
rock where the grout can flow around the cutoff, or where the cutoff
has not been properly made.
Grouting is usually considered completed when no more grout
can be forced into the seam, void or dry packing space under the
required pressure.
Cement and Sand for Grouting. Various materials are sometimes
found effective for grouting purposes. For instance, muddy water,
liquefied clay, soft clay, and ground horse manure have been used
FiQ. 22. — Electric-driven ComDressor Connected to Grout Mixer, Showing

Arrangement of Equipment and Use of Grout Pipe.
alone or with cement for sealing fissures in rock or cracks in massive
concrete. But grout alone is usually and most extensively used with
marked success on all kinds of underground structures, success de-
pending, however, on the care and attention exercised in applying it.
Though Portland cement is the most commonly used, natural cement
may be used. Sand cement is also used and is found very efficient
because it not only sets as vv-ell as Portland cement but seems to
mix better and produce a smoother flowing grout.* However, almost
any standard commercial but preferably quick-setting cement is
suitable for grouting.
The best sand for grout is that grade which will pass approxi-
mately 100 per cent through a sieve having 64 openings per square
inch and approximately 45 per cent pass through a sieve having
* Engineering News-Record, Vol. 78, No. 13, p. 627. 1917.
1600 openings per square inch. If it is desired to use stone screenings
instead of sand it should be the finest obtainable or such as will pass
at least 60 per cent through an 8-mesh sieve, 85 per cent retained on
a 50-mesh sieve and 90 per cent retained on a 100-mesh sieve. The
quantity of water necessary to form the mixture depends on the
physical condition of the ground, rock or masonry to be grouted as
well as upon the condition of the sand or stone screenings. It is
always best to commence with a very liquid mixture, say one part of
cement to five or seven parts of water, by volume, increasing the
amount of cement untill a 3 : 6 to 3 : 7 (sand : water) mixture is
obtained. But it is not possible to adhere to any set rule in
grouting, therefore the operator should possess both judgment
and experience if the greatest efficiency and economy are looked
for.
Equipment for Grouting Process.* The best equipment to use
for forcing grout into the spaces to be filled depends upon the pres-
sure necessary to make the grout travel, and the consistency of the
mixture best adapted to the size and kind of voids to be filled. If
a considerable yardage of grout is required a large capacity equip-
ment is best, but where a small quantity is to be placed, especially
under high pressure, a different equipment is necessary to secure
the best results. In the past, and to a certain extent at present,
grouting has been done by pouring the mortar or grout through pipes
arranged in such a way as to secure the necessary pressure. Gener-
ally, however, more pressure than that afforded by the head of grout
alone is required.
The equipments ordinarily used at the present time are as follows:
(1) Reciprocating pumps furnishing a continuous flow with inde-
pendent means of mixing the grout; (2) Pneumatic mixers and
placers, which are of two classes f (a) paddle mixing and air ejecting,
(6) air mixing and air ejecting; (3) paddle mixing and water ejecting.
A paddle mixing and air ejecting type of grout tank has been exten-
sively used on shield-driven tunnels. This type is well adapted for
placing large quantities of grout, as in grouting dry packing behind
tunnel linings, especially over the arch.
A tank of the air-mixing and ejecting type was used very largely
on the work of the New York Board of Water Supply, particularly
in grouting shafts and pressure tunnels. To counteract the extremely
high head over the Hudson crossing, a Cameron pump was used to
force water into the grout tank. This raised the pressure as high
* Engineering News, May 6, 1916, Vol. 75.
t Developed and patented by William Lester Canniff in 1907.
SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING 87'

as 600 pounds per square inch, which was sufficient to force the
grout in against the external head.
Great care must be exercised in the manipulation of these types
of grout mixers as, for instance, to shut off the discharge valve the
instant the last bit of grout leaves the tank; otherwise an afterblast
of air follows, which stirs up the grout, air collects in the spaces
to be filled by the grout and is displaced only with great diSiculty.
The paddle-mixing and water-ejecting type of grouting machine*
is a newly invented modification of the ordinary grout mixer. This
water-ejecting type seems better suited than the air-ejecting types,
when great pressure is required, to accomplish the ejecting process
against a great head. This water-ejecting grout machine can be
and is also used for low heads with ordinary pressures. Its main
object, however, is to provide an inelastic driving power, formed by
a fluid (watet) piston, for forcing out the grout. As built, this
machine is more easily and certainly controlled and dispenses with
air compression when water under a head is available. Its limited
use does not yet permit a statement of its relative efficiency when
compared to the air-using mixers.
The following description of the equipment employed in grouting
the City Tunnel (Manhattan) of the Catskill Aqueduct is partic-
ularly interesting because it was evolved there and used with
remarkable success. It is in fact a typical equipment for all deep
tunnel grouting. Figs. 22 and 23 show the arrangement of the plant
commonly used on the Catskill Aqueduct, and which was adopted
in some sections of the City Tunnel. Air, piped from the compressor
plant on the surface, was delivered directly to the grout tanks at a
pressure of from 80 to 100 pounds per square inch for the low-pressure
work. When the grouting required higher pressure the air was
further compressed to 200 or 300 pounds per square inch by means
of an auxihary air-driven compressor or " booster," supphed from
the compressor at the surface. Fig. 22 shows a type of equipment
in which the low-pressure grouting was carried on as usual with the
air furnished from the surface compressor plant. The high-pressure
grouting was also done with a small compressor driven from the light-
ing or power circuits. With a plant as shown in Fig. 23, both the low-
and high-pressure grouting was done with the electrically driven
compressor in the tunnel. The adoption of this equipment, in which
the compressor in the turmel is operated only when grouting is
actually being done, makes unnecessary the more or less continuous
operation of the large compressor plant on the surface and effects a
* Patented by S. C. Hulse, February, 1917.
88
3
cr
<!
C3
- 1 -a
further economy in avoiding the piping of compressed air through
the tunnel for grouting work.
Many good details of operation and experience with the grouting
process are described in a series of articles by Mr. James F. Sanborn,*
Division Engineer, Board of Water Supply, New York, which are well
worth persual by readers contemplating similar work.
Steam-pressure Concrete Mixing and Placing Machine. A new
machine embodying the principles of both the grout mixer and
cement gun has recently been developed and used for making water-
tight concrete direct by materially increasing its density during
placing. This machine is called a concrete atomizer and the details
of its operation are as follows :t
The machine illustrated in Fig. 24, A, can make concrete weigh-
ing about 170 pounds per cubic foot. Superheated steam at from
75 to 80 pounds pressure is turned into the mixing chamber while
the concrete is being thoroughly mixed by mechanical means. The
mixture is then discharged through an outlet, and a fresh supply of
superheated steam takes it to the form at high velocity through a
special hose, which is provided with a nozzle opening which can be
instantly increased to the diameter of the hose in case it is plugged.
Where conditions prevent the use of steam, superheated compressed
air gives almost as good results. Fig. 24, B, shows a plant where
high-pressure steam is supplied from a locomotive, passed through a
reducing valve, and superheated to supply the mixer. The super-
heating effectively prevents condensation of water in the stream of
concrete being delivered from the nozzle to the point of work, and
enables the workman to see the face upon which he is playing the
stream.
The pressure and superheating produce a concrete of considerably
increased strength, while the force with which the mixture is applied
gives it great density. A thin slab placed in this way has been found
to be waterproofed under high water pressure. When the amount
of mixing water is properly regulated little aggregate is lost by falhng
from the working face, and sections 1 foot in thickness have been
placed in continuous operation on vertical walls. One of the photo-
graphs shows this machine at work repairing a concrete retaining
wall. It has also recently been successfully employed to reline a
badly leaking tunnel with gravel concrete about 5 inches thick. J
* " Grouting, an Effective Remedy for Stopping Leakage in Tunnels and
Shafts," Engineering Record, April 15, 22, and 29, 1916.
t Invented and described by Harold P. Brown in Journal of American Con-
crete Institute, Vol. Ill, No. 7, July, 1915.
t Proceedings American Concrete Institute, ^'ol. 12, 1916.
90
icMg;^^'- "\
Fig. 24.
A. "Concrete Atomizer," which Turns Out Concrete under 80-lb. ^^tcam
Pressure.
B. Mixer Outfit at AA'ork on Delaware, Lackawanna & Western R. R.
Retaining Wall, Newark, N. J.
CHAPTER III
IMPERVIOUS ROOFING
Impervious Roofing Defined. The subject of impervious roofing
is vast and complex, and we can only hope to cover its more general
aspects with as much detail as is consistent with the practical limits
desired for this chapter. The term " Impervious Roofing " is taken
to mean those materials which are used as a topmost covering for
any form of building construction and whose main function is to
create a watertight roof. These materials always require properly
constructed supports regardless of the character of the roofing or
structure. Impervious roofing, however, does not include the sup-
ports, such as trusses, beams, purlins and rafters, but does include
everything else such as sheathing boards, masonry tiles and slabs
or other suitable sheathing materials, which are placed upon the
roof supports for the double purpose of providing a uniform and
continuous surface for receiving the waterproofing materials and
adding to the protection of the interior from the elements. Rain,
hail and snow are, of course, the particular scourges which create the
necessity for making roofs absolutely watertight. The cost of roof-
ing depends on so many different factors, that no worth-while
estimate could be given as a general indication of the relative saving
to be expected from the use of the types explained below. However,
one thing should be borne in mind, namely, the annoy&nce and
maintenance expense occasioned by leaky and short-lived roofs,
are hardly compensated for by any possible saving in first cost.
The following considerations should guide the selection of a roofing:*
(1) Chance of leaks due to character of construction; (2) Probable
Ufe, including chance of damage by the elements and by wear from
other causes; (3) Fire-resisting value; (4) Cost of maintenance;
(5) Cost of materials; (6) Cost of laying.
The simplest form of roof is the primitive flat roof of the Orient
made with cross beams, thatch, and a heav^y layer of stamped^ clay,
which made the roof more or less watertight. In central Syria ani
* American Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association,
Bulletin No. 131, January 19, 1911.
91
in Egypt important buildings were roofed with beams and made
watertight with slabs of stone. The Greeks used mainly low-
pitched, gabled roofs protected with tiles of marble or terra cotta.
The Romans were the first to use domes of brick or concrete covered
with cement and lead sheeting for watertightness. On elaborate
structures the roofs were covered with tiles or with bronze plates.
In the mediaeval cathedrals the roofs, which invariably had a very
steep pitch, were for the first time in history sheathed with boards,
then covered with slate, tiles, sheet copper or lead. The Italian
classic type of roof was made nearly flat; and this type now pre-
dominates in tropical and subtropical climates. Steep roofs quite
obviously predominated in regions of much rain or nnow, as in
northern countries, and continue to do so. Most modern roofings
have not the same architectural beauty as those of ancient classic
types, but they are more economical and efficient, also more varied
and numerous in material and design than the old roofings. Some
of the more important ones will be considered separately in the
following articles.
Properties and Application of Shingles
Wood Shingles. For securing watertight roofs, many materials
are now in common use, all of which fall under four general heads of
roofing, namely: the shingle roof, the tin roof, the felt roof (also
called the composition of built-up roof), and the functional roof.
The oldest and most commonly used of these roofings is the shingle
roof. Wooden shingles are universally used for this purpose. These
are made of various woods, such as cypress, redwood, cedar, juniper,
white pine and spruce; this also being the order of their durability.
Cypress is the most durable of wood shingles, though, as with all other
woods, it is only the heartwood that shows greatest durability.*
On the other hand redwood is much less inflammable than any of the
others and spruce is the cheapest. Wooden shingles are usually
packed in bundles (four of which constitute a " thousand," or the
equivalent of one thousand shingles 4 inches wide) sawed to dimension
sizes, which range from 4 to 6 inches wide and 16 to 24 inches long,
or in random sizes, which range from 2i to 16 inches wide and 16
to 24 inches long. Wood shingles are easy to apply, being fastened
to the sheathing boards with two or three nails driven into the part
that will be covered by the exposed portion of the superimposed
* Cypress shingles were laid on a roof of a building in Greenwich, Conn., in
1640 and were serving well 250 years afterwards.
IMPERVIOUS ROOFING 93
shingle. Unfortunately it is almost impossible to secure nails that
will not corrode before good shingles will deteriorate, hence
the shingles become loosened and displaced. The use of pure
iron nails, rather than galvanized iron nails, will reduce this hazard
to a minimimi. No shingle should show more than one-third of its
face to the weather. For the number required and the covering
area of shingles, see Table XXXVII. For protecting wooden
shingles from rapid incineration and deterioration, they are usually
dipped into fireproof liqmds, such as solutions of sodium silicate oi'
aluminum sulphate, or coated with a wash mixture composed of
lime, salt and fine sand or wood ashes. The sodium silicate, however,
is readily soluble in water hence it will wash off unless the shingles
are given a top coat of oil or paint; and the lime-salt-sand solution
will not stick long unless also covered with a coat of oil or paint.
The most effective and in the end the economical way would be to
paint the shingles with a zinc borate paint. This paint is also
remarkably fireproof. For preserving purposes such salt solutions as
zinc chloride and sodium fluoride; or such oils as carbolinemn and
dead oil (creosote oU) are much used. The shingles are dipped in
either of thê for a period determined by experiment but usually
depending on the grade of wood used. If creosote oil is objection-
able, then besides the above salt solutions a solution of persulphate
of iron of 2 to 2J deg. Baum4, can be substituted. But if the per-
sulphate of iron solution is used then it is advisable to top coat the
shingles with hot, raw, Unseed oil. Often, however, besides receiving
preservative treatment the shingles are painted or stained to create a
pleasing effect. Since dipping the shingles is mainly for their pres-
ervation, they are completely submerged in the liquid, but in paint-
ing them, which is mainly for appearance, only the weather portion
of the shingles is coated. However, unless this is done with the
greatest care, it would be better to paint the whole shingle, because
otherwise dry-rot will hardly be prevented. For shingles that are
merely to be stain-treated (they can be stained almost any color),
the staining is best and most durably applied by dipping.
Slate Shingles. Next in general use are slate shingles, especially
the black and the red varieties, but various shades of green and gray
are also used. These are supplied commercially in thicknesses of f, rs,
and J inch, increasing by | inch, to 1 inch. Slate should be hard
and tough, and have a well-defined vein, which must not be too
coarse; if the slate is too soft, it will absorb moisture, if too brittle,
it cannot be cut and punched without splitting, and it will easily be
damaged by walking on the roof. A clear metaUic ring when the
94
slate is struck is an indication of its soundness; a muffled sound

indicates a cracked or soft condition. For the number of shingles
required per square of roof surface, see Table XXXVII. Slate
shingles are usually attached to the sheathing over two or more
plies of treated felt. Sometimes this felt membrane is cemented
with a bituminous binder. Occasionally the slate shingles are laid
up in neat cement, or rich cement mortar, but more often they are
nailed to the sheathing boards like wood shingles (see Fig. 25). On
irregularly shaped roofs and in locations near hips and valleys and
flashings great care and skill are required in laying the shingles so
as to avoid leaks. For these places tin is often used but copper or
sheet lead are best adapted for the purpose.
Nails,-
^-^ '
■
. — :
=^
^
^
*=
; ;
: :
Fig. 25.— Typical Details of Slate Roofing
Slate shingles are often attached to concrete or porous terra-

cotta roofs, by being nailed directly to the surfaces. This is poor
practice especially on roofs having the minimum allowable pitch.
A means for attaching them more securely is to nail ij by 2 inch-
wood strips to the outer face of the concrete or terra cotta, the
strips being set the proper distance apart to receive the slate
shingles, and then plastering between the strips with cement mortar.
This gives a good nailing base for the roofing. Among the best
impervious roofings that can be put on a flat or moderately inclined
roof is one of slate shingles, laid over a membrane of five plies of
treated felt. The membrane is applied with bituminous binder as
for a felt roof, and the slates bedded on the membrane in cement
mortar.* For this arrangement the shingles, are thicker fhaCn ordi-
nary and laid butt-joint fashion.
Tile Shingles. Next in order of usage are tile shingles. Clay
tiles were used before historic times, and, of course, all down the
ages there has been considerable improvement in the product. Not,
however, till 1851, when the first tile-making machine was invented,
did the manufacture of clay tiles assume a real industrial aspect,
as previously all tiles were made by hand. To-day the tile industry
is extensive and exists practically in all countries of the world.
Tiles are manufactured in various sizes and forms and of such
materials as clay, shale (vitrified tiles), cement mortar, and even
reinforced concrete. (See Figs. 27, 28, and 29.) Clay roofing tiles
properly made, that is, well-glazed and hard-burned throughout,
cannot be excelled for durability. The application of vitrified tiles
often depends on their form. Some are curved on both ends and
hook on each other downward from the ridge tile, which is straddled
on the ridge pole; some are rectangular (the usual dimensions being
Ij by 6 by 9 inches), and of various shades, such as red, black, green
and gray. It is harder to get a tight roof with ordinary tile than
with slate, but the interlocking shapes that have been devised give
very good results in this respect. Sometimes the tile is imbedded
in a plastic cement or in cement mortar upon an underlying three-
to six-ply built-up felt roof, replacing the gravel. In fact, this
scheme has become the practice for roofs of modern high and expen-
sive buildings. Flat porous tiles similar to the above, but of larger
size are usually attached in the same manner as slate shingles.
Sometimes the large-size tile is laid directly on steel or wooden
purlins, which must be spaced to suit the length of the tile.
The cement tiles are of various shapes and sizes; those shown in
Fig. 28 being an extensively used type. They are, of course, fire-
proof as well as waterproof, strong and practically permanent.
They are usually made so as to lay directly on the purlins.
The reinforced concrete roofing tiles are mostly home made, so 'to
speak. They can be made anywhere in all sizes, shapes and colors,
hence are very adaptable for special purposes. Reinforced concrete
roofing tiles were extensively used on nearly all superstructures of
the New York Catskill Aqueduct. Because of their relative high
cost their use is Hmited to elaborate and expensive structures; but
because of their permanence and serviceability they should have a
wider usage. In this connection the following brief suggestions for
making reinforced concrete tiles will be of material aid.
* Kidder's " Architects and Builders Pocket Book," p. 567.
96
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERIXG
Success in using reinforced concrete roofing tiles depends on the

care with which they are made, handled and placed. The first
requisite is that they be made impervious to water and as dense
and strong as practicable. The thickness of tiles varies from f inch
to 3 inches, depending on appearance and extraneous functions. The
Fig. 27. — Bakcd-clay (Vitrified Tile) Roofing, Showing A, Spanish; B, German;

and C, Closed-shingle Types.
thickness of pan (flat) tiles (as used on the above mentioned work*)
except at the ribs, or along the edges, was a])proximatcIv 1| inches,
being nowhere less than 1 inch, while the average thickness was not
* New York Catskill Water Supply, Type "A" Reinforced Concrete Roof
Tiles.
IMPERVIOUS UOOFIXO
9/
to exceed l\ inches (see Fi.n'. 2'.t). In plaein-i the tiles upon the steel
frames of tlie roof (and steel frames are prc>i'eral)ly usetl for their
support so as to ol)tain tlie necessary I'itîdity), the steel shoukl be
covered with mortar or other suitable coating material foi- protection
against corrosion. It is important that this covering be neither
chipped, cracked nor other-.\-ise injured, flashings for tiles about
Fig. 28. — Types of Cement Roofing Tile.
the chimnej'S should preferably be of sheet copper, such as weighs

20 ounces per square foot.
The best aggregate for concrete tiles is clean quartz, which con-
tains both fine and coarse particles of suitable limiting sizes and is
satisfactorily graded. All aggregates, however, should not contain
sufficient loam or claj', or other objectionable matter, to render them
unsuitable for making an impervious antl uniformly clean-lookinj:
98
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tile. For best results it is important to use clean water and to form
a medium consistency concrete. In general the mixture may be
approximately in the proportions of 1 : 2J to 1 : 3, the aggregates
being measured by weight or volume, as found practicable. It is
important to thoroughly mix the concrete in a good mechanical
mixer, except that very small quantities may be mixed by hand.
Concrete mixing by machine should be continued for at least ten
minutes. No tiles should be made of retempered concrete. Where
it is desired to tint the tiles, mineral coloring materials may be added
during the mixing, but if the bottom surfaces are to be exposed
inside of a building they should preferably be a very Kght gray or
white. The top surface of tiles may be tinted by the surface applica-
tion of a suitable paint.
Steel reinforcement for concrete tiles should be ample, pref-
erably of the mesh fabric variety, firmly fastened at each inter-
section and properly placed. Tor reinforcing- the ridge, hip, rib and
finial tiles or other special shapes and the bearing lugs of pan tiles,
steel rods about 3 inch in diameter will be very useful in addition
to the mesh reinforcement. The best practice is to put the steel
in the lower part of the tile and every part of it at least -fg inch
from the surface. The reinforcement must be placed in exact
positions specified by design, and held in position so as to prevent
displacement while the concrete is being deposited and while it is
setting. If the concrete is not sufficiently wet to thoroughly coat
the steel with cement, it is advisable to coat the steel with cement
grout as it is being placed in the form or immediately before
placing.
After fabrication the tiles should be seasoned; that is, in order
to avoid all manner of cracks, the tiles, on removal from the forms,
should, during the first month, be kept constantly moist. It is very
important that all the tiles should be true to the shapes required
by the particular design; especially is it important to see that the
flat tiles are not warped. Particular attention is also necessary for
making those edges which bear on the surfaces of other tiles so
true and smooth as to form good joints. Variations from any
dimension ought not to exceed | inch. The tiles should be adjusted
in place so as to give close joints where exposed to the weather, and
so that each tile will have a satisfactory bearing. The exposed
spaces between the soffits of the eaves tiles and the cornices should
be pointed smooth with Portland cement mortar, which may be
made to match the tiles in color. All joints should be made per-
manent with an elastic roofing cement. Tiles having unevenness.

voids or other objectionable imperfections which would reduce their
impermeability, should not be used.
To test the permeabiUty of concrete tiles, at least two seasoned
pan tiles should be placed separately in a horizontal position, top up,
and subjected over the area which would be exposed in the roof, to a
3-inch depth of water for seven consecutive days, after which a
well-made tile should not show any dampness over the bottom.
The strength of tiles may be tested by placing flatwise, horizontally,
top up, a tile not .less than twenty-eight days old, on rigid supports,
one near each end of the tile and extending across its full width.
Thus supported, a tile as illustrated in Fig. 29 should be able to
support a central load of at least 600 pounds, applied gradually,
bearing across the whole width of the tile.
Prepared Shingles. Then there are what, for want of a better
name, are called " Prepared Shingles."* Indeed, these shingles
are fast becoming a very staple roofing material. Prepared shingles
are composed of various materials, such as asbestos fiber compressed
into boards of various thicknesses, sizes and shapes: or of two or three
plies of wool and rag felt, saturated and coated with various grades
of asphalt, made, smooth or rough-surfaced and cut into shingles 8 by
12i inches or 8 by 16 inches which are the two standard sizes; or of a
thick, treated, wool-felt, surfaced either with fine sand or carefully
screened grit, but sometimes with mica flakes, or stone screenings
(see Figs. 30 and 34) such as slate, feldspar and silicate, whose varied
colors create pleasing roof effects. In the felt shingles, it is, of
course, the asphalt (or coal-tar pitch) treatments which give the
weather-resisting qualities to them. If unsurfaced, they are of light
weight and sometimes the asphalt-treated shingles tend to disin-
tegrate or the coal-tar pitch hardens and the shingles become brittle
on exposure. Hence, the final surfacing with a layer of mineral
matter serves a threefold purpose.
In view of the growing importance of prepared shingles, the
following instructions for applying them will be found helpful:
The sheathing boards should be laid closely and securely nailed.
It is necessary to see that the surface is clean and free of all pro-
jecting nail heads or other obstructions. On particular work, it is
good practice to first cover the sheathing boards with a single ply
of building paper or treated felt. One row of shingles is laid length-
wise along the entire lower edge of the sheathing, extending | inch
over the edge of the sheathing or inner edge of the gutter. These
must fit closely and each lower corner nailed, driving the nails 2
* Prepared shingles were originated in 1901 and first marketed in 1910.
IMPERVIOUS ROOFING
101
inches from the lower edges and ends. One nail is driven half way
between the two, thus using three nails to each shingle on this row.
It is best to use 1-inch galvanized nails with large, flat heads about
5 inch in diameter.
The regular course should begin with a full-sized shingle, as shown
in Fig. 30, laying same parallel to, and flush with, the outer edge or
vertical end of the roof. The lower end is flushed with the first layer,
allowing ^-inch space between the shingles. The course is thus
continued, using two nails to the shingle, driven 4| inches from the
lower edge. The second row is thus begun with two-third-sized
Fig. 30. — Undersurfaced, Prepared-shingle Roofing. {A, Nails.)
shingles, laid 4 inches to the weather, and nailed as the others. The
third row follows with one-third-sized shingles and the same spacing,
etc. In beginning the fourth row, full-sized shingles are again used
and continued as before. The f-inch space between shingles allows
for contraction and expansion and improves the general appearance.
If shingles are laid 4 inches to the weather and 4| inches from
the lower ends, all nail heads will be fully covered and protected.
Metal should, of course, be used for all flashings and for lining
gutters.
Asbestos Shingles.* There are on the market various brands of
pressed asbestos shingles mostly cut to a standard size, usually
* Originated in Austria. Patented in the United States in January, 1907.
102
8 by 16 inches (see Fig. 31, A) which are in demand because they

are both fireproof and waterproof. They are made of a mixture of
asbestos and Portland cement and compressed to any desired thick-
FiG. 31.
A. The American or Straight-laid Method of Applying Shingles.
B. The Honeycomb or Hexagonal Method of Laying Square-cut Shingles.
C. The Diagonal or French Method of Applying Shingles.
ness under hydraulic pressure. When new, they absorb between
5 and 10 per cent by weight of water, depending on the compression
they underwent. But when exposed to the air for any length of
time, further hydration of the cement decreases their absorptiveness
IMPERVIOtS ROOFING' 103

and increases their impermeability. The strength, durability, imper-
meability and fireproof properties of asbestos shingles are important
factors in overbalancing their high cost. Asbestos shingles like most
others are also made in special sizes and forms (see Fig. 31, B) and
sometimes are applied in the same manner as tile or slate shingles.
Sometimes they are laid up in proprietary cements, a common
cement for such purpose being a paste made of China wood oil and
heavy petroleum residuum.
There are three standard methods for applying shingles which
will be described briefly in connection with the appUcation of asbestos
shingles, although these methods are equally apphcable to other
kinds of shingles. These are the American method, the Hexagonal
method and the French method. But regardless of the method of
application it is absolutely necessary that all asbestos shingles be
very hard pressed, only slightly absorbent, reasonably strong, and
cut to uniform size and thickness to secure the best results.
American Method of Applying Asbestos Shingles. This method
has many modifications of application, but the commonest way is
as follows:
The roof boards are laid so as to break joints and nailed securely
in place, leaving no loose ends. They should be well-seasoned and
preferably of a narrow width. One ply of felt is laid horizontally
over the roof boards with a 2-inch lap, and with 6-inch laps on hips
and valleys. Fm'ring strips j to ^ inch wide are laid under the felt,
parallel to and flush with the eaves, and then one course of shingles
is laid at eaves lengthwise and parallel to same, overhauling the eaves
about i inch. The second course of shingles entirely covers the
first course (see Fig. 31, A), but breaking joints; after which the
process is the same as with wooden shingles or slates, exposing not
more than 7 inches to the weather and fastening each shingle in
place with at least two galvanized iron roofing nails. Nails must
never be driven down tight; it is only necessary to drive them
firmly. Over the ridges and hips asbestos ridge and hip roUs should
be applied with not less than 3-inch laps, fastened in place with ridge
roll fasteners. Where the ridge pole does not project high enough
above the roof boards to allow direct application of the ridge roU, it
is necessary to put in a false pole, so that it is possible to get a direct
fastening through the top of the ridge roU (see Fig. 32). AU chimneys
and valleys must be flashed with copper or other suitable metal.
Hexagonal and French Methods of Applying Asbestos Shingles.
The Hexagonal method for applying asbestos shingles is as follows:
The roof is prepared as in the American method. Furring strips
104
i to J inch thick by IJ inches wide are laid underneath the felt

parallel to and flush with the eaves. Then one course of asbestos
shingles is laid end to end, parallel with and overhanging the eaves,
not less than § inch; over which is apphed one course of shingles
entirely covering the starter, breaking all joints (see Fig. 31, B).
The balance of the roof is covered with shingles, 12 by 12 inches,
laid as shown, exposing 9| by 9^ inches to the weather. All shingles
are fastened in place with galvanized nails, but the points of the main
body shingles are fastened with copper storm nails. Here also the
nails must not be driven down tight, but firmly. All the main body
shingles should be laid with the diagonal lines on a 45-degree angle
with the eaves. Over the ridges and hips asbestos ridge and hip
rolls must be applied in the same way as for the American method.
In applying the hexagonal shingles the same method is used as with
the rectangular ones of the American method.
Fig. 32. — Details of Ridge Roll Construction.
The French method is illustrated in Fig. 31, C, which is quite

self-explanatory.
In general, shingles of all materials when well laid make a hand-
some and watertight roof, and are easily replaced and repaired.
They are serviceable on all but flat roofs, except as noted under
slate and tile shingles. The minimum pitch for wooden shingles,
slates, tile (when laid as roofing proper) and prepared shingles, is
one-third, that is, 1 foot of rise for each 3 feet of span. Table VIII
gives the minimum pitch for other roofing materials, but these
values inay vary somewhat, because each manufacturer usually
establishes the inchne upon which his own .roofing should be applied.
In connection with all shingled roofs, *^sheet lead is often used
for gutters, flashings, etc. The weights recommended for these
purposes are as follows:
Gutters 7 pounds lead per square foot.
Hips and ridges . . . 6 pounds lead per square foot.
Flashings 4 to 5 pounds lead per square foot.

Table XXXV gives the thickness and weight of sheet lead.
Where sheet lead is to be used to form rather large hips and other
important parts of the roof, it is not desirable to lay it in greater
lengths than 10 or 12 feet without a joint roll or drip to allow for
movement due to the great expansion and contraction of lead from
changes of temperature.
TABLE VIII.— MINIMUM PITCH OF ROOFS
Rise/Span
Asphalt composition 1/24
Tin (standing seam) 1/8
Tin (flat seams) _. 1/24
Corrugated iron 1/4
Sheet iron 1/4
Copper , 1/6
Lead 1/6
Thatch ...1/2
Shingles 1/3
Slate 1/3
Tiles, terra-cotta 1/3
Reinforced concrete slabs 1/24
Ready roofing 1/24
Felt, asphalt (or tar), and gravel (or slag) (maximum) 1/4
Tin Roofing
Properties and Application of Tin Roofing. The second type of
roofing, that is, tin roofing, is applicable to both flat and pitched
roofs, and is adaptable to special and difiicult conditions, as well
as practicable in every climate. Tin plate (which consists of iron
or steel sheeting, tinned with an alloy of lead and tin), copper and
zinc sheetings, are the most generally used for this purpose and their
predominance is in the order given. The coat on the tin plate is,
as noted above, mostly an alloy of lead and tin with the quantity
of lead usually predominating. The best grade of tin is that which
is coated with an alloy consisting of 30 per cent pure tin and 70 per
cent pure lead. The weight of this coating varies between 8 pounds
and 40 pounds per box of 112 sheets, 14 by 20 inches, depending on
the thickness of the coat. Plates carrying less than 20 pounds
should not be used for permanent buildings; for such use 30 to 40-
pound coating is most serviceable. Where the coating is all of
lead it is called terne plate and this grade is generally used on inex-

pensive roofs. Tin plates usually come in standard sizes, either
14 by 20 inches, or 20 by 28 inches, with prepared edges to enable
the roofer to make locked seams between them as they are applied.
A modified form of tin-plate roofing consists of rolls of tin plates
about 2 feet wide and of various lengths (between 10 and 50 feet) as
required. These strips are applied by unrolling, joining and solder-
ing them into a continuous sheet over the entire roof, usually with
standing seams. Copper and zinc sheeting also come in standard
sizes but are often made in any required size and thickness to suit
the particular conditions of the roof.
Tin plates for flat roofs are usually put on with the ordinary
flat-lock joint, the sheets of tin being nailed under the lock. After
the sheets are nailed and hooked together the hook joints are beaten
down with a wooden mallet and then soldered.
When it is desired to make some allowance for contraction and
expansion ,the sheets are fastened with tin clips nailed to the roof as
shown at A, Fig. 33; in this way there are no nails through the sheets
of tin, being held in place by the chps. Fig. 33, B, shows a section
of this joint.*
To allow for greater ease of movement due to expansion and
contraction and to reduce the use of nails and soldering of joints to a
minimum, what are known as standing seams are used. These
seams are always placed perpendicular to the eaves, but not carried
into the gutter, where they would interfere with drainage or cause
leaks through water making its way into the seams. Standing-seam
roofs are fastened with clips nailed to the sheathing and turned
down in the standing seam. Fig. 33 (C, D, E) shows a standing-
seam roof in the different stages of construction.
Fig. 33, F, shows the joint turned down as a flat lock joint.
In standing-seam roofs or any roof where the tin is laid in long
lengths the cross-joints should be double-locked; this is shown at
G, while the ordinary single lock is shown at H.
Tin roofs are sometimes put on in lengths running with the slope
of the roof, the strips of tin being turned up and laid between
strips of wood, as shown at J. This method provides ample allow-
ance for expansion and contraction, and also enhances the appearance
of the roof.
Fig. 33, K, shows a method used for zinc and copper, while L
shows how the cross-joints should be made at the ends of the sheet
metal; a rise or step is made in the roof and the two sheets of
metal turned and locked as shown. In working zinc care must be
* Richey's " The Building Mechanics' Ready Reference,"
IMPERVIOUS ROOFING
107
exercised in making the bends and angles, for if they are made too
sharp the metal is liable to crack.
Wherever any metal roof covering finishes at a wall or any place
where flashing is necessary the roof metal should be turned up S or
10 inches and securely fastened; then this metal should be counter-
(Cleat Omitted)
flashed and the flashing let into the joint of the wall at least 2 inches
and well cemented. This is a part of the work that requires partic-
ular attention so as to get everything watertight.
In all metal roofing the main points are to get the joints water-
tight and to make provision for expansion and contraction.

As soon as the roofing is in place and the joints all soldered, it
should then be painted. But just before painting, however, the
metal roofing should be gone over and all grease, oil, resin, etc.,
removed with gasoline or benzene.
Roofs of less than one-fifth pitch are best made with flat seams
well locked together. The sheets of tin should preferably be of the
small size, 14 by 20 inches, as the small sheets cause more seams and
make a stiff roof which prevents buckling. Ordinarily, nails are
driven through the edge of the sheet under the lock, but in good work
the sheets should be fastened with tin clips or cleats nailed to the
roof. This leaves the tin of the roof free to expand and contract.
Nails or cleats should be used about every 6 or 7 inches. In solder-
ing the seams rosin, and not acid, should be used, as the latter may
attack and destroy the body of the tin, and great care should be
exercised and time taken to " sweat " the solder well up into the lock
of the seam.
A standing seam should not be used on a roof of less than one-
fifth pitch; as, on a flatter roof, while it may be tight for rain, in
the winter the snow and ice will cause the water to back up under
the seam.
Tin roofing should always be painted on the under side to pre-
vent rusting; a layer of good rosin-sized paper directly on the
sheathing is of great benefit, as it absorbs the moisture from the rooms
below, and acts as a cushion to the tin.
The metal type of roofing is the most expensive, but is very
durable (where a good grade of block tin or copper sheeting is used)
and least troublesome if properly cared for; e.g., if a tin roof
receives a coat of paint composed of raw linseed oil and iron oxide,
once every two years, its life will be prolonged indefinitely. Perhaps
the most objectionable feature present in a tin roof is its capacity for
absorbing heat, which it retains, often to the great discomfort of
dwellers directly underneath such a roof. Most roofers are very
expert in the apphcation of this type of roofing, hence it is more
important to obtain a good quahty of material than to issue exhaust-
ive instructions for applying it.
Felt (ob Composition, or Built-up) Roofing
Applying Felt Roofing. The third and most modern method is
the Felt or Composition roof. A felt roof generally consists of several
plies of treated felt (a product of rag, pulp or asbestos) laid on a
properly prepared surface and cemented together with coal-tar

pitch or asphalt and generally (except the asbestos felt roofing)
covered with slag, stone screenings or gravel (see Figs. 113 and 114).
The felt may be treated with asphalt, oil tar, or coal tar, but the
impregnation must be thorough in any case. The slag or
gravel must cover the entire roofing surface so as to protect
the bituminous coating from direct exposure, and to add weight
to the membrane. For approximate weights of various roofings,
see Table XXXVI.
The method of applying felt roofings is practically standard;
still, roofers and builders may find the following directions helpful.
These directions* represent the best practice, but refer only to coal-
tar pitch binder and felt. However, any good grade asphalt binder
(of the right consistency for the local climate) and felt might be
substituted, and equally good results obtained.
First: One ihickness of sheathing paper, or unsaturated felt,
weighing not less than 5 poimds per 100 square feet, is applied, lapping
the sheets at least 1 inch.
Second: Two plies of saturated felt, weighing 14 to 16 pounds
per 100 square feet, are applied, lapping each sheet 17 inches over
the preceding one, nailing as often as is necessary to hold it in place
until the remaining felt is laid.
Third: The entire surface is then uniformly coated with straight-
run coal-tar pitch.
Fourth: Three pUes of treated felt are laid, lapping each sheet
22 inches over the preceding one, and mopping the pitch the full
22 inches on each sheet, so that in no place shall felt touch felt.
Such nailing as is necessary shall be done so that all nails will be
covered by not less than two plies of felt.
Fifth: Over the entire surface is spread a uniform coating of
pitch, into which, while hot, is embedded not less than 400 pounds
of gravel, or 300 pounds of slag to each 100 square feet of surface.
The gravel or slag should be from J to f inch in size, dry and free
from dirt.
The sheathing paper, or unsaturated felt, is placed on the bottom
next to the roof boards, mainly to keep any pitch which might
penetrate the 2-ply felt above it from cementing the roofing to the
sheathing boards. It also is of value in preventing the drying out
of the roof through open joints from below. The saturated felts
should be nailed not only to hold it in place while laying, but where
there is any chance of disturbance of the roof from vmderneath by
the wind. The practice in regard to naihng varies in different
* Proceedings of Engineers' Society Western Pennsylvania, October, 1911.
110 WATERPROOFING KNGINEERING

parts of the country, but the fewer nails the better, so long as the
roof is held in place.
The two layers of saturated felt first laid are necessary in order
to carry and give full value to the amount of pitch which must be
handled in one mopping.
For a concrete roof, where the pitch does not exceed 1 inch in 1
foot, nailing is not necessary, and the practice of applying the felt
membrane is similar except that a dry sheet is not necessary, the
concrete being first coated with pitch and the first two layers mopped
the full 17 inches. Special care should always be taken in regard
to flashing and to prevent the roofing from being loosened at the
edge either by wind or fire. Most leaks occur around flashings
and openings.
After the original two layers of saturated felt are used, the
additional layers are merely to give additional thickness of wearing
material, and with a roof properly laid, the greater the amount of
felt and pitch used the greater the life of the roof. Five plies are
sufficient for most roofing purposes and when well applied make a
very good roof covering.
The coating of gravel, crushed stone or slag helps to hold the
coal-tar pitch in place, protects it from wear and from the action of
the elements; it also has considerable fire-retarding value. Slag is
better than rounded gravel for moderately steep roofs, because be-
sides having sufficient weight it has exceptional bonding power.
But if the mineral coating material be too fine its holding power is
lessened. If it be too large the stones may cause damage to the roof
when it is walked upon and are more apt to roll off. Crushed
material with rough, sharp edges has a much better holding power
than rounded gravel. Sand or dirt mixed with the gravel is objec-
tionable, as it tends to prevent the gravel from bedding itself in the
pitch. Sometimes the sand mixes with the pitch, the resultant being
more inert and liable to crack than the clean pitch.
In the final mopping of a felt roof the effect is to get the maximum
amount of coal-tar pitch coating which can be kept in place. The
flatter the roof the greater the amount of pitch that can be used and
the better the pitch and gravel will stay when put in place.
The melting-point of the pitch should be varied to suit climatic
conditions. This variation is easily accomplished because it only
depends upon the source of the tar, and the point to which the dis-
tillation of the coal-tar is carried in the process. But the melting-
point of pitch is not definite and in defining it for a particular pur-
pose and locality a specification is advisable. The use of a pitch

with a melting-point too high to allow satisfactory working and
requiring the addition of a flux on the work, giving what is known
as a " cut-back " pitch, should not be allowed.
The best results are obtained when the slope of the roof is only
enough to allow it to thoroughly drain. A method which gives good
results on steeper roofs is the addition of some asphalt to the pitch
which is used for the top coating. This must be carefully done, as an
intimate mixture of the asphalt and coal-tar pitch is not easily
obtained. Coal-tar pitch is often prepared for use on moderately
steep slopes by the addition of some finely ground inert material,
but this is liable to give uncertain results unless the mineral dust is
thoroughly and uniformly mixed throughout the mass. Powdered
slate and actinolite* are much used for this purpose. Portland
cement and plaster of Paris are also used.
In place of felt alone, for building up this membrane-roofing,
treated jute or cotton fabric is sometimes alternated between pUes.
While a stronger membrane results no other advantage accrues to
the roofing to counterbalance the increased cost thereof, even when
the number of felt plies is reduced thereby.
Where waterproofing and fireproofing are equally important, an
asbestos roofing felt is often used. The asbestos, being a mineral,
besides being fire-resistant, has the advantage that it will not decay.
It is not as absorbent of the preservative though, as felt. This
type of roofing is ordinarily applied only by the manufacturer.
It usually consists of one or more phes of asbestos felt, with a
strengthening material, such as jute or cotton fabric, in the center,
and cemented together with asphaltic compounds. Here the reinforc-
ing fabric is essential due to the extreme weakness of the asbestos
felt. Roofs composed of this material usually do not need slag or
gravel, thereby reducing the weight and presenting a clean, smooth
finished surface. The absence of slag or gravel incidentally precludes
the possibility of clogging down-spouts and gutters, which seems
almost an unavoidable defect of all felt roofs with mineral
coverings.
Asbestos felt roofs of the built-up type are applied over boards
as follows: First, a composite membrane composed of one untreated
asbestos sheet and one treated sheet (usually combined at the
factory) is laid on the roof boards, lapping and cementing, and
nailing the sheets every 2 inches, with the untreated side down.
This is followed with two more sheets of impregnated asbestos felt,
placing these succeeding sheets so as to always break joints and
* A calcium-magnesium-iron mineral.

having the next nailing in the center of the sheet thereunder. All
nails are on the under edge, protected by the asbestos and binder.
Each sheet is mopped its full width.
Asbestos felt roofing over concrete is laid the same way as over
boards, except that usually three impregnated sheets are used as
described. Sometimes the concrete is first coated with a liquid
priming coat, making it possible for the hot bitumen to better stick
to the concrete surface.
Varieties of Phbpaebd or Ready Roofings
To reduce cost and labor, and to meet some of the conditions
wherein a built-up roof is not satisfactory, innumerable substitutes
are made and sold extensively in the form of " ready " or " prepared "
roofings. They are of special value for steep roofs and temporary
structures. Ready roofings consist mainly of thick, heavy, specially
treated rag or pulp and wool felt, covered on one or both sides with
rather tough bitumen, leaving a smooth or corrugated finish similar
of prepared shingles (see Fig. 34, A), and sometimes also surfaced
with fine sand or grit (Fig. 34, B), or stone screenings (Fig. 34, C).
The amount of surfacing material that can be used is limited to the
amount that can be successfully rolled on the felt. If the particles
are too large they may damage the felt in rolling. Ready roofings
are also made of one, two, or three phes of thin treated felt, bonded
and surface coated with asphalt or coal-tar pitch in the factory, and
applied as individual sheets in the field. Coal tar, however, is not
considered the best material for a high-grade ready roofing. These
and other varieties are made up in rolls of standard widths and
weights, of one and two squares, accompanied by the nails and
cement necessary to apply them. The standard width is 36 inches,
and the standard weights are: 35 pounds for one ply, 45 pounds
for two plies, and 55 pounds for three plies. However, there is no
uniformity of practice among the different manufacturers. In apply-
ing these sheets they are usually laid in the direction of the width of
the roof, overlapping from 2 to 6 inches, cemented with a bitumi-
nous solution (usually some bitumen dissolved in a volatile oil), and
nailed down with the nails not more than 2 inches apart. The best
type of nails are made of No. 12 gauge wire, with a cap made of cold-
rolled hoop steel welded on in the factory.
Prepared roofings are cheap, easily applied, and quite durable,
but as a class, somewhat inferior to a first class built-up roof. The
weakest points about ready roofing are the narrow laps and the fact
IMPERMOUS ROUFIXG
113
114. WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING

that usually a large part of the roof is covered with but one layer
of the material, hence a single break will cause a leak.
There are a great many varieties and qualities of ready roofing,
the heavier varieties, in general, being more desirable. There are
also many methods for holding them' down against weather con-
ditions. Fig. 35 shows ready roofing applied to a flat roof, lapped,
and nailed down with metal cleats. So or similarly protected,
these roofings are equally serviceable for flat and pitched roofs.
Appljnng Ready Roofings. There are various ways of applying
prepared roofing, depending on whether utility or architectural
effects are most desirable. To secure the latter effect, the roofing
felt should be applied with the pitch of the roof, the joints and roofing
nails being covered with a molded batten of wood, about | inch by 1 J
inches. The under side of this batten should be rabbeted to a depth
of I inch to make room for the heads of the roofing nails. The rabbet
should be filled with a plastic cement, such as accompanies the roof-
ing, and the latter then securely nailed. . Roofs so prepared have the
appearance of a standing-seam tin roof. The most common method
of applying ready roofings, however, is as follows:
A good foundation for the roofing is very important. Hence the
practice advised for applying sheathing boards in connection with
shingle roofs is directly applicable here. Also in the case of cracks
or knot holes, in the boards it is good practice to tack pieces of
tin over them. If the weather is warm, the ready roofing should be
unrolled and allowed to lie exposed to the sun and air to thoroughly
flatten out, and stretched before being nailed down, otherwise it
may wrinkle or buckle. If the weather is cold, the rooflng should be
kept in a warm room just before it is unrolled and used, taking special
care to stretch it out thoroughly and nailing it in place while still
warm. Sheets should not be cut when spread on top of those
already laid, nor should the rooflng be torn, but always cut with a
sharp knife to insure straight edges. For very steep roofs it is often
better to cut the desired lengths on the floor. It is very important
to plan the work in advance as far as possible, particularly at flash-
ings, around vertical walls, chimneys or any other projections from
the roof and at laps or joints.
The rooflng material should always be laid so as to have the
seams or laps nm parallel with the sheathing boards, as this arrange-
ment will insure a uniform and even naihng surface for securing it.
Great care is required to see that the rooflng laps over solid sheathing
boards, and not over a joint or crack. If a lap, on account of the
position of a previous sheet, should occur so as to bring the nailing
IMPERVIOUS ROOFING
115
03
2;
'O
c
ts
o
O
c3

points directly over a joint or a crack in the sheathing boards,
the next sheet should be shifted an inch or two so as to avoid
the crack.
Upon a flat roof the sheets are laid with the slope of the roof
when the sheathing boards run that way. Beginning at the left,
the first sheet is unrolled and placed so as to permit about 3 inches
to extend up against the fire wall, or in the event that the roofing is
turned over sheathing boards at the side, 1 or 2 inches should be
allowed for this purpose, and from IJ to 2 inches at the eaves or
end of the sheet. This sheet must be carefully adjusted and flattened
into position, folding the sheet carefully where it projects against
the flre wall so as to make a good corner without breaking the felt.
It is temporarily secured in place by driving a few nails along its
edge and end; then the next sheet is unrolled, allowing it to overlap
at least 2 inches, being careful to obtain a uniform lap along the
entire seam. After this second sheet is carefully adjusted and
flattened out, it should be nailed directly over the 2-inch lap, placing
the nails within | inch of its edge. This is repeated until the entire
roof is covered.
Making watertight flashings against flre walls, is equally as
important as making watertight joints between plies and laps in
the various rooflng materials. This is discussed in the following
article.
Roof Flashings
An important part of the construction of roofs and roof parapet
walls on large brick or concrete buildings is the flashing. Flashing
may be defined as a piece of metal or waterproof material used to
keep water from penetrating the joints principally between a fire
wall or projection through the roof of a building or other structure.
Its efficient location and application as well as the selection of the
best material are matters that require careful study. For general
work most roofers can supply and apply flashings meeting all re-
quirements.
The vital part of a brick parapet wall is the inner side, which
heretofore was made up of common brick laid up in ordinary lime
mortar. As a result, and owing to the freezing of the brick above
the roof flashing — due to saturation from snow or rain — many brick
parapet walls, after a few years became a crumbling mass. In
consequence the flashing became loosened and water percolated
through the joints to the detriment of the interior. To avoid the

above condition it is now the practice to build the inner side of the
brick parapets of hard burned vitrified brick laid up in cement
mortar and covering the top with a waterproof coping. In addi-
tion to this the roofing material is sometimes carried up to the
under side of the coping. But a common procedure is to take
one or more strips of felt or ready roofing about 12 inches wide,
folded in the center and fitted into angles at fire walls, chimneys,
etc., so that 6 inches project up these surfaces and 6 inches lap over
the roofing. These strips are fastened (if more than one is used
as on composition roofs) with a row of nails at the upper edge of the
upper strip by driving them into the mortar joints between the
bricks, and securing the lower edges (if ready roofing is being applied)
with a row of nails apphed similar to an ordinary lap, or by mopping
with pitch or asphalt (if composition roofing is applied) and com-
pletely coating the surface of the flashing strip as is ordinarily done
on the roofing proper. AH flashings on brick walls, etc., should be
counter flashed with metal so as to prevent water from eventually
working in behind them. These counter flashings must be thoroughly
secured in a mortar joint above the roof flashings and turned down
over the seam for at least 4 inches. For buildings subjected to
gases and fumes, saturated felt properly coated with good asphalt
or pitch preparations will give good results. For buildings located
outside of industrial centers, non-corrosive metal flashings give very
good results. A very efficient means of fastening both the flashing
and counter flashing is shown in detail (applicable both for com-
position and ready roofing at parapets) in Fig. 36. This detail,
recommended as good practice by the American Railway Engineering
Association,* makes use of a 2- by 4-inch timber with one edge
beveled, laid continuous in the parapet at the proper height in place
of a stretcher com'se of brick. This serves as a nailing strip for a
Ught wooden strip holding the flashing and counter flashing in place.
After placing the flashing the slot is completely sealed up with cement
grout or roofing cement.
For the proper flasliing of concrete parapet walls the detail shown
in Fig. 36 can be recommended. * A 2- by 4-inch piece of lumber is
jipped on the diagonal as shown and then placed in the forms at the
desired height, the upper strip being securely nailed thereto, so as to
insure its removal when forms are taken down, while the lower piece
is just tacked to forms (from outside) with wires or nails driven into
it as shown to anchor it to the concrete. The flashing and counter
flashing are then placed in the same manner as for brick walls.
* Concrete Vol. 9, No. 6, December, 1916, p. 197.
Waterproofing engineering!
An ingenious and inexpensive flashing is shown in Fig. 37. The
metal lock referred to in the diagram is of galvanized sheet iron,
and acts as the backbone for the flashing, which may be made of
ordinary felt or strips of prepared-roofing felt, these often being
substituted for the more expensive all-metal flashings.
2x1 COontinuonB)
Seal of Cement Gronfc
or Roofing: Cement .
BRICK PARAPET
A
mmm
••^■■^:',i}::'.ij'WM
^sag.■'■-•'•=*='=^
liSil
-Flaahinff
/■RoofinET
Plastic Cement
or Pitch
•■■'-"•■•• :ii;.'-'i'!4'S'^ cinder Fill
CONCRETE PARAPET
B
Fig. 36.— Flashing Details.
Roof Cutters
The function of impervious roofing is to shed the rainwater so
that none finds entrance into the building. On small and umm-
portant structures, rainwater is allowed to drip off the eaves, often
discoloring the walls. On most structures, however, both large and
small, provision is made for taking care of the drip by providing
gutters directly under the eaves, or other roof plane, and in the
valleys of the roof. The most modern practice is to slope the roofs
of buildings so as to provide drainage in the direction of the center
of the structure, where the gutters and conductors are arranged for
easy access. This arrangement avoids marring the architectural
effect of the facade. Fig. 38 shows typical arrangements of metal
gutters and conductors, for mil! and factory buildings.
IMPERVIOUS ROOFING
119
Pontion of lock
before hammered.
Joints are filled with

cement mortar or
flexible cement.
-Metal lock is hammered to

ready-roofing flashinff-Etripj
gripping same by means of
olinch holes in the look
Fig. 37.— Showing Method of Using Felt in Place of !\Ietal Flashings.

Lock Illustrated is Patented.)
(Metal
Adjustable
Hanger
every
Fig. 38. — Êave and Valley Gutters of Galvanized Iron or Steel.

Bridge Co.'s Standards.)
(American

Gutters should be sloped not less than 1 inch in 15 feet, and
if made of sheet iron, or steel, should preferably be galvanized than
tinned because the latter -variety corrodes more easily around an
abrasion or other slight damage. The gutters and leaders, or con-
ductors, made of these metals should be of No. 22 to 20 gauge
(18 to 22 ounces per square foot). On the better class of structures,
gutters and conductors are usually made of copper, in which case
the metal used varies in weight, from 14 to 20 ounces per square foot.
Hanging gutters are frequently made of considerable length; there-
fore they should be strongly built, as otherwise they are liable to
deflect from a uniform grade. Simple and inexpensive gutters are
often made by fastening a strip of wood, of appropriate size, close
to the end of the eave of the roof and sloping towards the conductor.
This strip runs along the entire length of the eave, and is covered
by the material used for the roofing, or by sheet metal. This
practice, however, is mainly resorted to on low buildings, such as
mill buildings and small-town railroad s'ations.
Functional Roofings
Definition, Use and Varieties cf Functional Roofings. Functional
roofings consist of such materials as both waterproof and roof the
uppermost part of a structure; that is, they are compositive and
include all those not covered by the previous types of roofings.
Most of the functional roofings are of recent origin and have a
limited use because they are usually adapted to special types or
temporary structures. They are for the most part though, efficient
and often inexpensive. The following are examples of functional
roofings :
Corrugated or crimped galvanized sheet iron (see Fig. 39) and
asbestos-covered corrugated sheet iron (see Fig. 40). These are
often used for the roofs of freight cars and small mill buildings;
also metal shingles, which have a limited use on railroad structures.
In general, however, steel or impure iron materials are avoided,
especially on important structures, even though these materials are
protected, because of the necessity of frequent repair or renewals.
The structural-composite roofing shown in Fig. 41 is serviceable
for train sheds, depots, and large mill buildings. Heavy cotton
canvas, sometimes treated with a preservative, but always painted,
is extensively used as roofing for freight and passenger railroad
cars and on decks of ferry boats. Glass roofings, for which there
are many methods of making watertight joints (two of which are
IMPERVIOUS ROOFING
121
-J « < )i_
Fig. 39. — Corrugated Galvanized-iron Roofing, Showing Method of Lapping

and Flashing.
^bestoS]
FiQ. 40. — Asbestos-covered Corrugated Roofing.
122
Fig. 41. — Structural-composite Roofing.
Fig. 42. — Two Types of Watertight Joints in Puttyless Glass Roofing. (Patented.)

shown in Fig. 42) are well-adapted for depots and general skylights
of buildings; also for roofs of buildings used in the production of
motion pictures. Roofs of many factory buildings and all concrete
buildings are made either of reinforced concrete or, to insure better
watertightness, have an integral waterproofing compound added to
the concrete.
The method of applying functional roofings depends on the
material and also somewhat on the structure. Sheet and corrugated
galvanized iron are usually nailed down to the purlins and lapped
both lengthwise and crosswise as shown in Fig. 43, A. Sometimes
B
Fig. 43.
A. Methods of Nailing Down Corrugated Sheet Iron on Roofs and Sidings.
B. Methods of Applying Sheet or Corrugated Roofing to Roof Framework.
small iron cleats are riveted to the sheets which hook on to angle
irons screwed on to the purlins or roof frame work. Fig. 43, B,
shows several methods in common use. The former method pro-
duces a more durable and watertight roof.
The slab type of functional roofing is usually made so as to lap
over each other and fit into prepared grooves. The joints are usually
made watertight with an adhesive, elastic compound.
A roof built of concrete blocks or blocks of any other material
will not of itself be watertight because of the many joints; such
roofs must first be waterproofed usually with a membranous roofing
material hence these materials cannot be classed as functional
roofings.
CHAPTER IV
WATERPROOFING EXPANSION JOINTS IN MASONRY
Function and Properties of Expansion Joints. Expansion joints
constitute one of the basic causes contributing to the difficulty of
making masonry structures watertight. When masonry is to be
waterproofed its expansion joints must be so made that water cannot
pass through them. This is usually accomplished either by some
form of tongue and groove, by a bent cutoff plate, by gaskets, and
so forth, in endless variety. Designers usually include some form
of bitumen or other sticky, plastic material as a joint filler.
To devise a joint that will remain tight under all conditions of
weather and stress is exceedingly difficult. Most failures of water-
proofing are due to the lack of joints, to joints not placed where the
tensile stress is large, to narrow joints, or to joints which do not
remain watertight. In a great many cases if an adequate number of
good watertight joints were provided no other waterproofing would
be required. Concrete and other masonry can nearly always be
made as impervious as necessary between cracks, and therefore the
waterproofing of a structure is often a question of waterproofing
its joints. Hence, we shall investigate, (1) the methods used for
the proper provision for expansion and contraction in concrete or
other masonry; and (2) the methods used for proper waterproofing
of the joints.
Expansion joints are used in structures to allow the masonry to
expand and contract freely with changing temperature, and to per-
mit other necessary, small, internal movements and readjustments.
Expansion joints are, in fact, simply cracks built into the masonry
to anticipate or take the place of the internal cracks and breaks.
A sufficient number of these joints must be provided to avoid dis-
figuring the masonry with unsightly cracks (see Fig. 124). The
following instance demonstrates the commonest way that cracks
occur in masonry. Structural materials have a varying coefficient
of expansion* (see Table XXX).
* The coefficient of expansion for any material is the factor which expresses
the change per unit of length for each degree of temperature.
124
WATERPROOFING EXPAXSION JOINTS IN MASONRY 125

The coefficient of expansion for concrete is variously assumed
as .0000055 or .0000065 per deg. Fahr. (about i inch in 100 feet
for each 15 deg. Fahr.). These coefficients vary somewhat with
different proportions and kinds of aggregate in the concrete. Assum-
ing for concrete a modulus of elasticity of 2,000,000 pounds per
square inch and an ultimate tensile strength of 200 pounds per square
inch, a distortion, in tension, of 0.0001 inch will fracture it.* Fifteen
degrees Fahr. drop in temperature produces this change in length
and is thus just sufficient to break restrained concrete.
Monolithic Construction Obviates Expansion Joints. To avoid
the use of expansion joints, small structures are often built as mono-
hths for which the waterproofing is fairly simple. Larger structures
can be built monohthic by imbedding sufficient steel in the concrete
so that the concrete is not stressed beyond its breaking strength.
The elimination of joints by this method may be carried a step
further. Reinforcing metal can be placed the whole length of a
structure of any size or of a structure whose ends are restrained.
But in this case the function of the steel is quite different from
ordinary reinforcing steel. Fifteen degrees drop in temperature will
break the concrete as if the steel was not present. But the intro-
duction of the steel merely causes the cracks to be smaller and
closer together. Steel has about the same coefficient of expansion
as concrete. But the ratio of ultimate tensile strength to modulus
of elasticity is so much greater with steel than with concrete that,
while concrete is broken by a 15 deg. Fahr. drop in temperature,
a drop of 100 degrees only stresses steel to its safe working stress,
a drop of 175 degrees to its yield point, and no temperature change
whatever is able to break it. A moderate amount of steel makes
the cracks so small and close together that they are unnoticeable.
The actual quantity of steel, which can be readily computed, varies
between .1 per cent and .3 per cent of the cross-sectional area
of the concrete depending on climate and local conditions, as,
for instance, whether the structure is above or below ground.
None the less it must be borne in mind that the concrete
is fractured and that therefore water will find its way through,
particularly if under a head. The total cross-section of the cracks
will be about the same in both cases, but the capillaiy and fluid
friction through the mass will considerably reduce the permeabihty
of the concrete, and eventually these minute cracks may be closed up
with silt, thus making the structure completely watertight.
* Modulus of elasticity equals stress divided by deformation; using these
vayues the deformation is 0.0001.

Design and Spacing of Expansion Joints. The width of a joint
controls the longitudinal movement of each section, and, hence,
controls the movement of the entire structure. Therefore expansion
joints should be large enough to accommodate any movement that
may occur and spaced sufficiently close together to eliminate all other
cracks or joints. In other words, the joints must be so spaced that
under all conditions of temperature change, loading, vibration, or
foundation settlement, the masonry between the joints will be a
single monolith. The proper location and design of 'these joints
require forethought, experience and good judgment.
To design a joint, the change in length is computed for the tem-
perature variation of the particular climate. This is increased as
needed to allow for other movements, plus a small amount as a fac-
tor of safety. The spacing of the joints is determined by computing
the frictional resistance to movement between the masonry surfaces.
The joints must be so close together that the stress resulting from this
friction is within the safe tensile strength of the masonry. Stresses
due to other causes must of course be computed and combined with
the friction stress.
Joints may be located at intervals of from 25 to 50 feet, although
under favorable conditions and sufficient reinforcement, larger
sections may be used. But the larger the section between joints,
the wider should the joint be made. For restrained structures and
large gravity retaining walls, the maximum distance that joints
should be spaced is 50 feet. Concrete walls which are less than 3 or
4 feet in thickness, and subject to about 60 deg. Fahr. seasonal
change of temperature, should have joints spaced about 30 feet apart.
Joints in Brick Masonry. Expansion joints in brick masonry
are rarely employed, but the joints between the bricks require care-
ful attention where impervious walls are necessary, as for instance,
in residences.
The mortar in the joints of brick masonry is usually deficient in
density and hence is quite absorbent and more or less permeable.
Often for the sake of enhancing the appearance of a residence the
mortar is raked out of the joints for a depth varying between | and 1
inch and left so. This is poor practice because very little mortar
may remain near the front face of the brick to prevent the percolation
of water especially when aided by a driving rain. This often happens,
resulting in damp and wet interiors. Where it is proposed to use
this type of joint in the masonry, then, to make these joints imper-
vious, half the raked-out space should be filled with a pointing
mortar. The pointing material may be either neat cement or mortar
WATERPROOFING EXPANSION JOINTS IN MASONRY 127

composed of Portland cement and sand in equal proportions, mixed
with enough water to form a stiff paste. This paste should be
tamped in with a metal calking tool and the joint facings can then
be finished according to one of the pointings shown in Fig. 44.
Where this practice is not resorted to, i.e., where neither raking
nor special joint mortar are employed, and where dry and damp-
proof interiors are desired (assuming that the best grade of bricks
were used) then the mortar joint proper, made»as the work progressed,
should also be pointed as illustrated.
The Slip-tongue and Plane-of-weak-bond Joints. The types of
expansion joints used in practice are almost as varied as the types of
masonry structures built nowadays. The simplest expansion joint
for concrete dams, walls, etc., is a plane of weak bond in the structure,
FLUSH JOINT STRUCK JOINT WEATHER JOINT

Fig. 44. — Types of Mortar Joints Used for Appearance and Utility.
made by building one section first and coating it with bitumen or

other compound, or nailing to it one or more plies of treated felt,
-sometimes bonded with bitumen, against which the concrete of the
second section is poured.
That it is necessary to create a plane of weak bond in the structure,
by interposing some form of' coating or sheeting between the joints
of all sections, is evident from the fact that the separation at the
joints is not otherwise uniformly perfect. When joints are formed
without interposing any sheetings or other separating material,
then by pouring one section after the adjoining section has set, no
adhesion of any large amount would be expected under these con-
ditions; yet it often happens that there is a strong enough bond to
break through solid concrete alongside the joint. This is evidenced
by the many meandering cracks (other than shrinkage cracks) often
seen close to and paralleling the V-groove formed in the face of
concrete walls at joints,
128
Another phase of the joint problem worth noting is the protection

of horizontal joints. In the construction of concrete walls, abut-
ments, etc., almost sole attention is given to vertical expansion
joints and their protection against the seepage of water through
them. Little if any real attention is paid to horizontal joints, and
yet it is these joints that are mostly responsible for discoloration
(see Fig. 2) and equally responsible for leakage in these and other
structures. Whether the horizontal joint be a days-work joint or a
construction joint, its existence is a source of danger to the unity
of the structure from the waterproofing point of view, and should be
cared for as effectively as vertical joints. Fig. 45 shows an effective
1^8
■^tM$K filler
Lap Joint-Strips
joined by heatint^
faces
Expansion Joint,
non-flowing
Butt
JolDt
Aspbalt Strip
Baffle 4"x
SECTION A-A
Strips joined 0^:^^-.:^-^,^.^:

by heating ^''''fi^^}j^/-^-':^'i;
faces ^Mti^-^^Mîi >
Construction
Joints
\:
Aspbalt Strip Baftltf^

.Construction Joints *"^ ^' ^ ^'
■Viscous Bituminous Compound
^Jolnt Coated with Parafflne
SECTION B-B (COMPLETED)

WALI
Fig. 45. — Location of Horizontal Baffle Joints in Walls and Tanks.
method of waterproofing horizontal joints. Its efficiency is some-

times doubtful because the slip tongue, which is generally made of
sheet iron, and though sometimes painted with a preserving com-
pound, too often corrodes and vitiates its function. What should be
used as a slip tongue to avoid such defects is a non-corrosive material
and such may be made of tough elastic asphalt strips similar to the
precast expansion joint fillers used in concrete road construction.
Fig. 48 shows such a scheme of protecting horizontal joints in which
the barrier is placed on the finished concrete in the form of a strip,
before the new concrete is deposited.
Illustrations of Expansion Joints. One requisite for all forms
of expansion joints is that they be so constructed as to retain the

joint filler (which alone waterproofs the joints) as long as the struc-
ture lasts. A second requisite is that the joint filler itself retain its
properties, and last equally as long, or allow of replacement at
definite intervals. The first requisite will be well provided for by
adhering to the basic type of joints shown in Fig. 46, modified, of
course, to conform to any special requirement. The second requisite
will be satisfied by any material which does not lose its " body "
or substantial character, adhesiveness and elasticity, at least not
rapidly, and is not affected by water. Such compounds are dis-
cussed further on in this chapter.
Front of Wall-
^
■.;■':■.?.■-■.',:;•'.'?,■■ v.. .*£iv.
^PS'.Pfle^t'reiitpdV:'!-!
:.ci.y:;:\yj
. ; ■■.BricM.n: .MSstle;
^".'/^'- ':-:<?:-. '-••'^"-
"Protective Concrete^ Untreated

^lleinforcement Felt
^'"''-^V ^->» ^ ^Jolnt Filler
B
VERTICAL EXPANSION JOINTS
+
I'i^^
W°°^
I.-CJ'V.D".
.5!^-^: o'-'^
■j/.-'.'-'o
■'■'/-. -'a'-'.-
Metal- or
■-"^.liieitibraner
-o ..\--.'.- ■ .0 -\- ^
a::.:--?.-
;:o:. ■.■."■.■-:■':■■*■"-■ <7":^,(
a ■ '.iilrCin J?lat>:-".!\
■AnchoF*"-"-'.'-':
tj.-i;?: -;:°.v'-?-::
D E
HORIZONTAL EXPANSION JOINTS
Fig. 46. — Basic Types of Waterproofed Expansion Joints.
Fig. 47 {A , B, C and D) is taken from a report by the Committee

on Buildings and Structures of the American Electrical Railway
Engineers Association. These joints have several interesting
features which are evident and self-explanatory.
Fig. 48 illustrates a method of waterproofing horizontal and
vertical joints in concrete walls; the former by means of gaskets or
strips of fabric thickly coated with a bituminous material; the latter
by means of rolls of the same material fitted in a prepared groove of
one section and sm-rounded by the concrete as poured for the next
130
Eace of Wall-^ Twatcrproofing

A-*-'
1 t 1'
1 1
^la"
f
B
[-..-.
A
-^Separation mad€f
by insertion of
waterproofing
material
B
SECTION A.A
A, EXPANSION JOINT FOR RETAININa WALL
ELEVATION
B. EXPANSION JOINT FOR

ARCHED ROOF OR SIDE WALL
:S'-;'.'i?-.'Ceiiaeii;';.
■M^stic'.v.:.-.(7.;.:
G. EXPANSION JOINT FOR ARCH

OR RETAINING WALL
j^Top of Platform
:::i?vV':
D. EXPANSION JOINT FOR

PLATFORM
Fig. 47. — Typical Forms of Waterproofed Expansion Joints Used for Various
Structures.

section, with the rest of the joint between sections filled with several
plies of treated felt. It is possible to make very efficient expansion
joints in this manner, provided the compound used for treating the
fabric, of which the gaskets and rolls are made, remains tacky and
Buck of Wall
S:
:v.
.^ Horizontal Joint^
^ Filler, 2 Layers
-^V-
Flap
^Vertical Joint Filler,

Tight Roll,±3Dla. A
— 3 Ply Treated Felt
SECTION A-A
Fig. 48. — Horizontal Waterproof Baffle, and Vertical Expansion Joint and Joint
Filler Used on Concrete Retaining Wall of the Brighton Beach, Line, B.R.T.
Railroad System, Brooklyn, New York.
adheres to the concrete when set, and elastic, so that it " gives "
when contraction and expansion take place.
Fig. 49 shows a horizontal joint for a concrete floor. This joint
is waterproofed by means of a copper V-joint anchored and filled
with a joint roll, consisting of treated fabric wound tightly on itself
and covered with some tenacious and elastic compound, which when
132
the joint contracts, forms a bulb upward, and on expansion forms a

groove. But this operation is only possible when the joint filler
adheres tenaciously to the sides of the joint.
t:••K:''^■bV^'■•^:■■'•^'■■■'?•'•■'■■•■■•'■■■'5?■•
//..v-V-'iVrr-'Trgiifiy-Bonea-'.':
■■■'<i:--/a'>\
■.•'■^\-::-'^,.<
■Aliotioc-;.' '■•.'O,;
.;-.M7;:.v.V.-.; ■.•
a.v;v/.p' ;;.;,■,■.,■'<;■;■:••:•■.
Fig. 49. — Type of Waterproofed Expansion Joint Used on Public Service Railway
Terminal, Newark, N. J.
Fig. 50 is a form of expansion joint advocated for solid bridge

floors, and patented by Mr. A. H. Rhett, Engineer. Fig. 51 {_A and B)
is from the Waterproofing Specifications of the Chicago, Milwaukee
and St. Paul Railway, and shows their method of waterproofing
Yiscoug Bituminous
Compouiid-
% Sheet Lead KoD
"^■^trl^^V^^-'-"'''- '^: -^"--J
^^^^^^y^^»:
Fig. 50. — Waterproofed Expansion Joint for Solid Floor Bridge. (Patented.)
bridge floor expansion joints. This method consists in applying

two continuous strips of treated felt, 36 inches wide, over the expan-
sion joints, being careful to see that no bitumen gets between or
under the two strips of treated felt. Then the top strip is mopped
with hot bitumen and the waterproofing proper carried over the top
of the felt as if no joint existed.

The joint shown in Fig. 52, .1, is a vertical square or rectangular
recess filled with plastic clay. The clay must be of the best quality,
placed while wet and rammed absolutely sohd into place, otherwise
it will not cohere into a unit mass. Fig. 52, B, shows tne rectangular
and triangular tongue-and-groove types of joints commonly used
for small masonry bridges and abutments, parapet walls and retain-
S Layers oF Burlap-
Layers of Tar Paper_
SECTION OF EXPANSION-JOINT
ON LEVEL SURFACE
A
Expanded Uetal ~
I or more
SECTION OF EXPANSION-JOINT
AT OFFSET IN WATERPROOFING SURFACE
B
Fig. 51. — "Unfilled" Type of Waterproofed Expansion Joint.
ing walls. They form merely a weak bond in the structure, but
permit lateral movement and so prevent disaUgnment. However,
unless some barrier, as a bituminous sheet or membrane, is inter-
posed, water will readily seep thi-ough these joints.
Fig. 53 shows a reinforced tongue-and-groove joint successfully-
used on the Compton Hill Reservoir, St. Louis, :\Iissouri.* The
Engineering New?, December 23, 1915, Vol. 74.
134
joint was filled with treated felt and pitch binder as each section was
built up. Fig. 54 shows an all-adaptable form of joint waterproofed
with a soft asphalt contained in a copper bulb the imbedded portion
of which is perforated so as to bond more securely. Fig. 123 is an
efficient form of joint used by the Delaware, Lackawanna &
Western R. R. on two of its viaducts.
Cutoffs in Expansion Joints. Water should not be allowed to
enter expansion, joints; but if this be inevitable, then it is best to
use some form of cutoff, near one face of the structure, and to provide
proper drainage within the structure. Copper, tin, galvanized iron,
lead and zinc sheeting are often used as cutoffs in expansion joints,
A Clay
j^^^^l^^^^^^^ |#:^|j|i^:||^^^g|î| ^^t^llUlg^j^l^
Fig. 52.
A. Rectangular Recess in Expansion Joint, Filled with Plastic Clay.
B. Rectangular and Triangular Tongue-and-groove Expansion Joints.
and all serve their purpose very well, but the copper sheeting best of
all. There are two types of cutoffs, known as the internal and exter-
nal. One of the best illustrations of modern practice showing the
use of the internal type of cutoff is in the expansion joints of the
Kensico Dam on the Catskill Aqueduct of New York City.
The expansion joints in this dam contain a strip of copper placed
across each joint near the upstream face to cut off leakage (see Fig.
55, B). This cutoff was constructed in the following manner:
A portion of the strip was placed in a groove in the vertical face
of the masonry forming one side of the expansion joint, and sur-
rounded with concrete or mortar, allowing the remainder of the
strip to project, as shown in detail in Fig. 55, A.
WATERPROOFING EXPANSION JOINTS IN MASONRY I35
Fig. 53. — Detail of Reinforced Expansion Joint for Retaining Walls.
"^'"
Sidewalk or
Roadway SIab-\
i*"'nt#^"1
" '"'■■o'':-vi:v.?;'v';
>:?o:-
,-v^!^:';!;'-.--.Vi!erf6&te4-.::,',;iv;;
-■■■- .^^V-.■-■■.■.■.":Rl)t■ldp'i■(>j■.'•. .•■:■*:••
iiiiili
;^v:Q;•
>•-;^ft:
\Miyî--lfi^;^r:^^/:^S}^\
i_Asphalt
■:^'M?-y:-:-^-:i/M:
ÎCA/J
WMt0-yr0^
/t3ftî^SSv:;S-^V: -Ivf?:'!
t<-l^
Fig. 54. — ^Type of Waterproofed Expansion Joint Used on the Brooklyn-Erighton

"^'iaduct, Cleveland, Ohio.
136
60BJ moaJiaiuiOQ^
OdV} ['Daj^JSA QIvej!}8d_Q
in <
iffl
>o
X
111
<

After the concrete or mortar in the groove had set, the central
part of the projecting strip and the portions of the vertical faces of
the masonry against which it rests were coated with hot paraffin or
other suitable substance to prevent the adhesion of the strip to
the concrete where it crosses the expansion joint. Concrete was
then placed and carefully rammed around the projecting strip on
the other side of the joint, care being taken to thoroughly clean
the uncoated portion of the strip before placing the concrete. The
strips were built up in sections, riveted together with copper rivets.
The operation of this cutoff is as follows: As the masonry
contracts, the expansion joint is, of course, enlarged. Water enter-
ing at D (Fig. 55, C) will proceed as far as the junction of the copper
strip E and the masonry. From there the water cannot get around
Interior of Pipe Wall
Neat Cement
Exterior of Pipe Wall-
Fig. 56. — Expansion Joint with Internal Cut-off Used in Reinforced Concrete
Waterpipe. (Patented.)
to the other junction at F. Hence, it remains there and freezes
when cold weather sets in. The effect of this freezing and the con-
sequent thawing is cumulative upon the structure in that when
ice forms the water expands, exerting a force in the same direction
as the contraction of the masonry, caused by the lowering of the
temperature. On the other hand, when thawing sets in the mobility
of the water returns and the masonry expands unimpeded. The
copper strip being placed near the upstream face keeps the rest of
the joint practically dry.
The internal cutoff is not limited only to large and massive struc-
tures, but may be and has been used very successfully on reinforced
concrete pipes for conveying water even under pressure. These
pipes are usually made in small lengths, 3 to 10 feet, of scientifically
graded aggregate mixed in about the following proportions, 1 : If : 2^.
The connection between lengths is made in the form of an expansion
joint, such as shown in Fig. 56, which is patented. This expansion
138
joint has an internal cutoff in the form of a strip of soft copper cast
in the spigot end and passing clear around the pipe, being crimped
as shown to permit the longitudinal movement of the sections.
The other end is set in mortar rammed into the- joint from the inside,
and protected with a coat of neat cement, as shown. The joints
are made free to open and close by the application to the face of the
spigots of a bituminous paint.
Âsphalt Block Paving
'^'M
^^^^
steel Plate
mmi^m^m
^HelQforced Coucrete
-Porous Material
-Vitrified Pipe
Fig. 57. — Detail of Expansion Joint for Bridge Floor.
An expansion joint in which the water is not only prevented from

entering, but is quickly drained off if it should enter, is shown in
Fig. 57. This was also used on work connected with the Catskill
Aqueduct in New York City. Fig. 58 shows another joint of this
type (sliding expansion joint) unique in its design, adapted to and
used on the road slabs and sidewalks of the concrete arch bridge in
Tânsas City, Mo.* A similar joint, modified so that sliding is
* Engineering Record, Vol, 75, No. 3, January 20, 1907, p. 109.

obtained by means of short pieces of old rails imbedded in the base
of slabs and top of piers and abutments, was used on a double-
track concrete railroad bridge over the Okaw River in Illinois.*
The external cutoff is much used by railroad engineers for retain-
ing walls and deserves a wider application than it at present enjoys.
This cutoff usually consists of a fold formed by laying the membrane
it^
1 Layer Paraffin Treated
Felt, between 2 Layers
of Tarred Felt
•Dralnae'e Groove
l"wlde, 2"deep,
Fall Length oX Plates
ROAD SLAB EXPANSION JOINT
Paint under surface with hot asphalt
.61% Checkered Plate
1J4 X 55 Bar 2 c to c.
drainage Groove
SIDEWALK EXPANSION JOINT

Fig. 58. — Road Slab and Sidewalk Waterproofed Expansion Joints Used in
Floor of Concrete Arch Bridge over the Blue River, Swope Park, Kansas
City, Mo.
of whatever material is being used for the waterproofing, over a

1-inch pipe at the joint in the concrete to allow for the expansion
in the structure. The pipe is removed after the mat is completed.
This mat is then covered with a protective coat of mortar or concrete,
and sometimes with mastic. The external cutoff type of expansion
„'oint shown in Fig. 59 was designed by H. J. Finebaum, engineer,
* Engineering News-Record, Vol. 80, No. 8, February 21, 1918.
140
and used on the new Hill-to-Hill bridge at Bethlehem, Penn.* It

consists of two pieces of copper held in the concrete by lugs made by
bending back the split ends of each piece and placed on each side
of the joint with one end projecting through a groove in the con-
crete beyond the inside face of the wall. These protruding ends
are then bent over to hold a copper flashing piece across the joint
between the sections of the wall. The flashing and straps are then
:S/V.v\;î?:;jij;wS:'!iigfc.-.w'>
^•."w»U»;/,">.'
wmmm:
..■:*■
'■.•.v;.'-r
■■'.■O-':-
Inside Face^
of Wall
POSITION OF STRAPS BEFORE PLACING OF
MEMBRANE WATERPROOFINS
No. 11 (Am. Gaffe)

Soft-rolled Copper
Straps, spaced.
2 ft. c. to e.
(Vertically)
IK IM
.^•
DETAIL OF
COPPER
STRAPS
at Expaneion Joint
fô. 16 (Am. Oaere)

Soft-rolled Copper
COMPLETED EXPANSION JOINT
Fig. 59.— An External Cut-off Type of Expansion Joint Used on the new Hill-
to-Hill Bridge at Bethlehem, Penn.
bound together, as shown, with the waterproofing fabric, against

which the fill is placed. A thin masonry protective cover would be
of advantage to the waterproofing fabric. In place of the copper
straps the grooves might be filled with mortar with better assurance
of watertightness.
Physical-acting Expansion Joint Fillers. Various materials are
needed for filling expansion joints such as those considered above
* Engineering News-Record, Vol. 80, No. 8, February 21, 1918.

and their properties must differ in accordance with the uses they
are put to.
There are on the market numerous expansion-joint fillers, but
comparatively few possess all of the requisite properties for such a
material. The essential properties are (1) to be chemically unaf-
fected by the elements; (2) to completely fill the joints at all tem-
peratures; (3) to constantly adhere to the two sides of the joint;
(4) to be elastic, plastic and cohesive at climatic temperatures.
As with many waterproofing materials so with many expansion-
joint fillers, their composition is usually kept secret and carefully
guarded, even from the purchaser. Therefore the only assurance
one has of obtaining the right materials is the selling companies'
guarantee; or else the architect, engineer or contractor must resort
to chemical analyses and physical tests, and though these tests are
quite expensive, it is the safest way. On large engineering work
this is very important and on building construction quite essential.
In this connection it is of material interest to know that the
chief cause of failure of joint fillers is loss of their sticky condition.
This occurs for the following reasons: (1) Evaporation of solvents
with the consequent hardening of the material; (2) loss of light oils
due to capillary action with the consequent decrease in volume of
the material; (3) leading on of water-soluble material with the conse-
quent porosity of the joint fillers; (4) chemically unstable material
with the consequent decay of the joint filler. A material that is
immune, at least for several years, from the ravages of these four
agents makes an ideal joint filler.
It is common knowledge that such materials as tar compounds
and blown asphalts* are extensively used and make good expansion
joint fillers for many purposes. But their indiscriminate use in the
past was followed by many failures. Investigation beforehand
would have obviated these disappointments. It would have dis-
closed the fact that many tar compounds (made for this purpose)
leach out all too soon, and that blown asphalts are but short-hved
when exposed to the elements. Various putties are used as joint
fillers, but unless the liquid part is of such nature and consistency
that it will not evaporate or be absorbed, these mixtures will harden
and shrink, as will also those containing animal and vegetable
materials. Hence the necessity for thorough testing of these
products.
* Refined asphalts acted upon by steam or air infused through its mass, which
process produces a certain amount of oxidation in the asphalt, resulting in greater
toughness of the product.

A commonly used joint filler for joints between steel and con-
crete (such joints usually being shaped like a " V," or sometimes
rectangular) is a good grade of medium hard refined asphalt, mixed
with from 5 to 10 per cent of grahamite, depending upon the melting-
point desired for the final product. Such a mixture is tough, rub-
bery and durable. At ordinary temperatures it is hard, but elastic.
In applying this compound, it must be melted and poured into or
mopped over the joints.
Bituminous mastics are also much used for filling V-joints and
for roof flashings with good results. These are usually made of
medium-consistency coal-tar pitch or asphalt, mixed with about 20
per cent of cement or limestone dust and asbestos. A mixture of
about 45 per cent pine-tar pitch, 30 per cent of petroleum oil and 25
per cent of fiber asbestos, is another extensively used filler for the
same purpose.
For certain types of concrete structures such as retaining and
abutment walls, a mixture of clay and oil in various proportions is
sometimes used as an expansion joint filler. The vertical joint- in
these structures is usually a plane of weak-bond with an enlarged
space near the back of the wall shaped either as a rectangle or a
triangle, and it is in this space that the joint filler is placed. The
rest of the joint is closed up by the insertion of from one to three
plies of treated felt, usually nailed to the face of the green concrete,
and against which the new concrete is poured in forming the wall.
The specific object of the joint filler is to intercept any percolation
of water along the joint.
Another joint filler usable for the same purpose and also for
roof flashings, is composed of coal tar and powdered slate, in equal
parts by weight. This mixture is appUed cold with a trowel.
The following compounds are very serviceable for fiUing hori-
zontal joints in masonry because they remain elastic at comparatively
low temperatures. However, all the bituminous fillers must be
completely encased, as they have a constant though imperceptible,
flowing tendency, and will actually flow away in time unless pre-
vented. Many expansion-joint failures are traceable to the neglect
of guarding against this. The degree of hardness for all bituminous
joint fillers is based on climate and local conditions. Usually these
types of joint fillers also require preheating and pouring during
application.
(1) A Mexican petroleum of about 18 deg. to 21 deg. Baum6
refined so as to leave the heavier oils with the basic asphalt, then
blown with compressed air until it has a melting-point of about 175

deg. Fahr. (79.5 deg. Cent.) by the Cube-in-water method. To
apply this material it must be heated and poured into, or mopped
over, the joint. •
(2) Any good-grade refined asphalt of medium consistency to
which is added about 5 per cent of stearin pitch and then boiled
down to a dense consistency. This material is melted and poured
into the joint when applied.
(3) A blown refined Mexican asphalt mixed with about 3 per cent
of gilsonite. The asphalt used in making this mixture should melt
at about 140 deg. Fahr. (60 deg. Cent.) by the Cube-in-water method,
and the mixture, at about 175 deg. Fahr., by the same method. The
kind of asphalt used governs the percentage of gilsonite to be added;
for example, a California asphalt would require about 10 per cent
gilsonite. The amount also depends on the climate and local
condition of the work.
(4) A refined Trinidad asphalt having a melting-point of about
200 deg. Fahr. by the Cube-in-water method, 88 per cent; gilsonite 7
per cent; and grahamite 5 per cent. This mixture is especially ap-
plicable to warm climates.
(5) Any good-grade refined asphalt of medium consistency, 80
per cent; linseed or China wood oil 10 per cent; and fine mineral
matter (but no sand) 10 per cent.
(6) A petroleum residuum in the form of a grease (petrolatum),
for instance, and free of light or volatile oils makes one of the best
joint fillers for V-joints of the type shown in Fig. 129.
Chemical-acting Joint Fillers. Chemical joint fillers, that is,
those compounds that become operative only after chemical action
has proceeded in their substance while embedded in the joint, are
not really expansion- joint fillers. But thej' are considered here
because they are a means of making watertight joints in engineering
structures.
For calking joints in steel and iron tunnels, especially those of
the segmental type (see Fig. 136), materials of the following formulas
have been found serviceable.
(1) Powdered pig iron, mixed with half as much Hme, a quarter
as much of powdered sand, and about one-eighth as much of salam-
moniac. This gives a hard, waterproof, joint filler.
(2) Eighty parts fine iron borings, one part salammom'ac, two
parts flour of sulphur, all by weight and mixed to a paste. This
mixture forms a quick-setting joint filler.*
(3) The following mixture is a slow-setting joint filler: Two
* Molesworth's Pocket Book of Engineering.

hundred parts fine iron borings, two parts salammoniac, one part
flour of sulphur, all by weight and mixed to a paste. This is prefer-
able to the former, if the joint is not to be put into use immediately.
(4) A rust joint can be made by mixing ten parts of iron filings
and three parts of chloride of lime to a paste with water. This
material, when apphed to the joint, will harden in about twelve hours.
(5) For some time past steel joints have been made watertight
by the application of a paste composed of powdered pig iron and
water only. But an accelerative oxidizing agent is now usually
added and preferred.
The joints of steel tanks and all manner of steel and iron con-
struction where rigidity is practically a property of the structure
can be made watertight by properly calking with a steel calking
chisel (see Fig. 115). In fact, this is the common and very successful
practice at present. Lead wool, introduced a few years ago, has
been successfully used without oakum on similar work, and in special
cases, as when used for calking joints in structural steel work where
watertightness is an essential feature of the structure.
It is often necessary to make floor joints of buildings watertight
so as to prevent leakage and consequent defacement of the ceiling
below when the floor above it is washed. A compound well adapted
for filling such joints, and for filling knot holes in wooden floors
and for other similar purposes, is made of five parts of fresh cheese
(the so-called Dutch or cottage cheese), one part of unslaked or pul-
verized lime, both by volume, kneaded together to a stiff dough.
This mixture becomes stone-hard, and is insoluble in water. By
the addition of mineral colors, such as raw or burnt sienna or umber,
yellow or red ochre, Venetian or Indian red, this putty can be colored
to any desired shade.*
* "739 Paint Questions Answered," published by the Painter's Magazine
of New York, 1904.
CHAPTER V
WATERPROOFING MATERIALS
Selection and Adaptability cf Materials. There are on the
market numerous waterproofing materials, but comparatively few
are extensively used. We shall examine the most important of
them, however, to determine their general properties whence we will
be able to better understand their use and adaptability for the
different systems of waterproofing in which thej' are employed.
The system of waterproofing and the method of application usually
determine the character or land of material to be used, while both
the material and the system of waterproofing are dependent on the
type of structure to be waterproofed. For, obviously, an existing
structure presents different conditions and waterproofing possi-
bilities from one in the course of construction. Again, a tunnel or
subway presents different conditions and difficulties than does a
building or bridge. Hence the need for different waterproofing
systems, methods and materials. Of course, where several materials
are equally good, or methods equally applicable, then cost governs.
A low first cost, however, is not necessarily the most economical, and
it behooves the architect, engineer and contractor to be calculating
and cautious in this regard.
Materials for Different Systems of Waterproofing. Nearly all
waterproofing materials readily fall under the six systems of water-
proofing previously considered, namely: (1) "surface coating";
(2) "membrane"; (3) "mastic"; (4) "integral"; (5) " self-
densified concrete "; (6) " grouting process."
Each system however, has certain materials best adapted to
itself as, for example, in the " surface coating " system, are used:
(a) Scores of patented and secret compounds.
(6) Coatings of elaterite, paraffin (oil and soHd), mastic, tar,
asphalt, and mixtures of these, cement, cement grout, neat cement,
and mixtures of caustic potash or soap and alum.
(c) Paints composed of suet, lime, asphalts dissolved in naphtha,
in benzine or mixed with linseed oil, and other hydrocarbons.
(rf) Enamels consisting of mixtures of linseed oil and rosin or
145
146
bitumen; solutions of bakelite, and proprietary bituminous com-

pounds.
In the membrahe system are mainly used:
f Natural (refined).
Asphalt \ Artificial (Asphalt-petroleum residuum).
I Proprietary.
f Coal-tar.
Pitch* Oil-tar.
i Proprietary.
a. Bitumens
b. Sheetings
c. Metals
Asphalt saturated felts, papers and fabricsf

Coal-tar pitch saturated felts, papers and fabrics.
Oil-tar pitch saturated felts, papers and fabrics.
Saturated asbestos-felts, asbestos-covered sheet metal.
Plate steel.
Cast steel.
Cast iron.
Sheet lead, sheet tin, sheet copper, sheet iron.
In the mastic system are used :

(o) Coal-tar pitch sheet mastic, asphalt sheet mastic.
(6) Brick-in-mastic courses, tile-in-mastic courses.
In the " integral " system are used:
(a) Scores of patented and secret compounds.
(6) Fattening and void-filling materials, such as hydrated lime,
colloidal clay, mixtures of iron and salammoniac, stearin and stearates,
gelatinous and bituminous compounds, powdered calcium minerals,
and combinations of some of these; also, graphite and petroleum oils.
In " self-densified concrete " are used: (a) All the well-known
mineral aggregates, as stone, gravel, sand and cement, plus experi-
enced labor and careful supervision.
In the " grouting process " are used:
(a) Patented and special cements.
(6) Portland or natural cements (either as neat cement, or with
sand as grout, and either wet or dry) .
All of the above materials may again be approximately grouped
under the general terms of " chemical " — and " mechanical "— act-
* Pitch is a general term including asphalts and many other substances of a
hydro-carbon nature, but by usage in the waterproofing field has come to be
regarded as the designation of coal-tar products, especially coal-tar pitch.
f Fabrics include Jute, Paper and Cotton (BurlSiD), also Cotton drill.
WATERPROOFING MATERIALS 147

ing materials depending on whether they act directly or indirectly
as waterproofing agents, i.e., whether they act through a chemical
or mechanical change or adaptation, either in their own structure
or the body of the concrete. This is not always certain or easy to
determine, but the following division is sufficiently correct for all
practical purposes.
(a) Materials acting chemically as waterproofing agents:
Soap, alum, caustic potash, suet, stearin and stearates, rosin,
calcium, minerals, linseed oil, hme, hydrated lime,* salammoniac,
powdered iron, Portland cement, natural cement, Puzzalon cement,
sand cement and neat cement.
(6) Materials acting mechanically as waterproofing agents:
Paraffin, asphalt, elaterite, gilsonite, grahamite, tar, bakeUte,
coal-tar pitch, oil-tar pitch, mastic, bituminous paints, colloidal clay,
graphite, gasoline, benzine, naphtha; treated paper, paper burlap;
treated asbestos felt, treated rag and pulp felt, jute burlap, fabric,
cotton drill; cast iron, plate steel and all sheet metal, water, sand,
gravel, stone, cement grout and cement coatings.
Nature or Materials Acting Chemically as Waterproofing
Agents
A certain amount of knowledge regarding the nature of these
materials is essential to the proper understanding of their use and
apphcation in the art of waterproofing. It was therefore deemed
expedient to make the following notes relating to, and affecting
their use in waterproofing engineering. It is not intended that these
remarks be exhaustive, but merely explanatory of the properties
and uses of the more important materials.
Alum. Common alum is a white powder or crystalline substance
consisting of a double sulphate of aluminum and potassium. It is
found native as kahnite and manufactured. It is soluble in
boiling water in equal parts by weight, but only about 5 per cent
in water at 60 deg. Fahr. (15.5 deg. Cent.). In the form of a solu-
tion it is brushed on a masonry or concrete surface over a previous
coat of soap solution with which it combines chemically forming a
stearate of aluminum which acts as a void-filler and also forms a
water-repellent coating.
Calcium (compounds). Calcium is a lustrous, white, very duc-
tile, and malleable metal about as hard (and scarce in the pure form)
as pure gold. It has the peculiar property of decomposing water
* Also acts in part at least as an inert void-filler.

with evolution of hydrogen. Calcium compounds, are salts of
calcium and it is these that are used in waterproofing. They occur
largely diffused in nature in the form of chalk, marble, limestone,
coral, etc. As calcium sulphate or calcium carbonate (marble)
it is used in powder form in the manufacture of dampproof paints.
These compounds when mixed with cement and aluminum, form
many secret (?) waterproof and dampproof surface-coating com-
pounds.
Casein. Casein is an albumen found in the milk of animals.
When milk curdles it is due to the coagulation of the casein present,
which averages about 3 per cent. Acetic acid or a bit of rennet
will produce curdling and the casein separates as curd. Casein
is not easily affected by heat. When moist and fat-free, it forms
insoluble precipitates with quicklime, borax or strong sodium silicate
solutions. In any of these forms it is used as a waterproofing cement.
Caustic Potash. Potassium hydroxide is commonly called
caustic potash. It is a white, sohd substance, very easily melted
and quite soluble in water or alcohol. In solution it possesses, in the
very highest degree, the properties termed alkahne. In water-
proofing it is sometimes substituted for soap as a surface coating,
or it is used with various chemicals in secret (?) waterproofing
compounds.
China Wood Oil. China wood oil is obtained from the seeds
of the fruit that grows on the wood oil tree of the Aleurites species
of China and Japan. These trees ai-e of comparatively rapid growth,
with trunks of light, soft wood. The oil is a rapid drying one and
is largely used in the manufacture of varnish and waterproof cements.
It is often advantageously substituted for hnseed oil in the manu-
facture of some waterproof paints and varnishes. It is sUghtly
heavier than the boiled or raw hnseed oil, its specific gravity being
0.944.
Hydrated Lime. Hydrated lime is a finely divided white powder
made of ordinary lime by the addition of just sufficient water to
insure complete slaking, and so that the heat generated will evaporate
all the excess water, leaving the product dry. There are several
grades made, the difference being mainly in the calcium and mag-
nesium content; but this is dependent on the source of the carbonate.
High magnesium hme, though it slakes and sets slower, is superior
in other important properties to the high calcium limes. For
ordinary purposes hydrated lime is used for and in precisely the
same way as common lime. In waterproofing it is used to a greater
extent than common lime as it is much more effective, because when

properly manufactured, it slakes and mixes more thoroughly in the
concrete (see Chapter III).
Iron (Powdered). Iron is an element abundant in nature and
universal in its existence and application. For waterproofing pur-
poses pig iron is used in granulated or powdered form. When mixed
with appropriate chemicals, as, for instance, salammoniac, sulphur
and even cement, it forms a surface-hardening substance for concrete
and mortar. When mixed with water, it forms and is often used as
a " rust joint." In this manner it is sometimes used in calking
joints in cast-iron tunnel Unings. It can readily be tempered in its
oxidizing action by mixing it with Portland cement.
Lime. Lime is a white substance resulting from the burning
of limestone in kilns until the carbon dioxide is driven off as a gas,
leaving the calcium oxide, or lime, which slakes when water is added
to it. On exposm-e to the air it sets and hardens, by reverting to
its original state, i.e., it takes in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
It is often incorporated in concrete and mortar to reduce their
porosity, or mixed with certain salts in cement mortar to form a
waterproof mortar coat. But its benefits are lumted as well as its
use, because it will not set under water.
Linseed Oil. Linseed oil is obtained from the seed of flax either
by pressing or by extraction with naphtha or other solvents. It is
used either raw or boiled; the boiled toughens or dries quicker in
air. The unadulterated linseed oil possesses a characteristic but
disagreeable taste and odor. Its color is light amber or greenish
yellow. The boiled oil dries more rapidly on exposure to the air
than the unboiled and is mostly used for interior work, the raw for
exterior work. Both kinds thicken and toughen with time, and dry
by oxidation, i.e., they have the property of absorbing oxygen and
forming a tough and elastic substance which, however, eventually
deteriorates. It is often used to flux asphalt and coal-tar pitch,
to make surface coatings for dampproofing and waterproofing
pxirposes.
Natural Cement. Natural (or Roman) cement is a very fijie
powder, made from cUnkers resulting from the burning, at a com-
paratively low temperature, of an impure hmestone, containing from
15 to 40 per cent of silica, almnina and iron oxide. It was first
manufactured in England in 1796 by James Parker. This cement is
comparatively slow setting and is not as widely used as Portland
cement. Neither is it as reUable, because the proportions vary
not at will, but according to the nature of the source. It is not
generally used where a very impervious concrete is desired.
150
Neat Cement. Neat cement is a term applied to a paste-like

mixture of cement and water regardless of proportions. It is
applicable to any kind of masonry both above and below ground
surface in the form of a thin coat or surface wash. The thicker the
coat however, the more impermeable it is and hence the more effec-
tive as a waterproofing agent. Neat cement is often used for grout-
ing purposes especially where rock seams or cracks are small but
extensive.
Portland Cement. Portland cement (named for its resemblance,
when set, to hmestone quarried at Portland Isle, England, where it
was first made in 1811, and patented by Joseph Aspdin, a bricklayer,
of Leeds, England, in 1824), is a very fine powder made from clinkers
resulting from the burning, at a temperature of about 3000 deg.
Fahr. (1649 deg. Cent.), of a finely ground artificial mixture of lime,
Fig. 60.
A. Cement Rock, as it Appears in Nature.
B. Cement Materials being Burned in Rotary Kilns.
C. Cement Clinker as it Comes from the Kilns.
D. Cement, Ground Fine for Use.
silica, alumina and iron oxide in certain definite proportions (see

Fig. 60). This combination is made by mixing limestone or marl
with clay or shale in the proportions of about three to one respec-
tively. The finer the cement the more impervious is the concrete
made with it. Most concrete construction is done with Portland
cement.
Puzzolan Cement. Puzzolan cement is a mechanical mixture
of powdered slaked lime with either a volcanic ash or a blast fiu-nace
slag. In the form of a mixture of powdered slaked lime and volcanic
ash, puzzolan cement was first used by the Romans in their building
construction. Unlike the other cements, this mixture is not burned
but is finely ground. The resulting powder is somewhat superior

to other cements in its resistance to the action of sea water, for
which reason it is often used in maritime construction.
Resin. Resin is a solid or semi-solid substance composed of
carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, mainly of dark amber color, homo-
geneous and translucent, though some varieties are colorless and
transparent. It is mostly of vegetable origin. Common rosin
is a similar substance remaining when turpentine, from gum or pine
resin, is distilled until the water and volatile oils are expelled. Resin
is insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol, ether and various oils.
Rosin is used extensively as a flux in inexpensive paints, varnishes,
dampproofing and roofing compounds in which it acts as a filler
and for making soap. Nearly all surface coating compounds con-
tain resin or rosin, where it is often used as an adulterant and tends
to make the compound brittle.
Salammoniac. Salammoniac (NH4C1) is ammonium chloride,
a white crystalline substance, obtained from the ammoniacal waters
of gas works by adding sulphuric acid and then sublimating the sul-
phate thus formed with sodium chloride, or by absorbing ammonia
gas in hydrochloric acid, also by heating ammonium sulphate with
common salt. It is freely soluble in cold water, but much more so in
hot water. In waterproofing it is mainly used as an oxidizing agent,
particularly for powdered iron, with which it is often mixed for calk-
ing joints in steel and iron-lined tunnels, and in modified form for
hardening concrete surfaces, which tends to make these surfaces
water tight and dustproof.
Sand-cement. Sand- or silica-cement is a mechanical but inti-
mate mixture of Portland cement with a pure clean sand, very finely
ground together. In the best grade of sand-cement the proportions
of cement to sand are 1 : 1 but as lean a mixture as 1 : 6 has been
made. This cement, efficiently proportioned, has been and may well
be used for making impervious concrete, providing the equally
important matters of grading and mixing are properly attended to.*
Soap. Soaps are metallic salts of the higher fatty acids or, more
particularly, compounds formed by the substitution of the alkahes,
sodium and potassium, or magnesium and aluminum for the glycerine
in common fats. Soaps containing sodium harden on exposure to
the air and are known as hard soaps, and those containing potassium
absorb water under the same conditions and tend to hquefy, hence
they are known as soft soaps. The sodium and potassium soaps
* It is of course beyond the scope of this book to discuss in detail the respective
properties of cements. Further and full information will be found in any stand-
ard book on concrete.

are waêr-soluble, the magnesium and aluminum soaps are water-
insoluble. In waterproofing the soaps are used (1) by being dis-
solved in water and the solution brushed on a concrete or other
masonry surface and then coated with an alum solution with which
it unites chemically forming an insoluble stearate (soap) of aluminum
which acts as a void filler and water repellent; (2) by being suitably
mixed with colloidal matter it is often incorporated in concrete to
aid in increasing its density. Castile soap is most generally used in
making soap solutions, but any of the common soaps in everyday
use may also be used. Aluminum soaps are used for making various
proprietary integral waterproofing compositions.
Stearate. Stearate is a salt of stearic acid. Stearates, such as,
for example, ammonium stearate or lime stearate, are used as integral
waterproofing compounds. They have the consistency of hard
soap and are mostly insoluble in water but are decomposed by most
acids. Ammonium stearate can be made by taking stearic acid and
combining it with ammonium hydroxide in the presence of con-
siderable water or water-yielding material. This forms a more
or less air-unstable quasi-soap of a water-soluble nature. This
soap-like material, when brought in contact with cement in
the presence of moisture, reacts and forms a water-insoluble
stearate, with water shedding properties, while the alkali, that is,
the ammonia, being liberated as a volatile, supposedly disappears
in time.
Stearic Acid. Stearic acid is a derivative product of the more
solid fats of the animal kingdom and vegetable fats, especially those
of cacao-beans, and certain African nuts. It is prepared from mutton
suet or cacao fat by saponifying* the fat with soda-lye. Pure stearic
acid has a specific gravity of 1.00 at 50 deg. Fahr. (10 deg. Cent.).
It melts at 156 deg. Fahr. (69 deg. Cent.) to a colorless oil, which
cools into a solid, white scaly mass. It is insoluble in water and is
much used for making dampproofing varnishes and integral water-
proofing compounds.
Stearin. Stearin, a solid substance at ordinary temperatures,
is the chief ingredient of suet and tallow. Stearic acid is obtained from
it by the apphcation of steam to the harder fats, and chemical
treatment. Stearin is used for making various waterproofing
materials, and is often mixed with asphalt to make proprietary joint-
filling compounds.
* Saponification is the process by which the fatty acids and glycerine are
separated with the latter set free; that is, the process of converting a fat or oil
into a soap by combination with an alkali.
WATERPROOFIXG MATERIALS
153
Stearin Pitch. Stearin pitch is an animal by-product obtaincfl

from stearic acid in the manufacture of candles. It is used as a
coating for some smooth-surfaced ready roofings, and is a very
stable material, being practically unaffected by the action of the sun.
Suet. Suet is animal fat, especially the harder and less fusible
fat about the kidneys and loins, and whose chief ingredient is stearin.
It is cheap and when chemically treated is used as a water-repellent
for mass concrete. When mixed with colophony in certain propor-
tions it is used as a dampproofing and as a water-repellent varnish.
X.\TURE OF j\Iateri.\l.s Altix(; INIel'hanically as Watekpruofixg
AfJENTS
Asbestos. Asbestos is a fibrous mineral (see Fig. 01, .1, B)
derived from certain igneous and metamorphic rocks (by the action
Fia. 61.
^4, Asbestos as it Comes from the Mines.
B. Asbestos Fiber as Used with Bitumen to Form Plastic Compounds.
of heated waters, in nattu'e) and is chemically known as a hydrous-

magnesium silicate. Commercially asbestos has lêcn used since
ancient times, but its discovery is attributed to the Romans. It is
incombustible and non-perishable and because of its fibrous nature
is often incorporated in various bittunens to form a plastic water-
proofing cement. It is also powdered, and in this form it is used as
a filler in dampproofing paints. It is also used for making asbestos
felt which is often saturated in the same manner as roofing felt
and also used for the same purpose. As such it is, however, nuich
more expensive. It is also made into roof shingles.
Asbestos Felt. Asbestos felt is made of about 95 per cent asbestos
with some form of sizing to permit its being rolled into long thin
sheets of various widths and thicknesses similar to roofing felt. It

is weaker than the ordinary felts, does not saturate as well, and has
not as wide an application, but it will not decay and is fireproof
while the felts and fabrics are not. This latter property is inherent
in the asbestos proper. Asbestos felt, saturated with bitumen, is
mostly used for roofing, and is ordinarily applied only by the manu-
facturer. Sheet iron covered on both sides with asbestos felt is
used as a form of fireproof and waterproof roofing.
Asphalt. Asphalt is a sohd or semi-solid native* bitumen found
in a natural state, or produced artificially, as petroleum residuums.
In its origin it is decomposed vegetable matter comprising mainly
carbon and hydrogen of complex molecular construction, but also
containing oxygen, sulphur and nitrogen in very small proportions.
As found naturally, asphalt is not commercially available even
after the impurities are removed, being usually too hard and
brittle for waterproofing purposes. This is ordinarily remedied by
softening oi- fluxing with various petroleum oils, which fluxes have an
important effect upon the finished product. The fluxes should be
sufficiently stable to insure against too rapid hardening of the fluxed
asphalt. To avoid the process of fluxing, which requires skill, a
straight refined asphalt from petroleum oil of an asphaltic base is
used. Pure bitumen has a density less than water, but in con-
sequence of impurities mixed with it, its specific gravity varies from
1.0 to 1.7. The distinguishing characteristics of all bituminous
substances are their elasticity and binding power (or adhesiveness),
their considerable immunity against attack by water and their solu-
bility in oils and certain other organic compounds. Most water-
.proofing asphalts are elastic at ordinary temperatures, slightly
viscid at low temperatures and usually liquid at comparatively high
temperatures. Asphalt is quite soluble in petrolic ether, and entirely
soluble in carbon bisulphide. Aside from the paving industry where
nearly all varieties of asphalt are used and the varnish industry
where the very best and purest varieties are used, it is chiefly used as a
saturant, coating and bonding material for felts and fabrics in the
membrane system of waterproofing, and as binding material in the
mastic system of waterproofing.
Bakelite. Bakelite is an artificial coal-tar product produced by
warming together equal weights of phenol and formaldehyde and a
small amount of an alkaline agent. The resulting mixture separates
into two layers, the lower of which, when heated above 212 deg.
* The term " native bitumen " implies that the natural asphalt, such as
Bermudez or Trinidad asphalt, requires treatment merely for the removal of
water and extraneous organic and inorganic materials before using.
Waterproofing materials 155

Fahr. (100 deg. Cent.) and worked under a pressure of 50 to 100
pounds per square inch, results in a hard, sohd, inelastic mass
known as bakelite, from its inventor. Dr. Leo Baekeland. This
mass has a specific gravity of 1.25 and is an excellent insulator,
but when dissolved in neutral petroleum oil is used as a varnish for
dampproofing and waterproofing purposes.
Benzine. Benzine is a light volatile petroleum oil used as a
solvent for fats, gums, resin and bitumen. Bituminous solutions
are formed with this petroleum oil and used as a surface coating
which penetrates into the pores of the concrete to which it is usually
applied with a brush. After evaporation the bitumen remains
in the pores and on the surface in the form of a thin coat.
Benzol. Benzol (or benzene), CeHe, is a volatile, colorless, fluid
hydrocarbon, obtained as a by-product from the distillation of coal-
tar and water-gas tar, and from petroleum. It was discovered
first by Faraday, in 1825, in oil gas, and by Hofmann, in 1845, in
coal-tar. Benzol is an active solvent for fats, resins, most bitumens
and is used for that purpose in waterproofing.
Bituminous Paints. Some bituminous paints are made of solu-
tions of liquid paraffin in either asphalt or coal-tar pitch, or by mixing
bitumen, while hot, with some drying oil such as linseed oil, or China
wood oil with either of which the bitumen readily enters into solution.
Similar products are obtained by mixing paraffin and petroleum with
naphtha, benzine or gasoline. Some of these paints are applied hot,
others cold. Some will adhere to a wet surface or a surface under
water, but most of them need a thoroughly dry surface. They are
in general quite durable, cheap and easily applied.
Burlap. Burlap is made of jute, which is the fiber obtained from
the inner bark of the Asiatic plant, genus Corchorus, of the Linden
family. It is a very cheap fiber, woodj^ in its nature and more
perishable than fiax. It is mainly grown in the northeast section
of India, and is manufactured in Calcutta, but the best grades of
burlap are manufactured in Dundee, where the industry was first
started on a commercial scale in 1838. The burlap is woven in many
widths and has considerable tensile strength. It is sold by weight.
The most used varieties for waterproofing purposes are 7, 7^, and 8
ounces per square yard. This weight, however, is materially affected
by the moisture content, which under normal conditions, that is,
at an average relative humidity of 70 per cent, the jute may con-
tain about 14 per cent of moisture by weight. Burlaps -of these
weights have open meshes, the size of which vary with the weight,
as, for example, the 7-ounce burlap is approximately 60 per cent

open, the mesh being about J inch square. The size of the mesh
decreases with increase of weight. Burlap in the raw state is some-
times used as reinforcement, in the membrane system of water-
proofing; but when saturated and coated with asphalt or oil-tar
pitch, which preserves it, it is very extensively used in membrane
waterproofing.
Cast Iron. The cast iron here considered is that usually used in
the construction of tunnels and for tunnel linings. ' The best castings
for this purpose are made of gray iron produced by the cupola proc-
ess, of the second melting. The castings, called tunnel segments,
must be true to pattern and flawless in every other respect. In
order to reduce the leakage through the joints to a minimum the
castings are faced by machine. Provision must also be made for
calking the flanges after the segments are erected (see Fig. 136).
Cement Mortar (Grout). Cement mortar or grout is a mixture
of cement, sand and water in any proportion from 1:1 to 1:6.
This mixture is termed mortar or grout when the size of sand does
not exceed that which will pass 100 per cent through a 4-mesh sieve,
or what is ordinarily called " bird-sand." When it does exceed the
j-ii).ch size, a smaller aggregate is required to fill the voids besides
the cement, and this' mixture is therefore correctly termed con-
crete. Cement grout of the proportion 1 : 1 or 1 : 2 is used very
successfully in the grouting process and as mortar in the surface-
coating system of waterproofing. In the above proportions it is very
impervious, but as a coating its impermeability also depends on its
thickness. It adheres readily to a roughened surface and is apphca-
ble to any kind of masonry.
Clay. Clay is an uncrystallizable silicate of aluminum. It is
produced in nature by the disintegration of the various silicates of
aluminum in the stones known as feldspars and micas, due to weath-
ering. Clays are usually moist or wet and plastic in varying
degrees depending in part on the fineness of the grain and in part
on the amount of colloidal substances present. This plasticity may
be increased by the addition of water. The fineness and glue-like
or gelatinous composition of clay makes it a good inert void filler,
and in small quantities is used for that purpose in mineral paint and
mass concrete. It is often used as a cutoff in specially constructed
expansion joints in masonry structures. In the form of a thick
blanket (not less than 4 inches thick) applied to an underground
structure, for instance, it can be made a very eflacient waterproofing
medium for equal mixture of clay and Portland cement is used for
a like purpose.

Coal-tar Pitch. Coal-tar pitch is a semi-soHd or solid residue
resulting from the fractional distillation or boiling of coal-tar. This
process removes certain volatile oils and results in a black, more or
less viscid residuum product called coal-tar pitch. There are various
grades of pitch, the best being used for general waterproofing. In
comparison with asphalt, this best grade of coal-tar pitch is harder
at low temperatures and more liquid at high temperatures than
the asphalt. It is, however, more adhesive at ordinary temperatures
and less affected by water than most asphalts; but it is somewhat
less durable in air.* Coal-tar pitch contains free carbon, in amounts
depending on the method and degree of reduction, and the source
of the tar. The more free carbon in pitch up to about 30 per cent
the less it is affected by changes in temperature and apparently has
more " life " than another with less free carbon, f Coal-tar pitch is
extensively used as a saturant, coating and bonding material for
waterproofing and roofing felts and fabrics and is in close competition
with asphalt for use as binder in the membrane system of water-
proofing.
Cotton Drill. Cotton drill, as usually used in the membrane
system of waterproofing, is a woven-cotton fabric, weighing not less
than 4 ounces to the square yard. This weight of cotton fabric
has a thread count of 56 by 60 per square inch. Different grades
are made, but those generally used vary in thread count between
34 by 34 and 66 by 68, per square inch, both inclusive. When either
saturated, or saturated and coated with bitumen, these cotton
fabrics are sold as standard products, but often also under various
trade-names. The cheaper grades are somewhat less durable, and
the better grades are usually more expensive per yard than most
waterproofing felts or jute fabrics. Treated cotton fabric, in com-
parison with the untreated, gains about 20 per cent in strength
due to treatment. It is comparatively close-woven, and therefore,
unlike the open-mesh jute fabric which acts only as a reinforcment
in the bituminous membrane, it acts also as a waterproofing agent
in approximately the same manner that waterproofing felts do, that
is, it helps to keep the water out.
Elaterite. Elaterite is a soft, elastic variety of asphalt (hydro-
carbon), resembling India rubber, mined in Utah and Colorado,
U. S. A., and in several places in England, notably in Derbyshire.
It is subtranslucent, has a brownish color, and a specific gravity
varying from 0.9 to 1.0. It is also known as " mineral rubber."
* American Society for Testing Materials, June 24, 1913.
t American Railway Engineers' Association, Vol. 14, p. 844.

Commercially it is combined with certain petroleum oils, linseed
oil, asphalt, gilsonite, and even castor oil (because the latter is a
non-drying oil), and used as a surface coat on concrete. The com-
pounds thus formed are quite plastic at all temperatures to which
this climate is subject to. Elaterite is very difficult to melt, but in
solution with various materials forms a much used dampproofing
compound.
Felt (Waterproofing). Felt made for waterproofing purposes is a
prodilct composed chiefly of pulp or cotton rags with a little wool;
the latter makes the felt open and spongy, and materially increases
its saturating power. The first mechanical process for making felt
was invented by J. R. Williams, an American, about 1820. It is
made in sheet form, usually 36 inches wide, and saturated with asphalt
or tar. The asphalt felting has an advantage over ordinary coal-tar
felting, in that it does not become brittle under the influence of heat
or with age. As now made waterproofing felt comes in several
thicknesses and is sold by weight or roll, the standard for the latter
being a roll containing 3 or 4 squares, plus 8 to 12 square feet per
square extra for laps. The quality of the raw felt is designated by
a number as, for instance, No. 23 felt would mean a felt equal in
weight to a ream of 480 sheets each one foot square. A No. 28 felt
would be one weighing 28 pounds per ream. These numbers also
happen to approximate the weight of the felt in grams per square
foot, which fact it may be useful to remember. There are soft and
hard felts made, hence the word soft or hard must follow eiich number.
The soft felts are usually asphalt treated, the hard ones, tar treated.
The soft felts are usually dearer, because they contain more wool.
All-wool felt is generally not made because of its high cost, softness
and tenderness. A wool content of about 25 per cent produces a
felt of good saturating power, and saturation is very essential for
the preservation of all the raw felts. Good saturated felts are quite
durable, but they lack tensile strength, though they gain about 500
per cent strength due to such treatment. They readily absorb water
though, in spite of their saturation.
Gasoline. Gasoline is one of the very volatile distillates of petro-
leum. It consists of a mixture of several hydrocarbons containing
carbon and hydrogen in varying percentages. Its chief use is for
fuel, but in waterproofing it serves as the distillate or " carrier "
for many bitumens which readily dissolve therein. These solutions
arc applied cold to the surface of masonry, but mainly for damp-
proofing purposes. The gasoline penetrates the pores of the masonry
surface, carrying with it the bitumen which remains after evapora-

tion. Thus, besides forming a film on the surface the pores are also
barricaded.
Gilsonite. Gilsonite is a hard and brittle, native bitumen, mainly
found in Colorado and Utah, with a specific gravity of 1.07. It is
lustrous black and equally soluble in cold carbon tetrachloride and
carbon bisulphide. It is also readily soluble in heavy asphaltic
petroleum. When mixed or fluxed, while hot, with certain petroleum
residuums (it begins to melt at about 480 deg. Fahr.— 249 deg. Cent.)
in proportions according to the consistency desired, a rubbery and
somewhat elastic but only slightly ductile material is formed. Gil-
sonite is mainly used for making dampproof paints and varnishes
and proprietary waterproof compounds mostly for surface coatings.
It is sometimes mixed with a fight asphaltic residue to bring the
latter's consistency up to certain specification requirements for par-
ticular waterproofing purposes.
Grahamite. Grahamite or " Choctaw " is a hard and brittle
native bitumen mainly from Oklahoma, with a specific gravity of
1.14. The deposit is now exhausted. It is a dull black and melts
only with great difficulty (at about 500 deg. Fahr. — 260 deg. Cent.)
and therefore has but a limited use. It is slightly soluble in alcohol
and partly so in ether, petroleum, and benzol, but almost completely
in turpentine and entirely in carbon bisulphide and chloroform. It
is used for the same purposes as gilsonite.
Graphite. Graphite is essentially a pure carbon which comes in
two forms — flake and amorphous — and found abundantly in nature.
It is friable and has an oily quafity, for which reason it acts as a
lubricant. (Lamp-black or soot should not be substituted for
graphite because they have not the same properties.) Graphite
when finely ground and mixed with sifica and linseed oil is commonly
used as a preservative paint for metals. For waterproofing it has a
Umited use as an integral because of the black color it gives to the
concrete. Hydrated lime serves the same purpose, i.e., as a lubricant
for the concrete aggregate, without this defect. Graphite enters
into many dampproofing compounds.
Gravel. Gravel is an aggregation of water-worn and rounded
fragments of rocks, in which quartz is the most common mineral.
Included under the name gravel are pebbles ranging in size from
J inch to 2 inches. Gravel is usually classified according to the
largest size pebble which it contains as, for instance, IJ-inch gravel;
1-inch gravel; f-inch gravel, etc. For making impervious concrete,
gravel must be sound and clean. Concrete is considerably densified
by using gravel graded frona fine to coarse, but the best results follow
160
when it contains no pebbles that will paes through a hole | inch in

diameter and none that will not pass through a hole 1| inches in
diameter. No gravel that is all of one size or practically so should
be used where impervious concrete is desired.
Jute Fabric. Jute fabric* employed in the art of waterproofing
is a burlap saturated and coated with asphalt or coal-tar pitch.
When thoroughly saturated and coated it is very much less perishable
than raw burlap, while its strength is nearly doubled thereby. It
III
flllILM
■ nil ■■■■<"*"£*■••■■•■ ■*■*
■ ..<■•"■*■■'■■■*<•"■*■"*■"■
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■ ■•■•■■• ■■•»••!■■•>«■•••'■«-
• ■■>■■ •••tiiMI mill •>**!>

iiiRit. ■■■(■■I. ■•■Ill ■!;;•; -,
• ■■■If ■laiBiii !••••■■■!;!!,
^(•■■•■•■•■•l • ••■•■•■•■■■*
.•_•«■■•■■*■« I IIBIBia •••'•■«
«■•>•■•>■>■■• •<■■■<■»'•■>
(..■■aaaiBn <,ai«i ■■■■•i
-.««Sia«>«IB a /iBK, »,»»■«
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■ ■■■(■•■■> > ••■•■■■••■>■■
..Hi»««a«lt tull"*!!"""---
Fig. 62.
A. Seven-ounce Untreated Burlap, Showing open Mesh.
B. Same Burlap, Saturated and Coated with Asphalt.
retains between 35 and 50 per cent of its open mesh after treatment,
becomes more pliable, and weighs between 14 and 18 pounds per 100
square feet. It acts as a reinforcement in the waterproofing mem-
brane much the same as does expanded metal in reinforced concrete
slabs. .It is now very extensively used for waterproofing under-
ground structures, and is in keen competition with felt, which,
formerly, was used exclusively. Fig. 62, A, shows a photographic
reproduction of a piece of 7-ounce raw burlap; Fig. 62, B, shows
the same piece properly saturated and coated with bitumen.
* "Manufacture, Test and Use of Waterproofing: Fabric," Engineering News,
Scpten)l)er 24, 1914,

Mastic. Mastic employed in the art of waterproofing, is composed
of asphalt or coal-tar pitch mixed with cement or limestone dust
often also with sand, and all in varying proportions depending
on the particular use to which it is put. Mastic may also be made
of fluxed natural rock asphalt and grit. The mineral matter in the
mastic gives it " body " i.e., makes it more substantial, raises its
melting-point, lessens the fluidity and increases its bearing power
as compared with the bitumen used. The latter properties depend
on the relative proportion of the bitumen and mineral matter. The
usual proportions for waterproofing-mastic such as used with bricks
to form a brick-in-mastic layer are from 30 to 50 per cent of bitumen,
the remainder being equal proportions of sand and cement. The
sand used in making the mastic is usually fine enough to pass 100
per cent through a 10-mesh sieve. In some cases, the mastic is
used as mortar with bricks for waterproofing floors, walls, roofs and
underground structures. It is often used alone to form a continu-
ous sheet an inch or more in thickness, to waterproof subsurface
structures. For such use the mastic may contain from 10 to 15
per cent of bitumen, 8 per cent cement, 40 to 45 per cent
limestone dust, 25 per cent grit and from 12 to 17 per cent
of sand.
Naphtha. Naphtha is a thin white oil obtained mainly from
petroleum by distillation and also from the distillation of wood and
coal-tar. There are several varieties and grades of naphtha and
they are differentiated by their boiling-points and specific gravity
but all are hydrocarbons. Commercial bitumen is partly soluble
in naphtha but when heated in a steam-jacketed kettle and not
thiimed out too much, a mixture of the two is obtained in which the
part of the asphalt not dissolved is held in suspension. In this form
it is used for making bitimiinous dampproofing paints.
Oil-tar Pitch. Oil-tar pitch is the residue of the distillation of
oil tar, which itself is a by-product of the manufacture of oil gas
or carbureted water gas. It is produced in the cracking of oil vapors
at very high temperatures. This process causes the oils to undergo
marked changes and to acquire some of the characteristics found
in coal tar. These oils are then distilled down and treated much as is
coal tar, resulting in what is known as oil-tar pitch. The free carbon
content of oil-tar pitch is low, ranging between 5 and 15 per cent; it
is, however, always less viscid than coal-tar pitch, though about equal
in its resistance to the action of water and not materially less stable
than coal-tar pitch. Its chief use is on roofs of buildings as a roof-
ing binder and sometimes as a saturant for waterproofing felts and

fabrics. Where coal-tar pitch is to be applied as a surface coat,
oil-tar pitch is often used as a primer because of its penetrating
power, but for this purpose dead oil is preferable.
Paper. Paper was first made by the Chinese, from whom it spread
to other races, and was brought to Europe in the Twelfth Century.
The first paper mill in America was built by William Rittenhouse,
at Roxborough, near Philadelphia, in 1690. There are innumerable
varieties of building paper on the market, but in waterproofing
only two or three of these are used. These are made of various
kinds of wood pulp, rope, rags or wool or from a combination of pulp
and rags or wool. None of these papers can be completely saturated
with bitumen, but all can be sufficiently saturated to preserve them
for a considerable time. Those known as " building papers " are
not saturated at all. Some papers are merely coated on one or both
surfaces with bitumen. Some are weak in tension, others very
strong, and of late a very strong variety of paper has been success-
fully treated and is sometimes used in place of felt.
Paper Burlap. Paper burlap, as made for waterproofing pur-
poses, is an open mesh paper fabric, similar to jute burlap and some-
times substituted for it. It can be saturated with bitumen only
with difficulty. It may be used in waterproofing in the same manner
as jute burlap. It comes in several weights and widths and is
slightly reinforced with cotton, but it is not nearly so strong as the
jute variety. It is also more perishable. By pasting a very thin
tissue paper completely over one side of the paper burlap and coat-
ing the whole with a tacky asphalt or coal-tar product, it is made
into an efficient electric cable duct wrap.
PaxafBn (Solid). Solid paraffin is a hard, white, waxlike sub-
stance, chemically of the higher hydrocarbons. It is obtained by
distillation from petroleum,* but is also found native in coal and
other bituminous strata. The manufacture of paraffin was begun
in 1851 by James Young, a Scottish chemist. It is very inert, insoluble
in water, and can be mixed in all proportions in various oils when
in a melted condition but lacks adhesiveness and is useless as a
binding material, For waterproofing it is often mixed with asphalt
(complete solution therein is essential) , or used alone in various ways,
e.g., to render fabrics waterproof. When used unblended, as a
masonry surface coating it is the most efficient waterproofing medium
for the purpose. It is also used in the manufacture of secret (?)
waterproofing compounds.
* The Pennsylvania and, in general, the Eastern (U. S. A ) oils are largely
made up of compounds of the parafEn sei'ies.
WATERPROOFING MATERIALS
163
Paraffin Oil. Paraffin oil is a by-product of the manufacture of

paraffin. It is a liquid compound practically of the same nature as
the solid paraffin with the same properties and adaptability as
regards waterproofing. Both kinds of paraffin are extensively
used as surface coatings for stone, brick, and concrete, making the
latter both dampproof and waterproof. Stones are often impreg-
nated with paraffin to prevent erosion when exposed to the elements.
Sand. Nearly all sand is more or less pure quartz grains which
will all pass through a j-inch sieve with not more than 8 per cent
passing a No. 100 sieve. The sand best suited for making impervious
concrete is coarse, sharp and silicious, containing not mpre than 2
per cent of mica, loam, dirt or clay, separately or combined. For
good results as regards impermeability it should be graded about as
follows:
No. of Sieve.
Limit of
Fineness
(Per Cent
Passing) .
Limit of
Coarseness
(Per Cent
Passing).
100
95
95
85
16
75
40
30
50
20
50
30
100
See Appendix 1 for explanation of mechanical analysis curves

for grading concrete aggregates.
Steel Plate. Steel plate used for tunnel finings is made by the
open-hearth process.* In tunnel construction, it often acts both as a
structural component of the tunnel and its waterproof fining. To
reduce leakage through the joints to a minimimi after erection, the
plates should be perfectly fitted and riveted tlii'ough properly
reamed holes. Edges of all plates must be planed and calked inside
and out. When steel plates are used for tanks and sometimes even
for structural purposes it is also necessary to make the joints water-
tight. A very good scheme is to introduce a strip of treated felt
a fit tie wider than the pitch of rivets between the joints. • The heat
and compression of the rivets bring out the cementing properties
of the joint filler.
Stone Aggregate. Stone used for concrete consists mainly of
trap, limestone, marble, granite, syenite and gneiss. The composi-
* The Journal of the Municipal Engineers of the City of New York, Vol. 1,
No. 6, p. 16, December 1, 1915.
164 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING /

/
tion and characteristics of these stones are more or less a matter of
common knowledge, and a discussion of their properties Would
encumber this article. What is true of gravel, as regards the making
of dense concrete, is approximately true of any of these stones for
the same use. See Appendix 1 for explanation of mechanical analysis
curves for grading concrete aggregates.
Tar. (A) Coal tar: Coal tar is a black, more or less viscid,
oily liquid, a mixture of hydrocarbon distillates resulting from the
destructive distillation of soft coal in the production of illuminating
gas. It was first recovered in 1771 by Stauf, a German chemist.
There are various kinds of tars, depending on the type of oven and
kind of coal used. The chief difference in these tars is the varying
percentage of free carbon present. By fractional distillation, that is,
by the removal of certain of the more volatile oils present in the crude
tar, it can be carried to a point at which the residuum in the still
has acquired any desired consistency at normal temperature. This
semi-solid or solid residual product is called pitch. The best water-
proofing pitches are obtained from straight-run (unadulterated)
coal tar produced at reasonably high temperatures, though for
roofing purposes pitch is also made of oil and water-gas tars. Coal
tar is used as a dampproof and protective paint and for saturating
waterproofing felts.
(B) Water-gas tar: Water-gas tar is a mixture of hydrocarbon
distillates, produced by cracking oil vapors at high temperatures
in the manufacture of carbureted water gas. Crude water-gas ' tar
is a thin, oily liquid having a specific gravity lying usually between
1 and 1.10. As a rule it contains a considerable quantity of water,
which is, however, largely removed by mechanical devices before
the tar is placed upon the market. The composition of water-gas
tar varies with the character of the oil which is carbureted and
varying conditions affecting the process. It always shows a low
percentage of free carbon, usually less than 2 per cent, and is more
easily decomposed and more affected by water than coal tar. In
crude form it is used as a road dust-palHative. When reduced to the
proper consistency by distillation it is used as a road binder, in the
manufacture of a few minor waterproofing materials and for treating
a special grade of waterproofing felt and fabric.
Water. The term " water " is ordinarily understood to mean the
liquid composed of two parts of hydrogen and one part of oxygen,
chemically combined. But to the engineer the " H2O " of the water
is of less concern than the suspended and dissolved matter in the water
in general use. Its abundance is too often taken as proof positive

"of its purity. But reasonably pure, clean, fresh water is not alwj,ys
available. Still these qualities and the amount used in making a
specific mixture of concrete are as essential in the making of good
concrete as good cement, sand and stone. Water for good concrete
should be free of every form of pollution, excessive amounts of acids
and alkahes and all forms of organic matter. Salt water should
never be used in making reinforced concrete. The presence of any
of these foreign ingredients affects the cement more or less and
reduces the density and consequently the impermeability of the
concrete. The functions of water in concrete are: (a) to form, with
the cement, the binding material uniting the sand and stone ; this is-
accomplished automatically by dissolving the cement, forming acids
from anhydrides, and bringing these new acids and dissolved bases of
cement into intimate contact for chemical reaction; (6) to flux the
cementing substances over the surfaces of the aggregate so as to
insure extensive adhesion ; '(c) to act as a lubricant for the aggregate.
These are completely operative only if the water is reasonably pure.
Some of the materials above considered are, of course, used for
many other purposes than waterproofing, but such enumeration
would be foreign to this subject.
The many secret compounds referred to throughout the book
consist mostly of (a) chemical salts and limes; (6) solutions of
various petroleums and linseed oil, and (c) mixtures of powdered
metal, slag and Portland cement.
Analyses of many patented waterproofing materials by Govern-
ment and private chemists prove some of them of questionable merit,
and some of but temporary value, imparting impermeability to
concrete but for a short time only, and with some of these compounds
unfortunately, their secrecy more often overbalances their efficacy.
CHAPTER VI
WATERPROOFING IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY
Applicability of Tools and Machinery fcr Waterproofing. The
tools, implements and machinery employed in the waterproofing
industry are somewhat connected with the asphalt pavement in-
dustry with which most engineers and contractors are more or less
famihar. Some tools are used in common and some implements
are easily modified to suit either industry. The tools and implements
are usually of simple construction, and some are often home-made^
Surriy "'
Saturant
Satunitirf Tank
Fig. 63.— Diagrammatic View Showing Process of Saturating and Coating

Burlap or Cotton Fabric with^ Bitumen.
though all are supplied by manufacturers who make a specialty of
this trade; but the machinery, such as is used for saturating and
treating waterproofing felts and fabrics, is more complicated (see
Fig. 63), and requires design. The manipulation of most of these
tools and machines, however, is simple and does not require partic-
ularly sidlled labor, either in the field or factory. There are varia-
tions and even distinctly different forms of these articles in the
market, but those described herein are mostly standard or fast
becoming so.
Varieties of Mastic Mixers

Spherical Mastic-mixing Kettle. The mastic-mixing kettle
shown in Fig. 64 is very extensively used by general waterproofers.
The pot in the figure fits into the jacket, or mantle. The kettle
and mantle are made of steel plate, with top and bottom bands.
166
WATERPROOFING l.MPLEMKXT>^ AND MACHIXERY 167
Fig. 64. — A.^phalt or Alastic Heating Kettle.
Fig. 65. — T>-]iical Dipper and Pouring Pail Used in Waterproofing \\-ith Asphalt
or Tar.
168
The bottom of the kettle is riveted but easily removable when burnt
and removal is necessary. The dimensions of the kettle are as
follows: Kettle, 38 inches diameter at top, j^-inch plate, 21 inches
deep; bottom, | inch thick. Mantle, 40 inches diameter, 36 inches
high, of j^-inch plate. Kettles of 50 gallons capacity are the most
generally used. Through the opening in the mantle a wood fire
is built under the kettle in which the bitumen gradually melts.
While in a hot and molten condition, the bitvmien is poured into
small kettles or pouring pails by means of dippers, both of which
are shown in Fig. 65.
Cylindrical Mastic-mixing Kettle. Cylindrical mastic-mixing
kettles are well adapted for making mastic because every part of
U-
FiG. 66,^Cylindrical Mastic Kettle.
its interior surface is accessible to the kettleman. This is all the

more so because straight-edged stirrers are the most generally used,
regardless of the type of kettle. This type of kettle is made in several
sizes, of |-inch metal, with sand and gravel-drying pockets on either
side and a fire space underneath the cylinder, as shown in Fig. 66.
The kettle rests directly on the ground and can readily be carried
away by four men.
Mechanical Mastic Mixer.* The mechanical mixer shown in
Fig. 67 is constructed so that it can be drawn without any difficulty
to any location or to any part of the work. It consists of a steel
rotary drum which revolves in a fire brick-lined steel casing set on a
* Originated by the Guelich Paving Process Co. of Philadelphia, Pa., and
patented November, 1911.
WATERPROOFIXG IMPLEMENTS AXD MACHIXERY 169

reetaiigulai- I-hcam truck; the drum proper is 5 feet Ioiir and 34
inches ni diameter. The drum heads revolve about a horizontal
axis, while the barrel of the drum has a 6-inch eccentricity on each
Fig. 67. — Mechanical Mastic Mixer, Rear Mew,

November, 1911.)
iratented in U, S. A.,
end. The drum is perfectly smooth, being butt jointed. Within

the drum is a series of flat, rectangular paddles set at an angle ot
45 degrees with the axis. Attached to the forward end of the drum

is a curved rack which meshes with a gear driven by a direct-connected
gasoHne engine also at this end. To the engine is connected an air
blower which supplies the air for vaporizing the fuel oil, the heat
source for this machine. A fire box is connected to, but underneath,
the truck and is also lined with fire brick. The flame spreads on
either side of the drum and comes in direct contact with it. For
this reason the torch is never lighted except when the drum is
revolving.
In the center of the forward head of the drum is a 10-inch hole
through which, by the aid of a hopper the machine is charged while
revolving. The rear end of the drum is used for discharging; an
opening near the edge of the drum head, provided with a hinged door,
8 by 12 inches, being used for this purpose. In this hinged door is
a small shuttle door through which the material in the drum is
sampled while being cooked.
In starting the machine the mastic constituents, that is, the
sand, grit, limestone dust and cement, are thrown into the drum
through the hopper and at the same time pieces of asphalt are also
thrown in so as to mix more thoroughly with the aggregate. All
materials must be weighed, but none of them needs preheating
preparatory to mixing.
The total weight of the machine, when empty, is about 3 tons.
Its dimensions are: height, about 5 feet; width, 4 feet; and length,
8 feet.
The capacity of the machine is about 1000 pounds of mastic in
about thirty-five minutes. It requires one engine runner and two
laborers to tend this machine, and between 1000 and 1400 square
feet of 1-inch floor mastic or sheet mastic for waterproofing purposes
can be produced by it per working day.
The drum must be cleaned after each day's work. This is accom-
phshed by throwing some grit into it, allowing it to revolve for a
few minutes while the torch is burning, and drawing off the product
gradually until the drum is empty.
Varieties of Heating Kettles
Steam-jacketed Heating and Mixing Kettle. Steam-jacketed
kettles for heating bituminous materials, or mixing bituminous
mastic, are used in many asphalt plants throughout the country
but these are invariably of very large sizes, ranging between 200
and 500 gallons capacity, and also of various forms.
Small kettles of this type, say between 50 and 100 gallons capa-
WATERPROOFING IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 171

city, could be employed on engineering work where large quantities
of these materials are used for floor paving or waterproofing purposes.
While this has never been tried, so far as the author is aware, never-
theless he feels confident that it would result in marked economy
were these kettles substituted, where possible for the fire-heated
kettles of the present day. This would follow for several reasons.
It is a demonstrated fact that coal-tar pitch is robbed of some of its
volatile oils by being heated over a fire preparatory to its use, because
of the concentration of heat and the natural hghtness of some of the
constituent oils. Asphalt likewise suffers deterioration, though not as
readily as pitch. The cost of handling fire-wood, plus the cost of at
Fig. 68. — Double-jacketed, Steam-heated Mastic Mixing and Asphalt Heating

Kettle.
A. Kettle with mastic mixing device.
B. Pipe connection for kettle.
C. Asphalt heating kettle, showing nrrangement of jackets
least three hours' overtime every day for a man to start the fires under
the kettles at early dawn; the lack of a uniform product so often the
result of making hand-mixed mastic; the fact that all work of any
magnitude at all, has a steam plant worldng practically all the time
with considerable waste of steam for lack of use; all these facts taken
together and the frequent need for replacing the burnt fire-heated
kettles make a cost item to be considered in comparison, and would
show it to be decidedly advantageous and economical to use the steam-
jacketed kettles.
Various types of steam-jacketed kettles are on the market and
used for various purposes such as maldng chemicals, paper, glues,
etc. The type suitable for heating bitumen is shown in Fig. 68, C.
This is made of plain iron with or without a cover and with or without
172
an outlet from the inner kettle. The cost of tliis kettle depends on
the capacity: 45 gallons costing about $66.00; 65 gallons .181.00;
100 gallons about $121.00. Fig. 68, A, shows the kettle adapted to
making mastic mechanically by the addition of a double mixer, gear,
shaft and hand crank hinged arbor. The cost of this type of mixer
also depends on the capacity, namely, 45 gallons about $125.00;
65 gallons about $150.00 and 1000 gallons about $207.00. At B is
shown the pipe connections for each style of kettle.
The steam pressure required for raising the cold materials in these
kettles to their proper temperature is about 100 pounds per square
inch applied for about one hour.
Fig. 69.— Roofer's Kettle, Used for Heating Bitumen and Mastic.
A. Mantle. B Kettle.
A modified steam-jacketed kettle can be made out of the present

fire-heated kettles by lining them with steam coils suspended from the
edges.
Round Roofer's Kettle. The kettle shown in Fig. 69 is used
mostly by roofers in ex;ictly the same manner as the asphalt and heat-
ing mastic kettles. This kettle is strongly constructed, handy
for small jobs and for patching purposes. These roofer's kettles
are generally built and used in sizes of 20, 30 and 50 gallons capacity.
Rectangular Roofer's Kettle. The roofer's kettle shown in Fig.
70 IS made rectangular in foiin and in capacities of 50, 100 and 150
gallons. They are built of No. 14 sheet steel, riveted and braced
in all corners with angle u'on. The tank is made with bottom semi-
cylindrical in form, separate from fire box, thus facilitating I'ciiairs
in replacing burnt bottoms. The furnace is reinforced on the inside

by an extra thickness of No. 14 steel to resist the heat. The kettles
are usually provided with four carrying handles attached to the side
sheets as shown.
Portable Heating Kettle (Drag Type). In Fig. 71 is shown a
large portable heating kettle mainly used by roofers. It is very
serviceable, especially the davit, which greatly facilitates handling
barrels. In warm weather the heat from the melted bitumen in
the kettle is sufficient to make the bitumen flow from the bung of the
barrel, which is placed so that it opens downward. This keeps the
barrel intact which may then be used again. The kettle may be had
in capacities of 150 to 500 gallons.
Portable Heating Kettle (Wagon Type). The portable heater
shown in Fig 72 is used chiefly by roofers. This type of heater is
Fig. 70. — Stationary Roofer's Kettle. (End View has Outside Jacket Removed.)
intended for long hauls and small jobs. The bitumen can be heated
while being hauled to the work. In places where the municipal
authorities will not allow a thoroughfare to be blockaded by station-
ary kettles, this is found a desirable outfit. The space back of the
driver's seat is arranged for holding wood, having sufficient space
for about two daj^s' supply. There is also a rack for carrying pails,
dippers, mops, etc. The heating tank is provided with a hinged
cover. This type of heater usually comes in sizes of 100 to 150
gallons capacity.
Portable Heating Kettle (Hand Cart Type). The portable kettle
illustrated in Fig. 73 is much used by roofers and waterproofers,
particularly the latter, because it is made in as small capacities as
desired. By the use of this type of small portable heating kettles,
the stationary mixing kettles can be almost any distance from the
174
WATERPROOFING ENGINEERIXG
work, and the bitumen, or mastic, can, by means of them, be trans-

ported hot from the heatintj or mixing kettles to the pLace of applica-
tion. The smaller portable kettles need no projecting chimneys.
Fig. 71.— Portable A.sphalt and Tar-heating Iêttle with Davit Attachment.
The furnace is cciuipped with sheet steel bottom, of No. 12 gauge,

and is tongn.e-iiveted to the tank. It has a wrought-iron .handle
provided with a foot rest in front, and a discharge pipe from the tank
in the rear.
WATERPROOl'lXG IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 175
Combination Tar and Gravel Heater. A tar and f!:r:n'el heater,

smiilar in construction to but usually larger than the portable
ur^'^'^
Fig. 72.— Wagon Type ul' Tar and Asphalt Heater.

kettle shown in Fig. 73 is used liy roofers and general watcrproofers
alike. On top of the heater are two doors, one enclosurg a round-
Fig. 73.— Hand-portable T\-pc .if Tar, Asjjhalt, and Mastic-heatnig Kettle.
bottom tank in which the bitumen is heated, and the other an inclined
container for the sand or gravel which is drawn out as needed from an

upper door in the end. A lower door encloses the fire box. In the
rear of the heater is a spout for drawing the bitumen. The heater
can be transported from place to place by attaching it to a wagon.
The standard kettle has a capacity of 70 gallons of bitumen and
gravel. This heater will produce one ton of hot, dry gravel per hour.
Sundry Waterphoofing Implements
Roofing Mops. The mops shown in Fig. 74 are used for roofing
and waterproofing alike. They are made of a cotton warp, attached
Fig. 74. — Roofing and Waterproofing Mops.
to wooden handles 4 feet long, the weight and length of warp being
as follows :
3-ounce cotton warp, 51 inches long.
12-ounce cotton warp, 9^ inches long.
The two smallest are used chiefly for roofing, the two longest,
chiefly for general waterproofing.
The general practice is to buy bales of cotton warp, and make the
mops on the work, as needed.

Mastic Stirrers. Fig. 75, A, illustrates an efficient type of mastic
stirrer for round-bottom kettles. Other types consist of a long-
handled paddle whose end is shaped like an oar; or an iron rod
terminating in a flat triangle as shown in Fig. 75, B. This is best
suited to the cylindrical type of mixing kettle. Another type of
stirrer is made of a coffin-shaped piece of sheet iron perforated with
5-inch holes, and securely fastened to the end of a long pole. Some-
times a strong flat stick, picked up on the work, is used. This type,
however, as well as the oar or coffin-shaped stirrers, are not efficient
tools. A modification of the stirrer shown in Fig. 75, A, consists in
making the frame square, but as the majority of kettles used are
round-bottomed, this also does not make an efficient stirrer. In the
stirrer shown in the figure the handle is made of wood inserted
into an iron rod, which terminates in a ring, the hole of which is
A
Fig. 75.
A. Paddle Type of Mastic Stirrer, (|-inch Wire Mesh).
B. Stirring Rod.
occupied by a |- or j-inch iron-wire screen of §-inch mesh securely

fastened to the ring.
Dipper and Pouring Pail. The dipper and pouring pail shown in
Fig. 65 are usually made of galvanized sheet iron, or other sheet
metal, in several sizes and capacities, the most common of which
being the 3-gallon type. They are both reinforced with a heavy
wire band at the top. The base of the ferrule of the best dippers is
riveted to the bottom. The dippers have wooden handles from
6 to 8 feet long. The type of pouring pail shown in Fig. 76, A, may
serve also as a melting pot and when so used, is placed in a suitable
portable furnace, like a salamander. The seams in this kettle are
rolled and the top is divided and hinged across the middle.
Asphalt Smoother. The asphalt smoothers shown in Fig. 76, B,
have but a limited use in waterproofing work. They are, however,
very efficient for the limited purpose for which they are apphcable.
17&
especially the very small ones, whose base is about 3 by 4 inches

(curved like the larger smoothers) with short iron handles. They
are heated and used to soften the exposed ends and laps of bituminous
membranes to insure a good waterproof joint between old and new
ho
<a .S
a
Ph
_ -^ bo
? 03 0)
— 9
^ o >
CQ 03 ft
<t! O O
50
O g
II
9-
■3 eq
Pl(
03
O
05
work. The manner of using the smoother for waterproofing is the

same as in paving work. The larger smoothers are made of cast
iron in two sizes, their faces being ground smooth and to a curve.
They are provided with handles made of If-inch pipe, bent at the
upper end, and welded to a steel stub cast in the head of the smoother.
WATERPROOFING IMPLEMENTS AND jNIACHINERY
179
Gasoline Torch. The torch shown in Fig. 76, D, is the one most
gencralh' used for heating laps and small surfaces of old waterproofing
of the membrane and surface coating types. It is sometimes also
used for heating concrete in the mixer, in freezing weather, where it
is very effective, and helpful in producing good concrete in cold
weather. This torch produces a blue flame of great heat efficiency.
The shipping weight of this type of torch is aljout 4j pounds.
Fig. 77. — Method of Drymt^ and Sieving Sand; Typical .Vrrangement of Fire-
lieated Ivettles for Making Mastic. (Note Yoke for Carrymg Pails of
Hot Pitch or Mastic.)
Asphalt Cutter. In Fig. 76, C, is shown an asphalt cutter widely

used where asphalt or hard tar products are employed in construction.
With it, wooden barrels and tin tlrums, in l)oth of which the pitch
and asphalt are received on the work, are readily cut up, exposing
the materials. These are in turn cut up into small pieces for easy
handling. The cutters are made of tool steel, with tempered edges,
thus giving long service before the tool has to be re]3aired. The
length of cutter from etlge to edge is 2Uj inches; width of edge 3
inches; shiiDping weight of double-edge cutter is 10 pounds.
180
Gravel Heating Pan. The gravel heating pan shown in Fig.

76, E, is much used by roofers and general waterproofers. In ser-
vice it is usually supported by several bricks under each corner
Fig. 78. — Method of Drying, Heating, and Sieving Sand in Large Quantities.
permitting a wood fire to be built underneath. The sand or gravel

is spread over the pan, and dried or heated as desired. These pans
are made of soft steel with riveted sides. The most generally used
size is 106 inches long, 42 inches wide and 8 inches deep.
Sand and Gravel Heating Pipe. The pipes shown lying on the
ground in Fig. 77 are sheet metal, but more usually old, discarded,
cast-iron water pipes, over I5 feet in diameter. They are used very
extensively by waterproofers for drying and heating sand and gravel
in large quantities. Where possible, the sand or gravel is dumped
directly on the pipes as shown, otherwise these materials are shoveled
on until a pile, 2 or 3 feet high, rests on them. A wood fire is built
inside of these pipes, in which a
natural draft is always present.
When the sand is sufficiently heat-
ed, it is usually screened (see man
with shovel at wheelbarrow) before
being used. Fig. 78 shows an
improvised pipe furnace for dry-
ing, heating and screening sand in
large quantities.
Salamander. The salamander
shown in Fig. 79 is used for
drying bricks which are intended
for briek-in-mastic waterproofing,
and also for heating enclosed
areas to be waterproofed in cold
weather. Salamanders are usually
made of |- or jînch steel plate
and equipped with heavy cast-iron
gratings. They come in several
sizes, the most common being 17
inches in diameter by 20 inches
high and 20 inches in diameter by
24 inches high.
Wheel Barrow. A steel-tray wheel barrow, besides serving its
obvious purpose, is very commonly used for volume measurements
of the mineral ingredients entering into the making of mastic for
waterproofing. Such a wheel barrow is usually constructed of
Nos. 16 to 12 gauge steel, and in capacities of 2| to 6 cubic feet.
Concrete Tampers. The tampers shown in Fig. 80, A, B and C,
are designed to insure a compact concrete mass. The tamping process
is really a slicing and cutting process for the purpose of letting air
bubbles out of the concrete. Ordinary tamping is done by a form
of tamper shown in Fig. 80, B. For facing work, the gridiron tamper
in Fig. 80, A, gives excellent results. The tamper shown at C is
constructed with two spacings.
Fig. 79. — Iron Salamander Used

Drying and Heating vricks.
for
182
Trowels and Floats. Fig. SI, A, represents the usual form of

trowel used for pointing between copings, or flashings and walls, etc.
Fig. 81, B, represents the usual form of trowel used in applying and
smoothing waterproofed plaster and mortar. Fig. 81, C, is a wooden
spreader or float generally used for spreading and floating bitumi-
nous-mastic floors, sheet mastic waterproofing, etc. It is about 1
8 lbs. 10 lbs. 26 lbs.

Fig. 80. — Concrete Tampers.
foot long, 4 inches wide and 2 inches thick, with smooth and true
faces all around. In using the float its beveled edge is held forward
and applied in a somewhat diagonal direction while pressure is brought
to bear on the handle. It is not possible to secure the same fine,
finished surface on these materials with an iron trowel or smoother.
Cores for Felt and Fabric Rolls. Waterproofing felt and fabric is
put up in rolls so as to make handling easy (see Fig. 120). In ship-

ping, hauling and storing, these rolls would be badly crushed, warped,
bent and wrinkled but for the solid core on which they are usually
wound. The cores are sometimes made of paste-board roll and
slat crates but most often of soUd square or round sticks. Water-
FiG. 81.
A. Mastic trowel.
B. Mortar Trowel.
C. Wood Spreader or Float for Mastic Floors.
proofing felts are often rolled up without any cores, but waterproofing
fabric can never be handled without cores. The various types
employed are illustrated in Fig. 82.
Mechanical Brick Heater. A practical and economical method
of drying and heating bricks is by the use of an iron furnace, or
Wood
2x 2"
Wood
2"DSam.
Cardboard
4" Diam.
Wood Crate
3 -2" Blocks
Bo.x Core
3"x 3"
Fig. 82. — Types of Cores upon which Felt and Fabric is Rolled for Shipping.
heater.* This heater consists of a rectangular sheet-iron box about

4 by 4 feet and 8 feet high. On opposite sides and at different
elevations it has rectangular openings 10 or 12 inches high and 4 feet
wide. To the bottom of these openings are attached hinged doors.
* Designed and used by the New York Roofing Co.

Gratings inclined about 45 degrees connect with the bottoms of the
door openings. A low', flat, iron, box-like salamander placed on the
ground under the lowest grating completes the equipment. The
process of heating the bricks is commenced by kindling a charcoal
fire in the salamander, and placing bricks on the first grating through
the most elerated door connected therewith, the lower one remaining
closed. Then bricks are placed on the second grating and finally
on the third grating. By the time this is done the bricks on the first
grating are sufficiently dry and warm and may be dumped from the
heater into a wheel barrow or other conveyance by opening the door
on the lower level. Then the second and third doors above are
opened in succession, allowing the bricks to fall out automatically.
With this heater, 14,000 to 20,000 bricks per day can be dried and
heated to quite a high temperature and without soot.
The Cement Gun

Fig. 83 illustrates a modern type of cement gun. A sectional
view is shown in Fig. 84. This type is built to withstand air-pressure
up to 60 pounds per square inch. The following description will
aid in understanding its operation :
The tanks marked in the figure as 4 and 5 are steel sheet, welded
on both sides and riveted to flanges as shown. The tank is hinged
to the cast-iron base to permit access to the interior for cleaning.
The cone valves 3 and the feed wheel 6 are of cast iron with a
smooth finish. The air motor 9 drives the feed wheel through a
worm and worm gear. The dry materials, mixed in the proper
proportions, are placed in both tanks through the open valves,
before any air is turned on. Then the upper cone valve 3 is closed
by means of lever 2 and compressed air is admitted through cock A,
which holds the cone valve in place. Cock B is then opened, admit-
ting air through a gooseneck and the outlet valve 8. Cock C is then
opened which makes the feed wheel 6 revolve, and the material in
each pocket of same, as it registers with the gooseneck, is blown out
through valve 8, into the material hose attached thereto, to the
nozzle where the water from a separate base is added.
To recharge the machine it is not necessary to stop it, as the lower
cone valve 3 is held in the position shown when the air in the upper
tank is exhausted. The upper cone valve then opens and a new
charge is put into the machine. The operation of this machine
must be continuous while the mortar is being applied.
Fig. 83— Cement Gun. (Height, 69 Inches; Floor Space, 42 by 44 Inches;

Weight, 1350 lb.)
186
Tub Grouting Machine

Grouting machines are manufactured in several sizes to with-
stand presures up to 600 pounds per square inch. They can be
c
c
K
^
made to stir the grout mechanically, or by compressed air. Fig. 85

shows a small-sized patented grout mixer designed for mixing grout
by compressed air only. The space occupied by such a machine is
WATERPROOFING lAIPLEMEXTS AND MACHINERY 187
about 3 by 3 feet and 4 feet high. The average batch capacity is
about 4 cubic feet.
Referring to its operation, B is the compressed air inlet. Valves
C, D, and F are closed and door A opened. The sand and cement
are charged through the door A, and a measured quantity of water is
admitted through A by means of a hose. Then the door ^-i is closed.
Valve D is now opened, allowing the compressed air to blow in at
the bottom to mix the grout. This keeps the mixture agitated and
K^low off when Mixing
■ Grout Discharffe.
to Plac&
Fig. 85. — Section of Ransome-Caniff Grout Mixer. (Patented.)
prevents the sand and cement setting into and choking the outlet,
pipe G. During this operation, the blowoff valve K must be open.
When the batch is mixed, valves K and D are closed, and valve C
opened. When the batch is to be ejected, valve F, controlled by
handle H, is opened and the grout discharged through a hose attached
to outlet G. Then valves C and F are closed, the excess pressure
allowed to blow off through valve K, when the door A drops open,
and the machine is again ready to be charged.
CHAPTER VII
TECHNICAL AND PRACTICAL TESTS ON WATERPROOFING
Necessity of Testing Waterproofing Materials. Testing of
waterproofing materials is necessary to insure good and uniform
products. Representative specimens of materials to be used should be
tested in the laboratory for comparison with specified requirements.
Analysis should be made when any doubt exists regarding the true
nature of the material. This is especially true of tar and bituminous
compounds and proprietary products, as has, no doubt, become
evident. Some practical field tests may reveal certain undesirable
quaUties, but laboratory tests can often be relied upon to reveal
more, and should not be neglected.
To know the properties of materials is not more essential than
knowing how to test for these properties, at least in a practical way.
In the light of present-day knowledge of waterproofing materials,
it is necessary for the engineer to be acquainted with methods of
testing and to be able to correctly interpret results of tests. Of
equal importance to the tester is a knowledge of the significance of
the tests called for in specifications. For this, however, both techni-
cal knowledge and experience are necessary.
In this chaper technical tests on pitch and asphalt are briefly
described and their significance explained; also tests and results
on the impermeability of plain and waterproofed concrete and cement
mortars, and certain practical tests related to general waterproofing
are described. The results of some of the tests described herein
will make evident certain statements of facts made in other chapters.
Particular attention is directed to the many practical tests as show-
ing the logical way of aiding the engineer's judgment in arriving at
conclusions in regard to the adaptability of some materials for
unusual purposes. Waterproofing involves comparatively little
theory, which, perhaps, explains its slow progress, and its continu-
ance as an art rather than as an exact science.
188
TECHNICAL AND PRACTICAL TESTS ON WATERPROOFING 189
Significance and Description of Technical Tests on Bitumens

The bitumens form the most important and widely used materials
for waterproofing. It will be well, therefore, to describe some of the
laboratory tests made on this class of materials in more detail than
the others.
The following list of tests includes all those of more or less value
in determining and recording the characteristics of tar and bituminous
materials used for waterproofing purposes:
Coal-tar Pitch. Specific gravity at 60 deg. Fahr. (15.5 deg.
Cent.) or 77 deg. Fahr. (25 deg. Cent.).
Flash point.
Solubility in carbon disulphide (CS2).
Penetration (consistency) at 39 deg. Fahr. (4 deg. Cent.) and
77 deg. Fahr. (25 deg. Cent.).
Flow point.
Melting-point.
Loss on evaporation at 325 deg. Fahr. (163 deg. Cent.).
Penetration (consistency) of residue at 39 deg. Fahr. (4 deg.
Cent.), 77 deg. Fahr. (25 deg. Cent.).
Melting-point of residue.
Free carbon content.
Ash test.
Asphalt. Specific gravity at 60 deg. Fahr. (15.5 deg. Cent.),
or 77 deg. Fahr. (25 deg. Cent.).
Flash point.
Solubility in carbon disulphide (CS2).
Solubility in carbon tetrachloride (CCI4).
Solubility in petroleum naphtha.
Penetration (consistency) at 39 deg. Fahr. (4 deg. Cent.) and 77
deg. Fahr. (25 deg. Cent.).
Melting-point.
Ductility at 39 deg. Fahr. (4 deg. Cent.) and 77 deg. Fahr. (25
deg. Cent.).
Fixed carbon content and paraffin content.*
Loss on evaporation at 325 deg. Fahr. (163 deg. Cent.).
Penetration (consistency) of residue at 39 deg. Fahr. (4 deg.
Cent.), 77 deg. Fahr. (25 deg. Cent.).
Melting-point of residue.
*The fixed carbon and paraffin content tests are of little practical value,
but are included here because this fact is not yet generally so accepted.

Ductility of residue at 39 deg. Fahr. (4 deg. Cent.), 77 deg. Fahr.
•(25deg.Cent.).
Specific Gravity. Specific gravity is mainly used to differentiate
between different tars or bitumens and as a means of identification.
The temperature at which the tar or bitumen is tested is a governing
factor in the determination of its specific gravity. This temperature,
which has been standardized, and always accompanies the specific
gravity value, is either 60 or 77 deg. Fahr. (15.5 or 25 deg. Cent.),
selected arbitrarily. The specific gravity of the semi-solid asphalts
varies with their origin, mode and degree of refinement, and lies
between .87 and 1.21 at 77 deg. Fahr. The specific gravity of the
tars varies with the method of manufacture and degree of distilla-
tion, and lies between 1.10 and 1.25 at 60 deg. Fahr.
The specific gravity* of thin fluid pitches or bitumens is usually
determined by the hydrometer method, which consists in selecting
the proper hydrometer, inserting it in the material at 77 deg. Fahr.
(25 deg. Cent.) and reading the specific gravity off the scale to the
third decimal place.
The specific gravity of hard, solid, bitumens is determined by the
displacement method, i.e., suspending a small piece of the bitumen
by means of a silk thread from the hook of one of the pan supports
of an analytical balance, about I5 inches above the pan and weighed.
This is weight "a." It is then weighed immersed in water at 25 deg.
Cent, and this weight is called " 6." The specific gravity of the
bitumen is then equal to
a-h.
The specific gravity of viscous and semi-solid bitumens is usually
determined by the pyknometer method, which requires the following
equipment:
A large metal kitchen spoon, a steel spatula or kitchen knife,
Bunsen burner and rubber tubing, one 250-c.c. low-form glass
beaker, a chemical thermometer reading from 18 deg. Fahr. to
230 deg. Fahr. (-10 deg. Cent, to 110 deg. Cent.), a special
pyknometer (Fig. 86), an analytical balance, capacity 100 grams,
sensitive to 0.1 mg.
The pyknometer consists of a fairly heavy, straight-walled glass
tube, 70 mm. long and 22 mm. in diameter, carefully ground to
receive an accurately fitting solid glass stopper with a hole of
1.6 mm. bore in place of the usual capillary opening. The lower
part of this stopper is made concave in order to allow all air
* Methods for the examination of bituminous road materials, Bulletin No.
314, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
bubbles to escape through the bore. The depth of the cup-shaped

depression is 4.8 mm. at the center. The stoppered tube has a
capacity of about 24 c.c. and when empty weighs about 28 grams.
When working with semi-solid bitumens which are too soft to be
broken and handled in fragments, the following method of deter-
mining their specific gravity is employed. The clean, dry pyknometer
is first weighed empty and this weight is called "a." It is then filled
in the usual manner with freshly distilled water at 77 deg. Fahr.
(25 deg. Cent.), and the weight is again taken and called " b."
A small amount of the bitumen should be placed in the spoon and
brought to a fluid condition by the gentle appli-
cation of heat, with care that no loss by
evaporation occurs. When sufficiently fluid,
enough is poured into the dry pyknometer,
which may also be warmed, to fill it about
half full, without allowing the material to
touch the sides of the tube above the desired
level. The tube and contents are then allowed
to cool to room temperature, after which the
tube is carefully weighed with the stopper.
The weight is called " c." Distilled water, at
77 deg. Fahr. (25 deg. Cent.), is then poured
in until the pyknometer is full. After this the
stopper is inserted, and the whole cooled to 77
deg. Fahr., by a 30-minute immersion in a beaker '?g ■ j
of distilled water maintained at this tempera-
ture. All surplus moisture is then removed
with a soft cloth, and the pyknometer and con-
tents are. weighed. This weight is called " d."
From the weights obtained the specific gravity of the bitumen may
be readily calculated by the following formula:
Specific gravity at 77 deg. Fahr./77 deg. Fahr. = -
Pyknometer
Type),
Used to Obtain
Specific Gravity of
Bitumens.
(6-a)-(d-c)"
Flash Point. The flash point of an asphalt determines the pos-
sibility of explosions in the melting kettles and general fire risk. It
is the temperature at which volatile oils are given off in a gaseous
state and which may catch fire. This is guarded against by keeping
the flash point as high as possible, that is, refining the asphalts
so as to exclude as much volatile oil as practicable. An asphalt
with a flash point below 400 deg. Fahr. is not ordinarily used.
Although for ordinary purposes the open-cup method for deter-
mining the flash and burning-points of tars and bituminous materials
192
is reasonably accurate, the closed-cup method described below is to

be preferred.
The oil tester consists of a copper oil cup (Fig. 87) having a
capacity of about 300 c.c. It is heated in a water or oil bath by
a small Bunsen flame. The cup is provided with a glass cover,
carrying a thermometer and a hole
for inserting the testing flame. The
testing flame is obtained from a jet
of gas passed through a piece of glass
tubmg, and is about 5 mm. long-.
The flash test is made as follows:
The oil cup is first removed and the
bath filled with water or cottonseed
oil, depending on the volatile nature
of the material tested. The oil cup
is replaced and filled with the material
to be tested to within 3 mm. of the
flange joining the cup and the vapor
chamber above. The glass cover is
then placed on the oil cup and the
thermometer adjusted so that its bulb
is just covered by the bituminous
material. The Bunsen flarrie is then
applied in such a manner that the
temperature of the material in the cup
is raised at the rate of about 9 deg.
Fahr. (5 deg. Cent.) per minute.
From time to time the testing flame
is inserted in the opening inthe cover
to about half way between the surface
of the material and the cover. The
appearance of a faint bhiish flame
over the entire surface of the bitu-
minous material will show that the
flash point has been reached and the
temperature at this point is taken. The burning-point of the material
may be obtained by removing the glass cover and replacing the
thermometer in a wire frame. The temperature is raised at the same
rate and the material tested as before. The temperature at which
the material ignites and burns is taken as the burning-point.
Solubility in Carbon Bisulphide. In nearly all asphalts there is a
certain quantity of insoluble bitumen present. This insoluble bitu-
FiG. 87.— New York State Board

of Health OU Tester.

men lessens the cementing value of the remainder of the asphalt,
raises its melting-point, causes it to become brittle at low tempera-
tures, and otherwise impairs its suitability for waterproofing purposes.
A pure asphalt of uniform consistency, containing the highest per
cent of soluble bitumen, is the most workable and durable, and the
solubility test in carbon disulphide aids the chemist in deciding
these points. A determination of the amount of pure bitumen
present in any specimen by this test should not show less than 95
per cent.
The test consists in dissolving the bituminous material in car-
bon disulphide, and recovering any insoluble matter by filtering
the solution through an asbestos felt filter. This felt is carefully
placed in the bottom of a Gooch crucible, washed several times with
water, and drawn firmly against the bottom of the crucible by
suction. The crucible used for this determination should be 4.4
cm. wide at the top, tapering to 3.6 cm. at the bottom, and 2.5 cm.
deep. The crucible containing the filter is first placed in a drying
oven for a few minutes, removed and ignited to red heat over a
Bunsen burner, cooled in a desiccator and weighed.
Two grams of bituminous material is then placed in a flask,
which has been weighed previously, and the accurate weight of the
sample obtained. One hundred cubic centimeters of chemically
pure carbon disulphide is poured into the flask, in small portioHS,
with continual agitation, until all lumps disappear and nothing
adheres to the bottom. The flask is then corked and set aside
for fifteen minutes to allow settlement of the insoluble material.
This solution should then be decanted through the felt filter in
the Gooch crucible without stirring up any precipitate that may have
settled down. The sides of the fiask should now be washed down
with a small quantity of carbon disulphide, after which the whole is
poured on the felt and suction applied until there is practically
no odor of carbon disulphide in the crucible. The crucible and con-
tents should then be dried at 212 deg. Fahr. (100 deg. Cent.) for
about twenty minutes, cooled in a desiccator and weighed. The
weight of insoluble matter may include both organic and mineral
matter. The former must be burned off by ignition at a red heat,
thus leaving a mineral matter or ash which is weighed when cool.
The difference between the total weight of the material insoluble in
carbon disulphide and the weight of substance taken equals the
total bitumen. The percentage weights are calculated as total
bitumen, and insoluble matter, on the basis of the weight of material
taken for analysis. Further detailed information for those particr
194 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING •

ularly interested in this test will be found in the Transactions of
the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 82, p. 1450 (1918).
Solubility in Carbon Tetrachloride. The solubility test in carbon
tetrachloride shows whether or not the asphalt has been overheated
in refining. The greater the percentage of insoluble bitumen, the
greater the overheating; in other words, it indicates the amount
of incipient destruction that the asphalt has undergone. This test
also determines the amount of other impurities present in the asphalt.
The amount of pure bitumen (the soluble part) present in any given
specimen should not be less than 95 per cent.
The test is conducted in exactly the same manner as described
for " Solubihty in Carbon Bisulphide," except that 100 c.c. of
chemically pure carbon tetrachloride is used in place of carbon
disulphide, and the percentage of bitumen insoluble in carbon tetra-
chloride is reported on the basis of the bitumen taken as 100, the
quantity of the bitumen having been determined by the method
previously described.
Solubility in Petrolic Ether* (Petroleum Naphtha). The solu-
bility test in petrolic ether is to determine the per cent of petroline
present in asphalt, which material is considered to give the viscous or
adhesive quality to the asphalt. This test also shows the amount
of true bitumen in the asphalt, i.e., the amount of hydrocarbon
called " asphaltine." Asphaltine is supposed to possess the greatest
durability and resistance to deteriorating agents; it also gives hard-
ness to the asphalt. The petrolic ether dissolves out the petroline,
leaving the insoluble asphaltine. A reasonably good asphalt will be
greater than 66 per cent soluble in petrolic ether of 88 deg. Baume.
This determination is made in the same general manner as the
test for solubility in carbon disdlphide, except that 100 c.c. of 86
to 88 deg. Baume parafSn naphtha, at least 85 per cent distilling
between 95 and 149 deg. Fahr. (35 and 65 deg. Cent.) is employed
as a solvent instead of carbon disulphide. Considerable difficulty
is sometimes experienced in breaking up some of the heavy semi-
solid bitumens; the surface of the material is attacked, but it is
necessary to remove some of the insoluble matter in order to expose
fresh material to the action of the solvent. It is, therefore, ad-
visable to heat the sample after it is weighed, allowing it to cool
in a thin layer around the lower part of the flask. If difficulty
is still experienced in dissolving the material, a rounded glass rod
will be found convenient fqr breaking up the undissiolved particles.
Not more than one-half of the total amount of naphtha required
*U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bulletin No. 314, Dee. 10, 1915, p. 28.

should be used until the sample is entirely broken up. The balance
of the 100 c.c. is then added, and the flask is twirled a moment in
order to mix the contents thoroughly, after which it is corked and
set aside for thirty minutes.
In making the filtration the utmost care should be exercised to
avoid stirring up any of the precipitate, in order that the filter may
not be clogged and that the first decantation may be as complete
as possible. The sides of the flask should then be quickly washed
down with naphtha and, when the crucible has drained, the bulk of
insoluble matter is brought upon the felt. Suction may be applied
when the filtration by gravity almost ceases, but should be used
sparingly, as it tends to clog the filter by packing the precipitate
too tightly. The material on the felt should never be aflowed
to run entirely dry until the washing is completed, as shown by the
colorless filtrate. When considerable insoluble matter adheres to
the flask no attempt should be made to remove it completely. In
such cases the adhering material is merely washed until free from
soluble matter, and the flask is dried with the crucible at 100°
deg. Cent, for about one hour, after which it is cooled and weighed.
The percentage of bitumen insoluble is reported upon the basis of
total bitumen taken as 100.
The difference between the material insoluble in carbon disul-
phide and in the naphtha is the bitumen insoluble in the latter.
Thus, if in a certain instance it is found that the material insoluble
in carbon dioulphide amounts to 1 per cent and that 10.9 per cent
is insoluble in naphtha, the percentage of bitumen insoluble would
be calculated as follows:
Bitumen insoluble in naphtha 10.9 — 1 9.9 ,„
= = — =10 per cent.
Total bitumen 100-1 99
Penetration Test.* Consistency of an asphalt is a measure,
especially in commerce, of its hardness and softness at various tem-
peratures, and this property is usually determined by the penetra-
tion test. The greater the penetration, the softer is the bitumen..
All coal-tar pitches and asphalts have the property of being softened
by heat and hardened by cold, hence it is necessary to determine to
what degree they are so affected. It is evident that the less a pitch
or asphalt is changed in consistency by changes in temperature, the
more desirable it is as a waterproofing material. But what the
penetration of coal-tar pitch or asphalt for waterproofing should be
depends largely on the specific use they will be put to.
* Journal of Industrial Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 6, No. 2, February, 1914.
196
The test is performed on a standard machine called a pene-

trometer. Penetrometers consist essentially of a needle of specified
size (Roberts No. 2) fixed in a rod, the rod and needle being of,
or loaded to, definite weights. A clamp on the body of the instrument
holds the rod with the needle, which, on being released, allows the
latter to penetrate as nearly as possible without friction. A device
for measuring the amount the needle has penetrated after it has been
released for a specified time and again grasped by the clamp is also
included. (The Dow pene-
trometer is constructed on
this basis.) The penetration
is expressed in hundredths of
a centimeter, though it is not
always designated so. Pene-
trations are most conmionly
made at 77 dcg. Fahr. (25 deg.
Cent.), with the needle loaded
to 100 grams penetrating for
five seconds. In order to
ascertain the extent a bitumen
will harden when chilled to 32
deg. Fahr. (0 deg. Cent.),
penetrations are frequently
made at this temperature with
the needle loaded to 200 grams
penetrating for one minute.
A new form of penetrometer
electrically controlled and
timed is shown in Fig. 88. A
new and much more accurate
machine of this type, callctl a
consistometer, in which the
needle is replaced by a rod and
penetration or consistency is measured by volume displacement, is
described in the Proceedings of the American Society for Testing
Materials, Vol. 11, 1911. For a more detailed description of the
Penetration Test see Transactions of the American Society of Civil
Engineers, Vol. 82, p. 1454 (1918).
FiG.SS.-
-Electricallv Controlled
Penetrometer.

Methods of Determining AlELTiNC-roiNTs of Bitusiexs
There are nine or more different methods of obtaining the melt-
ing-point of bitumen, giving results varying by as much as 30 and
40 deg. Fahr. What causes the real trouble, though, is that chemists
are at variance as to which method is most nearly correct. The
technique of the methods differs so considerably that it is difficult
or impossible to note any definite relation between the results obtained
with each method.
But, as a matter of fact, all methods are more or less incorrect.
They all depend on varying, arbitrary factors and special technique.
They all attempt to determine the melting-point of materials that
have no melting-point. Pitch and asphalt have no melting-point
for the reason that they are composed of complex mixtures of hydro-
carbons, which are of indefinite consistence and spepific gravity.
Were it possible to measure in absolute units the fluidity of a
pitch or asphalt, this would furnish the ideal method, but as this
seems unattainable it would be advisable to select one method
possessing the most practicable apparatus and technique. Or per-
haps a new method could be evolved embodying the good features
of all the present ones. Up to the present time nothing has been
done to co-ordinate these methods.
However, one thing is certain, any method, the results of which
are influenced by the specific gravity of the material tested is
wrong. This refers particularly to what is known as the " Cube-in-
water Method," described below. For instance, the average specific
gravity of asphalt derived from paraffin petroleum is 0.961; from
asphaltic petroleum, 1.004. The buoyant effect of the material
whose specific gravity is so nearly unity is obvious, hence no worth-
while melting-point is found by the cube-in-water method. This
is equally the case when applied to coal-tar pitch, whose specific
gravity varies with the method of manufacture or reduction as
follows: * Gas-house tars, 1.22; coke-oven tars, 1.18; water-gas
tars, 1.10. A standard method of finding the melting-point of
bitumens ought to be established for general use for all laboratories;
or else it should become the general practice to state the method
whenever the melting-point of a bitumen is given, otherwise, as at
present, this value is practically meaningless.
Nearly all the other properties of pitch or asphalt are modified
by the melting-point. It is, in fact, a measure of the fluidity, con-
* " Some experiments on Technical Bitumens," by S. R. Church, American
Society for Testing Materials, April, 1915.

sistency and ductility of these materials. But because it is an
arbitrary value, dependent to a great extent on the method of test,
it is not as reliable as its importance warrants. The nine methods
explained below, are more or less used in industrial plants and
laboratories, but no one method predominates. These are:
1. Ring-and-ball Method.
2. Cube-in-air Method.
3. Cube-in-water Method.
4. Kraemer-and-Sarnow Method.
5. New York Testing Laboratory Method.
6. Mabery-Sieplein Method.
7. Richardson Method.
8. General Electric Method.
9. Drop Point Test.
Ring-and-ball Method. The apparatus of the C. I. Robertson
or the ring-and-ball method consists of a brass ring | inch in diam-
eter, ^-inch deep, ^-inch wide; a steel ball | inch in diameter,
weighing 350 grams; a standard thermometer; a glass beaker,
about 600-c.c. capacity. The test is made as follows:
Press the ring full of the bitumen, cutting it off slightly with a
hot knife. Place the ball in the center of the ring and suspend
the apparatus in a beaker of water, the ring and ball being about
1 inch from the bottom of the beaker; also suspend a thermometer
in the beaker of water to the same depth. Heat up at the rate of
9 deg. Fahr. (5 deg. Cent.) per minute. The melting-point is that
temperature at which the ball drops through the ring (and reaches
the bottom of the beaker). The bitumen in the ring usually sags
down before the melting-point is reached, but the temperature of
the water at the time the ball reaches the bottom of the beaker
is the temperature recorded as the melting-point.
For testing bitumen having a melting-point above 110 deg.
Fahr. (43 deg. Cent.) the sample should first be cooled to 50 or 77
deg. Fahr. (10 or 25 deg. Cent.). For testing bitumen having a
melting-point above 210 deg. Fahr. (99 deg. Cent.) the sample should
be cooled to 60 or 100 deg. Fahr. (15.5 or 38 deg. Cent.).
Cube-in-air Method. The material under examination should
be melted in a spoon by the gentle application of heat until suffi-
ciently fluid to pour readily. Care shall be taken that it suffers no
appreciable loss by volatization. It shall then be poured into a
12.7-mm. (0.5-inch) brass cubical mold, which shall have been
amalgamated with mercury and shall be placed on an amalgamated

brass plate. The hot material shall slightly more than fill the mold,
and, when cooled, the excess shall be cut off with a hot spatula.
After cooling to room temperature, the cube shall be removed
from the mold and fastened on the lower arm of a No. 10 wire (B. and
S. gauge), bent at right angles at one end and suspended beside a
thermometer in a covered Jena glass beaker having a capacity of
400 c.c. (13.526 ounces), which shall be placed in a water bath,
or, for high temperatures, a cottonseed-oil bath. The wire shall be
passed through the center of two opposite faces of the cube, which
shall then be suspended with its base 25.4 mm. (1 inch) above the
bottom of the beaker. The water or oil bath shall consist of an
800-c.c. (27.051 ounces) low-form Jena glass beaker suitably
mounted for the application of heat from below. The beaker in
which the cube is suspended shall be of the tall-form Jena type,
without lip. The metal cover shall have two openings. A cork,
through which passes the long arm of the wire, shall be inserted in
one hole and the thermometer in the other. The bulb of the ther-
mometer shall be just level with the cube and at an equal distance
from the side of the beaker.
After the test specimen shall have been placed in the apparatus,
the liquid in the outer vessel shall be heated in such a manner that
the thermometer registers an increase of 9 deg. Fahr. (5 deg. Cent.)
per minute. The temperature at which the bituminous material
touches the bottom of the beaker shall be taken as the melting-point.
Determinations made in the manner described shall not vary more
than 3.6 deg. Fahr. (2 deg. Cent.) for successive trials on the same
material. At the beginning of this test the temperature of both
bituminous material and bath shall be approximately at 77 deg.
Fahr. (25 deg. Cent.).
Cube-in-water Method. The cube-in-water method consists of
(1) the use of apparatus shown in Fig. 89; (2) the manipulation of
same, as follows. (For bitumens with a melting-point of 110 deg.
to 170 deg. Fahr. (43 to 77 deg. Cent.)). A clean, well-shaped 5-inch
cube of the bitumen is formed in the mold, as described under the
cube-in-air method above, placed on the hook of the No. 12 wire
and suspended in a 600-c.c. beaker, so that the bottom of the bitumen
is 1 inch above the bottom of the beaker. The bitumen should
remain five minutes in 400 c.c. of water at a temperature of 60 deg.
Fahr. (15.5 deg. Cent.) before heat is appUed. Apply heat in such
a manner that the temperature of the water is raised 9 deg. Fahr.
(5 deg. Cent.) per minute. The temperature recorded by the ther-
mometer (which is at the same depth as the bitumen when the test
200
is started), at the instant the bitumen touches the bottom of beaker

is considered the melting-point. For bitumens with a melting-
point below 110 deg. Fahr. (43 deg. Cent.) the same method can be
used except that at the start the water should have a temperature
of 40 deg. Fahr. (4 deg. Cent.). For bitumens 170 deg. Fahr. (77
deg. Cent.) up, cottonseed oil should be substituted for water,
otherwise the method remains the same.
MELTING-POINT TEST
No. 1. Pitch Mould (Special).
No. 2. Hook; Made of « 12 Copper Wire.
No. .S. Thermometer.
Fig. 89. — Apparatus for Determining the Melting-point of Bitumen by the
Cube-in-water Method.
Kraemer-and-Samow Method.* The Kraemer-and-Sarnow

method of making the melting point test for asphalts, tars, etc., is as
follows: Some asphalt in a layer 10 mm. thick is melted in a beaker
contained in an oil bath. Into this is dipped an open-end glass tube
10 cm. long and 6 or 7 mm. internal diameter. The upper end of
the tube is closed with the finger, the tube is removed and the
asphalt is allowed to solidify in the tube while it is held horizon-
* Peckhan's " Solid Bitumens," p. 272.

tally and rotated. When the asphalt has set the portion adhering
to the outside is removed. The length of the column inside the
tube will be about 5 mm. On top of this is poured 5 grams of
mercury. The tube containing the asphalt and mercury is then
suspended in a beaker full of oil or water resting in another beaker
also full of oil or water. The inner beaker contains a thermometer,
the bulb of which stands at the same level as the asphalt. The outer
beaker is heated by means of a small flame. The temperature of the
Fig. 90. — Apparatus for the Determination of the Melting-point of Bitumen

by the New York Testing Laboratory Method.
asphalt and thermometer being thus raised uniformly at the rate of
9 deg. Fahr. (5 deg. Cent.) per minute.
The temperature recorded when the mercury falls through the
layer of asphalt is taken as the melting-point. This method depends
for its accuracy upon the diameter of the tube, the thiclaiess of the
asphalt and the height of the mercury in the tube above the asphalt.
New York Testing Laboratory Method. The air method for
determining the melting-point of semi-sohd or solid bitumens requires
the apparatus shown in Fig, 90 and described below.

Outer vessel or container for the glycerine bath, 600 c.c. Griffin
type Jena beaker.
Inner vessel of air bath, 200 c.c. tall hpless Jena beaker.
Chair or support for inner vessel, cut out of j^-inch sheet
aluminum.
Cover for inner vessel, cut out of sheet aluminum or brass.
Support for molds, disc of brass with tapped holes for two or
four molds suspended on three hangers.
Molds for shaping bitumen.
Commercial, glycerine; standard thermometer; double thickness
20-mesh iron gauze; iron tripod, stand and clamps; Bunsen or
alcohol burner.
The test is performed as follows : One or more of the brass molds,
standing upon a piece of amalgamated brass or tin, should be filled
with the bitumen under examination. The bitumen may be softened
by cautiously heating it in a small casserole or tin box until it is
sufficiently fluid to be poured into the mold. After trimming off
the upper surface level with the mold, place the sample in water at
77 deg. Fahr. (25 deg. Cent.) for about ten minutes. It should then
be suspended in the air bath of the apparatus and the cover and
thermometer placed in their proper positions.
The temperature of the glycerine bath should also be 77 deg.
Fahr. (25 deg. Cent.) at the beginning of the test.
The apparatus should stand on double 20-mesh iron gauze,
supported on an iron tripod, and heated at the rate of 5 deg. Fahr.
(2.6 deg. Cent.). per minute. The temperature at which the sample
of bitumen flows from the mold and first touches the bottom of the
inner vessel is recorded as the melting or flowing point.
Mabery-Sieplein Method.* The apparatus consists of the
following parts :
One Jena beaker, 600 c.c. and one 400 c.c. capacity, tall forms
without lips.
One wooden stopper to fit 400-c.c. beaker; stopper to have two
holes, one of | inch diameter, in exact center, one of sufficient size
to admit thermometer f inch from center.
One metal shelf, J by U by ^ inch thick, in the center of which
and at right angles to which is fastened a rod of J inch diameter.
Mold which will prepare a tablet of asphalt 1 by ^ by | inch.
One standard gas-filled thermometer reading to 300 deg. Fahr.
(149 deg. Cent.).
Liquid medium to serve as bath (such as anhydrous glycerine to
* Journal American Chemical Society, Vol. 23, p. 16.

be used for temperature up to 280 deg. Fahr. (138 deg. Cent.), linseed
oil above 280 deg. Fahr.) A slightly modified apparatus is shown
in Fig. 91.
The 400-c.c. beaker is set inside the 600-c.c. beaker, and the
space between is filled with the proper liquid to expand to approxi-
mately within I inch of the top of the beaker when heated to 280
-thermometer
:| f - Strip of Metal
\j -iî
% —
-2)if-Diamr-
Rnbber Gasket
gn'-Bia ni—
/
1^
■1
Fig. 91. — Âpparatus for Determining the Melting-point of Bitumen by the

"Mabery-Sieplein" Method.
deg. Fahr. The |-inch rod supporting the shelf is inserted through
the central hole in the stopper and set so that the top of the shelf is
exactly 1 inch from the bottom of the beaker. The thermometer
is inserted in the other opening and is set so that the top of the
bulb is I inch above the top of the shelf and the bulb itself is | inch
from the rod supporting the shelf.
At least 1 ounce of the sample to be examined is carefully melted
at as low a temperature as possible, care being taken, however, to see

that it is sufficiently liquid to completely fill the mold and allow the
escape of any confined air. The asphalt* is then poured into the
mold, which has previously been amalgamated by brushing with a
solution of nitrate of mercury. When the asphalt has cooled the
specimen is removed from the mold and placed on the shelf in
such a position that the longest side of the specimen is at right
angles to the longest side of the shelf, and lies perfectly flat so that
an equal amount of the specimen extends on either side beyond the
edge of the shelf. Care should of course be taken that the specimen
just touches the supporting rod. The apparatus is then heated
gradually by suitable means, preferably by an electric oven, allow-
ing at least fifteen minutes for the temperature to reach 120 deg.
Fahr. (49 deg. Cent.). When this point is reached the temperature
is increased at the rate of 6 deg. Fahr. (3.3 deg. Cent.) per minute
until the portions of the specimen extending beyond the sides of the
shelf have sufficiently softened so that they have dropped to the bot-
tom. The temperature at which the asphalt just touches the bottom
of the beaker is the melting-point.
Richardson or Pellet Method. The melting-point of bitumen
by the Richardson or Pellet method is determined as follows: A
thin porcelain dish, about 2| inches in diameter, and with l|-inch
sides, filled with clean mercury to a distance of J inch from the top,
is placed over a 20-mesh wire gauze and heated by a small flame
protected from draughts by a chimney. On the surface of the
mercury is placed a thin microscopic cover-glass. No. 2-0, carrying
the specimen of asphalt under examination.
When deahng with hard asphalts that can be ground rather
coarsely, several fragments, which will pass a 40-mesh sieve and be
retained on a 50-mesh sieve (about .50 mm. diameter), are spread
on the glass. This is then placed upon the surface of the mercury,
covered with a glass funnel, from which the stem has been cut and
the thermometer passed through the orifice until the bulb is immersed
in the mercury. It is held in position by a clamp attached to a
ring-stand on which rests the dish. Under the dish a Bunsen burner
is placed and regulated to a small flame, or so that the dish is heated
at the rate of 5.4 to 9 deg. Fahr. (3 to 5 deg. Cent.) per minute.
In a short time it would be noticed that the specimens will have
changed from the brown or brownish-black color of the powder to
that more nearly approaching the original, with a slight rounding
of the individual grains. On further heating, these globules flow
* This method is to be used only on asphalt having a penetration less than
105 at 77 deg. Fahr. (25 deg. Cent.).

together and form a thin sheet on the glass. The temperature as in-
dicated by the thermometer, at which the specimen begins to flow,
is taken as the melting-point.
Asphalts that cannot be ground are softened and pulled out to a
thread and cut into small pieces, about 1 c.mm. Several pieces
should be placed on the glass together, as one will serve as a check on
the other, and thereby lessen the chance of error. The softening-
point may be noted by the rounding of the particles and the melting-
point by the beginning of the flow, or when the specimen begins
to spread out (which is always at the point of contact \îth the glass),
is set down as the temperature at which the specimens will melt.
General Electric Method. This method is quite simple and
consists of heating a quantity of the bitumen to be tested in a small
can until liquid. The can containing the liquified bitumen is placed
on a gram scale and balanced up. Then the scale is set 2 grams
back and enough bitumen is taken out to rebalance the scale. The
bitumen is to be removed by immersing the bulb of an ordinary
Fahrenheit thermometer about Ij inches, or to about the 20-degree
point. As the thermometer is dipped into the liquid it should be
turned so as to get an even coating all over the surface covered.
Then the thermometer should be held horizontally and turned
constantly until the coating of bitumen is cooled. Next the ther-
mometer is placed in a large test tube, which in turn is immersed
in a beaker filled with glycerine. The beaker is then heated over a
Bunsen burner at the rate of 7.2 deg. Fahr. (4 deg. Cent.) per minute.
The test tube should have a small amount of glycerine placed in it.
The thermometer is run through a cork large enough to support
it 5 inch above the glycerine. The temperature, as read directly
on the thermometer, at which the bitumen drops and touches the
glycerine is regarded as the melting-point. Fig. 92 shows the
arrangement of the apparatus.
Drop Point and Softening-point of Bituminous Compounds. The
inventor of an apparatus for determining the drop-point test, Mr.
II. W. Fisher,* says that his investigation showed: first, that a large
majority of bituminous compounds, unlike minerals, have no well-
defined melting-point; that what some chemists specify as a melting-
point is really a softening-point of the material; and third, that the
melting-point as used by chemists corresponds to the temperature
at which the compound will drop; hence, he believes that instead
of using the misnomer " melting-point," it would be more practical
to speak of the softening-point and drop point of compounds.
* Proceedings of American Society for Testing Materials, Vol. 11, 1911,
206
Fig. 93 gives a working drawing of an apparatus designed to put

this idea into practice. For making the drop-point test, the com-
pound in placed in hole 2, Fig. 93, A, hole 1 being the vent hole.
Hole 2 can conveniently be filled by inverting the apparatus and
letting the compound drip from a heated wire against which it is
held. During this operation the vent hole should, of course, be
filled with the rod /. The apparatus and rod are then cooled,
after which the rod is removed. The surplus compound is removed
so that its surface is flush with the bottom surface of the hole.
- Thermometer
^^,
flycerine
TT
I I
JOoat
BituE
Then
Bulb
—Stopper
-Guide Cork
OoatiQs of
Bitumem on
Thermometer
Bulb
- Glycerine
Fig. 92. — Apparatus for Finding the Melting-point of Bitumen by the "General
Electric" Method.
For making the softening-point test, the nipple shown in Fig.

93, (d) is provided. A wrench for removing and inserting the nipple
is shown at («) . The rod (/) is placed into 'the nipple through vent
hole 4, after which both are heated above the melting-point of the
compound. The compound hole 3 is then filled, and after partial
soHdification the rod is removed and the surplus compound cut off
flush with the top of the nipple. Afterwards, the nipple is screwed
iijto place as shown at Fig. 93 (c).
-^^^
208
Heating Coi]
For making the softening-point test and the drop-point test in one
operation, the apparatus is filled with the compound, and a ther-
mometer inserted as shown in Fig. 93 (c). The temperature ifc
increased at the rate of 7 deg. Fahr. (4 deg. Cent.) per minute until
the compound comes up through the mercury. The temperature
at which this occurs is called the softening-point of the the compound.
Continuing the test further, the temperature at which a drop of the
compound falls through the glass tube is called the drop point cf the
compound. If the compound has a high softening-point and a high
melting-point, a somewhat greater rise of temperature per minute
is admissible to within about 30
deg. Fahr. (16.6 deg. Cent.) of the
softening-point.
Fig. 94 illustrates the method
by which heat is applied unifcimly
over the entire appcralus. A fiter
spool approximately Ixs inches
inside diameter, 3 inches Icng,
and 4 inches outside diameter, is
wound with about 240 turns of
No. 12 D.C.C. magnet wire. By
means of alternating current of 60
cycles, the iron testing apparatus
is heated to any desired degree.
The voltage employed varies
between 30 and 55 volts, and the
current from 4 to 8 amperes. For
use with a direct current on a 110-
volt circuit, wire of half the size
should be used, and the voltage could be varied between 60 End 1 10
volts. By either method the temperature can be kept almost con-
stant at any degree or can be made to vary as desired.
The testing apparatus and coil are placed on top of a large glass
tube which is embedded in a wooden base. By means of a mirror
at the side of the glass tube in the base, the melting of the compound
in the drop-point test can be observed. When doing this, it is
necessary to have an incandescent lamp on the opposite side of the
base from the mirror.
Flow Point of Bitumen. The flow-point test is mainly for com-
parison of roofing pitches and asphalts. It is a method for obtaining
the relative flow, or progressive tendency to glide, of one asphalt
pr pitch with another accepted as a standard, under the following
Fig. 94. — Electric Apparatus for

Applying Heat Uniformly to the
Apparatus for Determining the
Drop Point and Softening-point
of Bituminous Compounds.
condition: On a corrugated strip of metal called a flow plate (Fig.

95, A), 8 inches long and 2 inches to 4 inches wide, two pills of equal
volume (made in a flow mold, Fig. 95, B), one of each material,
are placed side by side but in separate grooves on one end of the
plate. The plate is then placed in an air bath with the loaded end
2^ inches higher than the other. The whole is then placed in a water
bath and heated to the boiling-point. This temperature is main-
tained for an arbitrary period of time and then the glide of each
material is measured. If the tested material is longer than the
standard material, this indicates that it is softer; if the reverse
obtains, that it is harder.
As a practical test the flow point is quite serviceable in compar-
ing the relative flow of roofing pitches and asphalts, but it is not
serviceable and in fact is not used on waterproofing bitumens. It
B-FLOW MOLD
A • FLOW PLATES
Fig. 95. — Mold and Plate for Flow-point Test.
bears no direct relation to either the melting-point or the penetration
of the pitch or asphalt tested.
Ductility Test on Bitumen. It is generally true that the greater
the ductility of an asphalt, i.e., the extent to which it is capable of
being drawn out in the form of a fine thread, the greater its cement-
ing or cohesive value. The main function of the ductility test,
however, is to reveal the possible amount of healing to be expected
in a fractured bitumen in the form of applied waterproofing. For
a given penetration, the greater the ductilitj- of an asphalt, the
greater the healing or cohesive quality. Except when used for
joint fillers and other special purposes, no asphalt should have a
ductility less than 20 cm. at 77 deg. Fahr. (25 deg. Cent.).
The test as made on the Abraham Tensometer* is shown in
* Proceedings of American Society for Testing Materials, Vol. 10, 1910.
210
-™^
_.^J
Fig. 96. — Abraham's Tousomotor.

Fig. 96. In this instrument the mold is the most vital part. In
its new and improved form it consists of two cylindrical hardened
steel sections (Fig. 97), resting together on circular knife edges and
maintained in that position by three guide rods. The cross-section
at the knife edges is exactly 1 sq. cm. The further ends of these
two cup-like sections are threaded, and bear the outer caps which
serve to fasten the mold in the instrument.
After warming the mold, it is filled by unscrewing the upper cap,
bringing the two sections firmly together and pouring in the melted
bituminous substance, which assumes the form of a rivet, the smallest
cross-section of which has an area of exactly 1 sq. cm. Then it is
Note: All dimensions in

centimeters.
Fig. 97. — Details of Mold for Abraham's Tensometer.
replaced in the machine and drawn apart until it breaks; the dis-
tance thus traversed being recorded as the ductihty of the specimen.
Detailed information on this instrument may be found in the Pro-
ceedings of the American Society for Testing Materials, Vols. 10
and 11, 1910 and 1911.
A simpler and more commonly used machine, the " Smith Duc-
tility Machine," is shown in Fig. 98. The preliminary treatment
of the bitumen and the preparation of the briquette for testing it
with this machine are conducted as follows: The mold is placed
upon a brass plate. To prevent the asphalt from adhering to the
plate and the inner side of the two removable pieces of the mold, they
212
are well amalgamated. Tlie different pieces of the mold are held
together in a clamp or l)y niean.s of an India ruljher liand.
The material to be tested is poured into the mold while in a
molten state, a slight excess being added to allow for shrinkage on
cooling. After the bitumen is nearly cooled, the briquette is
smoothed off level by means of a heated iâlette knife. When
cooled, the clamp is taken off and the two center pieces of the mold
removed, leaving the briquette of asphalt firmly attached to the two
ends of the mold, which serves as clips. The briquette is then
immersed in water maintained at 77 deg. Fahr. (25 deg. Cent.),
Fio. 98. — The "Smith," Direct-connected, D.C. Electric Ductihty Alachinc

and Briquette Forms.
for at least thii-fy minutes, or until the wliok> mass of bitumen is at

that temperature. It is then placed in the machine and pulled
apart as follows: The pointei- is set at zero on the centimeter rule,
and a thermometer is placed through a cork in the carriage, which
will test the variation in the temperature of the water which may
take place during the test. The distance registered by the pointer
at the moment the thread of bitumen breaks gives the ductility,
expressed in centiincters, of the sample under examination.
Evaporation Test on Bitumen. In practice it is often necessary
during waterproofing operations to keep pitch or asphalt for a long
time in a molten condition at between 250 and 350 deg. Fahr. (121
and 177 deg. Cent.). The pitch or asphalt which will volatilize
TECHNICAL AND PRACTICAL TESTS ON WATERPROOFING 2l3

off the least amount of oil and be the least changed in consistency
by this heating is the most desirable. A heating test i'i therefore
performed to determine the amount of loss of volatile oil during
an arbitrary period of time. This, combined with the penetration
of the residue left after such heating, is taken as a measure of the
hardening effect to be expected, due to aging of the tar and bitumen
materials. The reason for this is that evaporation and hardening
go on continuously, though slowly, after the waterproofing is in
place. To guard against rapid hardening and consequent brittleness
of the bitumen, it is desirable to use an asphalt which will not lose
more than 1 per cent and a pitch which will not lose more than 6
Fig. 99. — "Frea's" Electric Oven. (Chamber, 12 by 12 by 12 Inches.)
per cent in weight when heated for five hours at 325 deg. Fahr.
(163 deg. Cent.) in an electric oven, and not more than 3 per cent
and 9 per cent respectively in a gas oven. After such heating,
neither bitumen shall have its penetration reduced more than one-
half the original. The different amounts volatilized in each oven is
due to the relative restricted circulation of air in the electric oven.
This test* is usually made on 50 grams of bitumen which are
\veighed in a flat-bottomed dish, 2^ inches inside diameter, and If
inch deep, placed in the oven and held exactly at 325 deg. Fahr. (163
deg. Cent.) for five hours. Then it is cooled in a desiccator, and the
loss in weight is noted. The electric oven shown in Fig. 99 is some-
* Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 3, No. 4, April, 1911.
214
times used but gives lower results than the gas oven. Therefoxe
specifications should state the type of oven to be used for the test.
The gas oven shown in Fig. 100, which is still widely used, has
the top and sides covered with 1.8-inch asbestos. The shelf is pro-
vided with a |-inch asbestos pad, large enough to accommodate the
dishes. The bulb of a Centigrade thermometer should be 1 inch
above the shelf and the emergent stem should show the 90-degree
mark. Not more than four tests must be run in the oven at a time.
Goa Tubo'
Fig. 100. — Drying and Evaporating Gas Oven.

2. Dishes, 2 inches diameter, cen-
1. Chamber, 8 by 8 by 12 inches, asbestos covered

trally located. 3. Thermometer.
Determination of Free Carbon in Coal-tar Pitch. It has been

stated that free carbon in pitch is an impurity from a chemical
standpoint. This is not correct, as the so-called free carbon content
in pitch is normally produced in the tar itself during the destructive
distillation of bituminous coal in gas retorts or by-product coke
ovens. This free carbon is present not as an impurity but as a product
of the decomposition of hydrocarbon vapors during their travel
along the heated walls of the retort or oven. It is a black, organic,
powder held in suspension by the tar and probably consists, not only

of free carbon, but also of hj^drocarbons extremely rich in carbon.
Actual analysis* show this free carbon to be composed of approxi-
mately as follows:
Carbon 89.85
Hydrogen 3.30
Nitrogen 1 . 10
Oxygen 3. 13 (by difference)
Sulphur 1 . 28
Mineral ash . . . 1 . 34
The presence of more or less free carbon in tars is due to the heats
at which the tar is produced and the size and shape of the retort, and
the consequent relation between the quantity of vapors and surface
of hot walls at which the vapors are exposed. Hence the production
of free carbon is attended by the production of other characteristic
hydrocarbon compounds, and the free carbon content of pitch is
therefore, to a great extent, an index of the character of the hydro-
carbon in the bitumen. In general, low temperature tars contain
smaller amounts of free carbon and are characterized by the presence
of large amounts of phenol bodies and sometimes paraffin com-
pounds. The tars produced at higher temperatures containing
more free carbon also contain large quantities of the characteristic
aromatic hydrocarbons. Therefore, the belief that pitch can be
made artificially to meet certain specifications, after introducing
into an otherwise pure bitumen an adulterant of lamp black, or other
carbon, cannot be substantiated, for such a mixture would violate
the requirement of a straight-run pitch, and in the second place,
while the result produced might contain the necessary amount of
free carbon, it would not produce the characteristic bitumen accom-
panying the normal free carbon content.
Experience of years has even demonstrated that for certain
purposes, and particularly for roofing and waterproofing work,
pitch, fairly high in free carbon (containing between 20 and 30 per
cent) is much more staple and less susceptible to temperature changes
than pitches of low free carbon.
The test to determine the free carbon content of bitumens or,
as it is often alluded to, the hot toluol-benzol extraction test, is
applicable to asphalts and coal-tar pitches, but is used especially
in connection with the latter because other solvents, such as carbon
bisulphide, are slower and more troublesome. The apparatus
* Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 6, No. 4, April, 1914.
Adopted in slightly different form, in 1916, by the Am. Soc. for Testing Materials.
216
for this test is shown in Fig. 101. The pitch is first dried, then it is
passed through a 30-mesh sieve to remove any foreign substances.
In testing materials of 5 per cent or more insoluble matter, 5 grams
should be taken for the test. With lesser percentages, 10 grams
should be used. The amount is weighed in a 100-c.c. beaker, and
digested with about 50 c.c. of c.p. toluol on a steam bath for a period
not to exceed thirty minutes. A filter cup, previously prepared,
is weighed in the weighing bottle and placed in a carbon filter tube
over a beaker or flask. The toluol-tar mixture is now decanted
through the thimble and washed with hot c.p. toluol until cleaned,
Outlet V/ater
/A '^ Inlet Water
Steam Bath
Wire
1. Flask.
DETAIL SHOWING WIRE

SUPPORT FOR
FILTER PAPER
Fig. 101. — Extraction Apparatus for Free Carbon.

2. Knorr extraction apparatus. 3. Copper wire. 4. Filter cup (2 sheets).
using some form of " pohceman," which is unaffected by toluol,
for the purpose of detaching any residue which may adhere to the
benker. The cup is finally given a washing with hot c.p. benzol
and then after draining, is covered with a cap of filter paper or
alandum, and placed in the extraction apparatus in which the c.p.
benzol is used as solvent. The extraction is continued until the
descending liquid is colorless. The thimble is then removed, the
cap taken off, dried in the steam oven and weighed in the weighing
bottle after cooling in the desiccator. For more detailed information
regarding this test, the reader is referred to the " Journal of Indus-

trial and Engineering Chemistry," Vol. 3, No. 4, April, 1911, and
Vol. 6, No. 4, April, 1914.
Ash Test. The ash test is not of great significance, and denotes
whether there has been a mineral filler of any sort added to the
pitch or bitumen. Normal coal-tar pitches will run between | and 1
per cent of ash, so that if extraneous matter is present, the ash
may run above this amount. Refined asphalts, except Bermudez
and Trinidad asphalt, run about i of 1 per cent ash.
The ash determination is made by burning to ash a 1-gram
sample of the material in a weighed platinum crucible or dish of
sufficient size. Heat is gently applied until the pitch or bitumen
ignites, after which it is withdrawn. After the material ceases to
burn, the heat is again applied until the residue is burnt free of
carbon. The crucible and contents are then cooled and weighed
and the ash determined.
Fixed Carbon Test. Fixed carbon, as such, does not exist in
any bituminous binder, but is the amount of coke produced by
burning the bitumen in a certain specified and generally accepted
manner. The test is frequently used in laboratories to aid in the
classification of different bituminous materials, and in some instances
is of value in helping to determine their probable origin. Aside from
this, the test is of no value at all, as a means for determining the
quality of the material, though it is also supposed to indicate the
mechanical stability and substantial nature of the bitumen. There
is, however, little or nothing in the fixed carbon test, either theo-
retically or practically, which shows that a material containing over
or under a certain definite percentage of fixed carbon is or is not
suitable for waterproofing purposes. ' Because this is not a generally
accepted view, it was deemed advisable to include a description of
this test.
The test is conducted as follows: One gram of the bituminous
material is placed in a platinum weighing crucible between 20 and 30
grams, between 28 and 38 mm. in height, and having a tightly fitting
cover provided with a flange about 4 mm. in depth. The crucible and
its contents are then heated, first, gently, and then more severely,
until no smoke or flame issues between the crucible and the lid.
It is then placed in the full flame of a Bunsen burner for seven
minutes, holding the cover down with the end of a pair of tongs
until the most volatile products have been burnt off. The crucible
is supported on a platinum triangle with the bottom 6 to 8 cm.
above the top of the burner. The flame should be fully 20 cm.
high when burning free, and the determination should be made in a

place free from drafts. The upper surface of the cover shall bum
clear, but the under surface may or may not be covered with carbon,
depending on the character of the bituminous material. The
crucible is removed to the desiccator, and, when cooled, shall be
weighed, after which the cover shall be removed and the crucible
placed in an inclined position over the Bunsen burner and ignited
until nothing but ash remains. Any carbon deposited on the cover
should also be burnt off. The weight of ash remaining should be
deducted from the weight of the residue after the first ignition of
the sample. The resulting weight is that of the fixed carbon, which
should be calculated on the basis of the total weight of the sample,
exclusive of mineral matter.
Paraffin Test. Paraffin is probably the best water-resisting
material, but one of its adverse properties is lack of cohesiveness.
Therefore its presence in a bitumen in more than moderate quantities
would reduce the ductility of that bitumen and also its adhesiveness,
or cementing value. Hence, it is sometimes desirable to determine
the amount of paraffin present and to limit this amount depending
upon the use to which the bitumen is to be put. But as all except
paraffin petroleums (i.e., all semi-asphaltic and asphaltic petroleums)
are known to contain less than 6 per cent, of paraffin it becomes
unnecessary for practical use to determine the exact amount; first
because this amouiit is not very injurious, and, secondly, the duc-
tility test automatically precludes the possible presence of an excess
quantity of paraffin in the asphalt. However, the subject is believed
to need further investigation. The test for this material follows:
One hundred grams of the bituminous material should be dis-
tilled rapidly in a retort to a dry coke. Five grams of the distillate
should then be thoroughly mixed in a 60-c.c. flask with 25 c.c. of
Squibb's absolute ether. Twenty-five c.c. of Squibb's absolute
alcohol should then be added, and the flask packed closely in a
freezing mixture of finely crushed ice and salt for at least thirty
minutes. The precipitate is then filtered out quickly with a suction
pump using a No. 575 C. S. and S. 9-cm. hardened standard filter
paper. The flask and precipitate are then rinsed and washed with a
mixture of equal parts of Squibb's alcohol and ether, cooled to
1 deg. Fahr. (— 17 deg. Cent.), until free from oil (50 c.c. of washing
solution is usually sufficient). When sucked dry, the filter paper
should be removed and the waxy precipitate transferred to a small
glass disc and evaporated on a steam bath. The residue (paraffin)
remaining on the disc is weighed, and from this weight the per-
centage on the original 5-gram sample is calculated.

Dimethyl Sulphate Test.* The dimethyl sulphate test is
employed to detect the presence of petroleum or asphalt in coal tar.
It is used either to determine the percentage mixture of asphalt with
coal tar to meet certain specifications or to detect the presence of
asphaltic products in coal tar as an adulterant. The test is mainly
qualitative, but is valuable when even as little as 3 per cent of pe-
troleum or.asphalt products are present in the coal tar.
The equipment necessary for the dimethyl sulphate test is the
same as that specified for the distillation test recommended by the
American Society for Testing Materials; Proc. 1911, Vol. 11, p. 240,
and adopted in 1916.
The pitch specimen is distilled and fractions taken at 518 to 572
deg. Fahr. (270 to 300 deg. Cent.), 572 to 662 deg. Fahr. (300 to 350
deg. Cent.), and 662 to 707 deg. Fahr. (350 to 375 deg. Cent.). These
fractions are separately stirred and, if necessary, heated to dissolve
solids which may be present.
Four cubic centimeters of distillate from each fraction are sep-
arately shaken with 6 c.c. of dimethyl sulphate ((CH3)2S04) in a
10-c.c. cylinder. After standing thirty minutes the resultant super-
natant layer of insoluble oil, from the petroleum or asphalt, is read
and calculated to its percentage by volume of the sample of distillate
taken. The results are reported as follows:
Fractions.
Per Cent of
Distillate.
Per Cent of Distillate

Insoluble in Dimethyl
Sulphate.
-F,
°C.
518-572
270-300
300-350
350-375
572-662
662-707
Tests on Treated and Untreated Cement Mortar and

Concrete
Many tests have been made to determine the permeabihty of
cement mortars and concrete with and without admixtures of water-
proofing materials. It is well to understand at least some of these.
A brief description of the methods and the apparatus used and
instructions on the performance of these tests will therefore be given.
It is assumed that the reader is already acquainted with the physical
properties and methods of testing the constituent materials of con-
crete, and that he has a general knowledge of the manipulation of
* U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 314, p. 25.

apparatus for such tests. If this be not so, any standard book on
concrete may be consulted with advantage.
Standard Instructions for Permeability Tests. The following
standard instructions for permeability tests on mortar waterproofed
by the integral method have been used very successfully in the
concrete testing laboratory of the PubUc Service Commission, First
District, State of New York:
" Mix the mortar in accordance with the directions accompanying
the waterproofing compound which is to be tested. Make several
specimens to be tested after seven days and several more to be
tested after twenty-eight days. In no case make fewer than eight
treated specimens (total number) and eight untreated specimens,
for comparison. Use extra clean, coarse sand (not Ottawa sand)
for these specimens in order that the waterproofing compound may
receive no assistance from silt in the sand.
" In the absence of different directions, mix the mortar to the
same consistency as that of Ottawa sand mortar when mixed with
60 per cent of water above what is required for normal consistency,
e.g., if 10 per cent of water is required to make Ottawa sand mortar
of normal consistency, then 16 per cent of water will be required to
make Ottawa sand mortar of the desired consistency. Place the
mortar in the 7|- or 8-inch pipe sections (see Fig. 102, A,) after it
has been mixed hard with the hands for the time specified, or until
a satisfactory mixture has been obtained. Specimens are then
worked thoroughly into this mold with hands and trowel. Place a
small amount in each mold and work it well to force out air bubbles
before adding more mortar. Continue in this manner until the
molds are full. The iron plates under the specimens must be
thoroughly greased. Strike off the tops of specimens with a straight
edge.
" Store the specimens in moist air twenty-four hours. Then
brush both surfaces with a wire brush, mark, and place them in water
until tested. Paint marks must not be placed on the surfaces which
are to be tested. Specimens are not to be removed from the mold
until after they have been tested.
" Upon removing specimens from water for testing, brush both
surfaces again with a wire brush. Test under a pressure of 50
pounds per square inch for at least seven hours. If a measuring
glass is used, some means must be found to prevent water from the
outside from leaking into the measuring glass, since it has a tendency
to follow down the outside of the outlet pipe.
" Record results at fifteen-minute intervals.

' On report show the tune elapsed from appHeation of pressure to
first leakage, the average leakage for the time after sjiecimen began to
leak, and the maximum leakage for one liour. Express results in
cubie centimeters per square foot per hour."
ji««*t
Fig/ 102.
A. Pcrmeahility Molds and Test Pieces.
B. Permeability Test Piece Holder.
Description of Standard Apparatus. The apparatus* for holding
the test pieces is shown m Fig. 102, B, in sections ready to assemble.
Fig. 103 is a cross-sectional view of the test piece assembletl ready
for testing. A, A are rubber washers of 5-inch inside diameter and
8-inch outside diameter; B, B are cast-iron top and bottom sections
* Technologic Pajêr No. 3, U. S. Bureau of Standards, Dept. of Commerce
and Labor.
222
of the holder; C is the test piece 7^ inches in diameter and 1, 2. or 3

inches thick and is retained in corresponding short-length sections
of 7i-inch diameter wrought-iron pipe; D is the retainer in which
the water passing through the test piece is caught.
The foregoing directions and apparatus have become most
generally used in laboratory practice. Other methods are employed
but the basic principles remain the same, that is, the measurement
of the quantity of water that will come through mortar or concrete
under a given static head of water. One of these methods used by
Mr. Francis M. McCuUough, B.S., in testing the permeability of
Fig. 103. — Cross-section of Apparatus for Holding Permeability Test Pieces.
waterproofed concrete at the University of Wisconsin,* is exemplary

and the following is a description.
Method of Testing Permeability of Waterproofed Concrete.
The apparatus used by Mr. McCullough for testing the permeability
of concrete consists essentially of eight 6-inch pipes filled with con-
crete and a pipe system connected with air and water reservoirs.
Fig. 104, A, shows in detail the mold and attached casting and Fig.
104, B, is a general drawing of the pipe system for four specimens,
the apparatus for the remaining four specimens being the same as
shown.
* Bulletin No. 336, University of Wisconsin,
The molds are 6-inch wrought-iron pipe, 12| inches long, with
a cast-iron flange screwed to the upper end. In order to prevent
the passage of water between the pipe and the cement lining ten
or twelve V-shaped grooves were cut in each pipe, each groove
extending around the inner surface of the pipe.
This flanged pipe was attached to the casting by means of six
eyebolts. A f-inch pipe, 4 feet 6 inches long, was screwed into this
casting. Each of these f-inch pipes was jointed to the main pipe,
which, in turn, connected with the water main and with the air
reservoirs. The shut-off globe valves for water and air are shown
on the pipes connecting the main pipe with the water main and with
Water Main Connected with University Supply
Water Valve
K— Air Valve A
Pipe CoQnectlDg
with Air Tank
^<-AirValve"B"
X"w.I.Pipe
-A
J L^
isti
i
Air
Beserrolr
i-i
if;
lO
B
Fig. 104.
A. Apparatus for Testing Permeability of Concrete.
B. Section of Mold and Casting.
the air reservoirs. The cast-iron cylinders, 6i inches in diameter and
4 feet 8 inches long, formed the air reservoirs. They were connected
with a large air tank, not shown, by means of the pipe shown in
Fig. 104, B, a shut-off globe valve being placed between the air tank
and air reservoirs.
A glass tube and attached scale graduated to hundredths of a
foot were fastened to each |-inch pipe in order to obtain the water
level in the pipe. The globe valve V was used in order to dis-
connect any specimen proving defective. The f-inch pipe and glass
tube were drained by means of the needle valve. A gauge registered
the air pressure.

The specimens were securely bolted to the castings, a rubber
gasket being used between the finished faces of flange and casting.
■With the air valve A closed and the air valve B opened, air was
admitted to the reservoirs until sufficient pressure was obtained.
The water valve was opened and water was allowed to fill the f-inch
tubes. Care was taken that the pressure did not exceed that used in
the test, this being regulated by opening the needle valves. Air
valve B was closed and air valve A connecting with the air reser-
voirs was opened, thus subjecting the specimens to pressure.
The rate of flow of the water through the concrete was obtained
by noting the scale readings and the time. Pressures were also
noted, but they showed very little decrease as the volume of the
air reservoirs was very large compared to the volume of the |-inch
pipes. No readings were taken for five minutes after the pressure
was on. As the rate of flow rapidly decreased readings were taken at
intervals of ten or fifteen minutes for the first few hours and then at
intervals gradually increasing from two to eight hours. The bottoms
of the specimens were frequently examined and any dampness noted.
When readings are taken all joints should be carefully examined
and any leaks noted, and the effect of this leakage eliminated as much
as possible in reducing the data.
The proportions by volume of the concrete were 1:3:5, the
required amount of materials being weighed. No attempt was made
to secure a waterproof concrete by proper proportioning. On the
contrary, a lean mixture was desirable in order to bring out the water-
proofing qualities of the compounds. Local stone and sand and
Portland cement were used. The stone was a rather sandy lime-
stone, while the sand was of the fine bank variety.
Results of Permeability Tests on Waterproofed Concrete. We
will now consider the results of these tests on concrete treated with
a few waterproofing compounds. These compounds may be classi-
fied according to the manner in which they were used in the tests.
(1) Compounds applied to the surface of the concrete, which in
themselves may be sub-divided into three classes:
(a) Compounds which are, applied as surface paints.
(6) Compounds which were applied in layers to form a
membrane,
(c) Compounds which were applied as a surface coating in the
form of a thick layer.
(2) Foreign ingredients added to the body of the concrete.
(3) Foreign ingredients added to the mortar coating.
(4) Plain cement mortar.

Different methods, as illustrated in Fig. 105, were used in
finishing the upper surface of the specimens, depending upon the kind
of waterproofing compound used. As shown in Fig. 105, A and B,
the concrete was finished flush with the top of the pipe, the upper
surface of the concrete being well troweled. Before troweling, the
specimens were allowed to stand a half hour in order that the free
water on the concrete might be absorbed. The cement lining extends
to the top of the concrete in B, while in A it is cut off j inch below.
In the specimens that were coated with mortar, as shown in Fig. 105,
C and D, the surfai.ce of the concrete was f inch below the top of the
^terprooflng Material
^"
-.65 Neat Cemsnft
Liainff
-W.I.Eipo
■f^5<"
WaterpôflUff 3
^m
S33&C1::;?;
iii-:i.».».*»v s
^^
Slortar GoaCin^ £ov

■'OTaterprooflne
Mortar Coating for

WaterproofinB'
""AW
Fig. 105. — Methods of Finishing Upper Surface of Concrete Specimens.
pipe. After the concrete had absorbed the standing water the
mortar top was added, the surface of the concrete and the mortar
being thoroughly troweled. In applying all surface preparations,
care was taken to secure a dry, clean surface and to have the prep-
aration well brushed in. The water pressure varied from 20
pounds to 40 pounds per square inch applied continuously from
three to seven days.
In all cases except those in which the compounds were applied
in the form of a membrane, the results were variable. The materials
used were more or less reliable but the results obtained were not
often enough satisfactory to establish a single superior compound.
226
In most cases where a material withstood the low pressure it failed

completely under the higher pressure. None withstood either
pressure absolutely without absorption or percolation, with the
04 Tubinj
l>4 Tubing
.'X"^ Bolta
On No. 6-7
On No. 8-12
SECTION ON B-B
it-l)iTabtag
^ 1
Le^X-^Bon.
<t3 ^^
' r^
A-J^/
If
■^
!v";S;V.';|v;-
'^;i-'V:^M
i?^t
■ri.Vi-
on:
:'-v>:::-:^;;;v:
■•ô
■■&{<K^:-
&'
■'•■.''■:■■■;■);'■
\\i
S-JB
mmi
r^
mmfimif:
mmfliff&~■^^,
'
*- — iflî — >
PUL SPECIMEN
PUHC SPECIMEN
Fig. 106. — Types of Permeability Specimens.

one exception noted above. Similar tests made on f-inch plain
cement mortar of proportions 1 : 1| applied to the concrete (Fig.
105, C), proved two facts: (1) that plain mortar can be made rea-

sonably watertight; (2) that some of the above compounds, such
as the foreign ingredients added to the mortar coating, are also
reasonalily effective and warrant their use under certain conditions.
Results of Permeability Tests on Plain Concrete. Still another
method for testing the permeability of mortar and concrete, though
only occasionally used, is worth noting. In an elaborate series of
permealnlity tests,* in which machine-mixed concrete and large
specimens having a prescribed volume of concrete were used without
Fig. I07.-Longitudinal Sections of "PU" and "PUHC" Permeability Specimens.
any waterproofing added to them, many valuable facts are made
patent. The forms of specmrens are shown in Figs. 106 and 107.
In molding these test pieces, both mortar shell and concrete core
were cast at the same tmie. The area of the core is 1 square foot,
hence the leakages read were in terms of this unit.
The results of these permealjility tests, made on 294 gravel-
concrete specimens, agree very well with similar tests made by
other experimenters. (3f the above number 88 were of 1 : U : 3
and 67 of 1 : 2 : 4 proportions by volume; OS were of 1:3:9
proportions by weight.
Journal of the Western Society of Engineers, November, 1914, Vol. 19, No. 9.

None of the concretes tested was absolutely watertight if we
consider continuous flow into the specimen as proof of permeability,
but the majority of mixes were so impervious that no visible evidence
of flow appeared. For most purposes such mixes can be considered
watertight.
The visibility of dampness on the bottom of the specimens
increased with the humidity of the air and the non-homogeneity of
the concrete. The minimum rate of flow for which leakage was indi-
cated was 0.00011 gallon (approximately .42 c.c.) per square foot
per hour.
In tests of nearly all of the properly made mixes of 1 : 2| : 4f
proportions, or richer, the rate of flow for a fifty-hour period was less
than 0.0001 gallon (approximately .38 c.c.) per square foot per hour
under a pressure of 40 pounds per square inch.
Through increasing the fineness of the cement a reduction in
the rate of flow and a considerable increase in the strength of a
1:3:6 mix were secured.
By grading the sand and gravel in accordance with Fuller's
curve it was possible to obtain practically watertight concrete of
1:3:6 proportions under pressures less than 40 pounds per square
inch. To secure such results, however, requires great care and
careful supervision in mixing, in determining the proper consistency,
in placing, and in curing the concrete.
In the proportioning of such materials as these, volumetric
analysis coupled with a determination of the density and air voids
yields very valuable information concerning the best proportions of
sand and gravel for a given proportion of cement. If proportions
must be selected arbitrarily, a 1 : 1| : 3 mix, by volume,, is very
impervious. It should be remembered, however, that the volume
changes in rich mixtures due to alternate wetting and drying are
much greater than for lean mixtures. Consequently due attention
must be given to the provision of expansion joints and reinforce-
ment in structures made of rich mixtures.
The use of the proper amount of water necessary to produce
a medium or mushy consistency is one of the most important con-
ditions in securing impervious concrete, especially when lean mix-
tures are used. Dry mixtures cannot be sufficiently compacted in
the molds and are more difficult to cure properly than the mushy
mixtures. Although the use of a wet consistency does not materially
affect the imperviousness of very rich mixes, such as 1 : 1^ : 3, it
greatly increases the flow through a lean mix.
For lean mixes made from damp sand, it seems advisable to mix

longer 'than is now common practice. These tests would indicate
that for a mixer running at 30 r.p.m., a period of one and one-half
to two minutes is required to secure thorough mixing of a 1 : 3 : 6
concrete. For a rich 1 : 1^ : 3 mix a one-minute period appears
to be sufficient. A preliminary period of dry mixing lasting from
15 to 30 seconds seems desirable.
No stage or process in the making of impervious concrete is of
more importance than curing. The results of these tests clearly
demonstrate that premature drying destroys the imperviousness of
1 : 9 mixes, seriously impairs that of the 1 : 2 : 4 mixes and somewhat
diminishes that of the 1 : 1| : 3 mixes. For thin sections, not over
6 or 8 inches thick, the curing conditions should be such that a lean
concrete will be kept damp for a period of one month and a rich
concrete for at least two weeks. Even after a month of proper
curing, complete desiccation of a lean mix composed of these
materials produces an increase in permeability, but the effect on a
rich mix is not marked.
In these tests the imperviousness of the concrete increased
rapidly with the age of the specimens for the first month; thereafter
the change was not marked.
Description and Results of Practical Tests
Test on Absorption of Concrete. That concrete absorbs water
is of course an established fact, but that a 1 : 2 : 4 concrete absorbed
between 3 and 4 per cent of its weight of water seemed dubious.
Therefore a test was made to determine the maximum absorption
of concrete of these proportions.
Ten 6-inch cubes of concrete were made up of five different
aggregates as given in Table IX. No effort was made to make
other than ordinary concrete, as evidenced by the weights in the
last column. After three days the cubes were removed from the
forms and weighed. Then they were allowed to dry in the open
air for two months and again weighed. A month later they were
re-weighed and found to check the last weighings, proving their
complete atmospheric dryness. After this weighing they were
immersed in water for two weeks, weighed, and replaced. Four
weeks later they were re-weighed and found to check the previous
results, proving that they had absorbed the maximum amount
of water.
Before each weighing the specimens were made superficially dry
with blotting paper.
230
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The results noted in the table are undoubtedly representative of
average 1:2:4 concrete.
The most interesting fact disclosed is that the absorption of con-
crete is very little affected by the greater or less absorptiveness of
the various large aggregates except cinders (see Table I). In other
words the absorption of concrete is dependent mainly on the matrix.
Test on Concrete Floor Hardeners

Concrete floor hardeners are applied to floors for the purpose of
making them dustproof and waterproof by surface densification.
The term " floor hardener " is a misnomer, as most of the materials
used, with the exception of carborundum and like materials, do not
add to the hardness of the fioor, but give merely a better wearing
floor due to other properties than hardening properties. Abrasive
tests described below on these materials conclusively prove the fact
that they do not add hardness to a cement floor. However, these
materials are not confined to minerals or metals only, but may be
liquids, with bases of wax, oil, varnish, etc., these generally being
applied to the finished floor. The mineral or metal materials are
sometimes incorporated in the concrete or cement mortar before
these have finally set, but in most instances, they are merely dusted
on the surface and troweled in. This gives a floor surface with a
more or less thin layer which may wear through, leaving the floor
practically in the same condition as an untreated cement floor.
The effect of the more successful floor hardeners is to produce a
floor really more dust proof, due to the smooth surface of the finished
floor. This naturally implies a floor with a minimum of surface
voids and crevices to hold dust and moisture, and also little liability
to raveling. However, when a hard material hke carborundum
is used, a hard floor and not a smooth floor is obtained. This type of
floor presents a rough, coarse surface, and is in fact a very dusty one.
From the point of view of floor hardeners, the best dustproof floor
is a terrazzo floor (mainly used in public buildings), in which the
wearing surface is largely the coarse aggregate used in the floor.
This is ground by hand or by machine to present a maximum wear-
ing surface and reduce the mortar of the wearing surface to a
minimum.
The efficiency of some of the floor hardeners is often less due to
the character of the hardener than to the extra work required in
troweling the treated floor. In fact, the smoothness and hardness
232
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of a cement floor are almost directly proportional to the amount of
troweling work put upon it without crazing the surface.
From a study of numerous applications, of mineral, metal, and
liquid floor hardeners, and a review of Table X, the liquids, in
general, seem to give much better service, being also more easily
applied, and when wear develops, may be as easily reapplied.
The abrasion tests,* results of which are given in Table X,
were made on an abrasion apparatus consisting of a 16-inch cast-
iron disc, revolving at the rate of 42 revolutions per minute. Fine
sand was fed upon this disc by means of two funnels each placed
6 inches from the center of the disc. The size of the opening at
the bottom of each funnel was regulated by means of a metal slide.
The sand used was fine beach sand graded so that all particles
passed a No. 50 sieve and were retained on a No. 100 sieve. Two
test samples placed opposite each other, were held down upon this
disc by being placed in weighted cylindrical holders. This machine
was so devised that these holders could hold the center of the speci-
mens always on the circumference of a 12-inch circle.
Mortar cylinders 2 inches in diameter and IJ inches high were
used as test samples. A good grade of Portland cement and Long
Island bank sand were used throughout. No attempt was made to
surface a sample with a thin coating of any compound. Wherever
specific directions were furnished with a compound, these directions
were closely adhered to. Eight cylinders were made with each
batch of mortar to be tested, four cylinders containing the com-
pound to be tested and the remaining four were of plain mortar.
Two treated and two untreated specimens were tested at seven
days and the remaining specimens were tested at twenty-eight days.
All specimens were dried until they showed no further loss in
weight. The specimens were then carefully weighed and calipered.
JVfeasurements were taken by micrometer calipers at five points —
the center and at four points equally distant on the circumference.
The cylinders were ground in groups of two — one plain and one
treated specimen — for thirty minutes. Approximately 450 grams
of sand were used in each test. The samples were then again
weighed and calipered. In determining the loss in thickness of each
cylinder, the cylinder was considered as being composed of four
triangles, the center being the common vertex. For this reason,
the center measurement was given- a weight of four and each mea-
surement on the circumference given a weight of two.
* Tests made in Physical Laboratory of the Public Service Commission, 1st
Dist., New York, 1917.

From a detailed review of Table X the following facts are
noted: Iron filings injure the wearing qualities of a concrete floor.
Iron filings treated with salammoniac cause a mortar to fail
completely. These results, however, are not regarded as conclusive.
A 4 per cent solution of calcium chloride will rapidly increase
the hardness and tensile strength of a mortar during the first seven
days. This advantage however is overcome after twenty-eight days.
Carborundum greatly increases the hardness of a floor. Very
little wear occurs after the top skin of cement has been ground off.
A coarse sand aggregate or an aggregate of sand and grits gives a
more wear-resistant mortar than that made of finer sand.
Comparison of Melting-points of Bitumens.* Ten samples of
asphalt were tested according to the requirements of each of the
first three of the following standard methods for finding the melting-
point of bituminous material and twenty samples according to the
fourth method (but not tabulated below).
(1) C. I. Robinson, or the Ring and Ball Method. (R. and B.
Method).
(2) Cube-in-water Method (C.-in-W. Method).
(3) Kraemer and Sarnow Method (K. and S. Method).
(4) Mabery-Sieplein Method (M.-S. Method).
A careful perusal of the description of these methods, given on
page 197 will facilitate understanding the purpose and results of this
test, especially because of lack of uniformity of opinion by chemists
as to preference, superiority or correctness of any of them.
From the values in Table XI it is evident that the Cube-in-water
Method registers a comparatively high melting-point and cannot
be altogether reliable for the reason that the specific gravity of the
bitumen enters as a factor in these figures. It is also evident that
the Ring and Ball and Kraemer and Sarnow Methods are probably
more correct, because of close agreement of the results and because
these are independent of the specific gravity of the bitumen.
A similar but more extended series of tests t was made on various
asphalts and pitches, to determine the conversion factors between
* This and the following eighteen tests are reprinted from a paper by the
author in the N. Y. Municipal Engineers' Journal, Vol. 3, No. 7, September, 1917.
Attention is directed here to the fact that the following tests are far from bemg
exhaustive or complete either in technique or interpretation of results. But
partly for the reason explained in the forepart of this chapter and partly because
of their suggestive value it was considered warrentable to reprint them here.
t These tests were made in the Chemical Laboratory of the Public Service
Commission for the First District, State of N. Y.; R. L. Oberholser, Chief
Chemist.
236
the four methods. From the results thus obtained, and the tabu-
lated values given above, Table XII was constructed. By means
of this table the known melting point of a bitumen by one method
is readily converted to an equivalent value by another method.
TABLE XI.— COMPARATIVE MELTING-POINTS OF BITUMEN
Asphalt
Sample,
Number.
Ball-and-ring
Method,
Degrees
Fahrenheit.
Difference
Between
Ball-and-ring
and Cube-in
Water
Methods.
Cubc-in-
Water
Method,
Degrees
Fahrenheit.
Difference
Between
Cube-in-
Water and
Kraemer and
Sarnow
Methods.
Kraemer and
Sarnow
Method,
Degrees
Fahrenheit.
1.. . .
169
109
151
129
122
124
134
131
127
139
31
30
27
24
30
26
25
29
31
27
200
139
178
153
152
150
159
160
158
166
33
37
29
32
33
30
33
40
32
37
167
102
3
4
149
121
5
119
6.
120
7
8
126
120
126
10..
129
TABLE XII.— CONVERSION OF MELTING-POINTS OF BITUMEN
To Transform to
Method Giyen — Values

in Degrees Fahrenheit.
Ball-and-ring
Method.
Kraemer
and Sarnow
Method.
Mabery-
Sieptein
Method.
Cube-in-
Water
Method.
Ball-and-ring
Add 5
Subtract 20
Subtract 25
Subtract 30
Subtract 35
Subtrapt 15
Kraemer and Sarnow . .
Subtract 5
Add 20
Add 30
Mabery-Sieplein
Add 25
Add 35
Cube-in-water
Add 15
Effect of Heat on Various Pitches Mixed with Linseed Oil.* A

mixture of pitch and linseed oil is often used as a pipe-coating,
and as a coating for steel and cast-iron tunnel segments. In applying
this compound, it is found necessary to heat it in open tanks ioi very
long periods. Hence, the question: what effect has such heating
upon the mixture? To learn the answer to this question, a seventy-
two hour heating test was made with three grades of pitch, i:he
results of which are given in Table XIII.
* Test made in Chemical Laboratory of Public Service Commission for
the First District, State of N. Y.; R. F. Oberholser, Chief Chemist.

TABLE XIII.— EFFECT OF HEAT ON MIXTURES OF COAL-TAR
PITCH AND LINSEED OIL
Pitch Pbior
TO Heating.
After 24 Hours Heating.
Kind of Pitch.
i5
a
E
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O
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III
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Soft 1
Medium |
Hard (
5
None
5
None
5
None
76
90
no
107
123
144
29,5
29.9
29.6
84
94
104
106
120
135
108
120
136
138
152
172
29.9
30.9
30.9
30.8
31.3
32.1
3.80
3.36
5.99
3.08
2.70
4.09

d
tn
Kind of Pitch.
•1
•Sta
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gfe
w?
•Sfc.
am
w?
J2
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a 5j3
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Soft [
92
118
30.4
5.79
102
138
31.5
9.22
106
132
31.5
• 6.55
117
150
3i.3
10.10
Medium <
121
154
31.4
8.31
145
180
32.9
11.50
130
162
33.6
44.4
138
170
35.4
4.97
Hard {
133
178
32.7
3.24
150
188
33.5
5.68
154
194
34.9
7.47
168
208
36.3
10.85
Straight-run coal-tar pitch and raw Unseed oil of good quality

were used in this test. The melting-point was determined by the
Cube-in-water Method.
This test discloses the fact that prolonged heating of pitch even
when mixed with linseed oil, is injurious, as shown by the amount
of oil evaporated, and the great rise in melting-point.
Hence it is imperative not to subject this coating material to
continuous heat, but if this becomes unavoidable, the tank must be
frequently replenished with new material.

Flowing and Bonding Properties of Pitch Containing Small
Quantities of Asphalt or Linseed Oil. To obviate the danger and
nuisance of usirtg hot coal-tar pitch for waterproofing by the mem-
brane method under compressed air, tests were made to determine
the flowing and bonding properties of different melting-point pitches
roixed with either 5 per cent of raw Hnseed oil or 5 per cent of dif-
ferent melting-point asphalts. These additions were made in an
effort to increase the fluidity of the pitch somewhat without reducing
its " substantiality " and to avoid the necessity of heating it on
the work during application. These additions had the desirable
effect of lowering the melting-point of the pitch about 10 deg. Fahr.
(5.5 deg. Cent.) without increasing its hardness.
Four pitches were tested having the following melting-points:
75, 85, 95 and 105 deg. Fahr. (24, 29.5, 35 and 40.5 deg. Cent, respec-
tively). (Cube-in-water Method.)
The three asphalts used to make the 5 per cent additions had the
following melting-points: 107, 154 and 182 deg. Fahr. (42, 68 and
83 deg. Cent.). (Cube-in-water Method.)
The oil used was a good quality raw linseed oil.
Sixteen samples of pitch were weighed out in pint cans and
each set of four of equal melting-point received an addition of 5 per
cent by weight of one of the three different asphalts or the oil. These
were then heated; thoroughly stirred, and allowed to cool to about
75 deg. Fahr. (24 deg. Cent.) which was approximately the tem-
perature of the compressed air chamber under about 21 pounds
pressure. On reaching this temperature each sample was troweled
onto the surface of pieces of treated fabric until a 3-ply membrane
was built up on planed boards aS a ground work. None of the
pitches was fluid enough to be mopped on, hence the troweling.
The boards were then inclined at an angle of 45 degrees for seventy-
two hours to compare the relative amount of sliding of each mem-
brane. Table XIV shows the results obtained from the various mixes.
Specimens Nos. 2 and 5 appear to be best suited for the purpose,
because at the temperature under which they will be used, they are
both more substantial and v/orkable than the others. Finally,
since the admixture of linseed oil greatly increases the cost of the
product, the one (No. 5) with an admixture of asphalt is to be pre-
ferred.
Effect of Asbestos Filler on the Physical Properties of Bitiunen.*
The purpose of this test was to determine whether any real benefit
* Test made in Chemical Laboratory of the Public Service Commission for the
First District, Stilts of New York, R. L. Oberholser, Chief Chemist,
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accrues to waterproofing asphalt by the incorporation of asbestos

of the shredded or fibrous variety, as was the practice on some of
the subway work in New York City.
In preparing the specimens the bitumen was heated until liquefied
and the various amounts of asbestos added and stirred until the
mixture was a homogeneous mass. Table XV shows the results
of the test.
TABLE XV.-
-EFFECT OF INCORPORATING ASBESTOS FIBER IN

BITUMEN
Specimen
Number.
Contents, Per
Cent.
Ductility
at 32
Degrees
Fahren-
heit.
Ductility
at 62
Degrees
Fahren-
heit.
Ductility
at 77
Degrees
Fahren-
heit.
Melting-
point
Kraemer
and Sarnow
Method,
Pitch.
Asphalt.
Asbestos.
Degrees
Fahrenheit.
100
35
100
99J
1
2
li
13
17
no
99
11
16
113
98i
li
10
119
98
li
13
140
97
3
2
119
100
20
126
99i
10
130
9
99
11
128
10
98^
li
13
165
11
98
8
11
154
12
97
10
143
The most evident conclusions from this test are, that due to the
presence of the asbestos the ductility of the bitumen is considerably
decreased and the melting-point is increased. The former fact
indicates that the mixed bitumen would not hold together in the form
of a thin cbating as well as the pure bitumen, while the latter indicates
that the mixed bitumen would flow with greater diffculty than the
pure bitumen at the same temperature.
Ductility of Asphalt Containing Coal-tar Pitch. The purpose of
this test is to determine the effect on the ductility of asphalt of the
addition of coal-tar pitch in various percentages. Both the asphalt
and the pitch were of the grade regularly used in waterproofing the
dual subways in New York.
The melting-point of the pitch was about 116 deg. Fahr. (47 deg.
Cent.) by the cube-in-water method, and the asphalt about 120
deg. Fahr. (49 deg. Cent.) by the Kraemer and Sarnow method.

Starting with the pure asphalt in a molten condition the mix-
tures were made by adding the pitch in increments of 5 per cent by
weight. The specimens were then tested and gave the following
results: The melting-points of the mixtures showed a decided but
not constant increase with increase of pitch. The penetration of
the mixtures showed an almost constant decrease and at propor-
tions between 25 and 40 per cent of asphalt the penetration
approached zero. The addition of 30 to 40 per cent of pitch to the
asphalt reduced the ductihty of the mixture to zero, while even as
little as 5 per cent reduced the asphalt's ductility from more than
100 to 30 or 40 cm. It seems, therefore, inadvisable to mix coal-
tar pitch and asphalt when this is intended for waterproofing by the
membrane system. It may, though, be good as a waterproof or
dampproof surface coating on masonry suited for its apphcation,
or as a roof flashing compound. A waterproofing membrane must
be elastic and ductile to a reasonable degree to avoid cracking in
conjunction with the structure it surrounds. Mixing these two
materials tends to vitiate this by giving the product the property of
" shortness," or lack of ductility.
It should be remembered, however, that inferior grades of
pitch might even have a deleterious effect on the asphalt or
vice versa.
Effect of Temperature on Penetration and Ductility of Asphalt
and Coal-tar Pitch. The penetration and ductihties noted in these
tests were made with the Dow penetrometer and tensometer, both
standard testing machines used in asphalt laboratories.
Fig. 108, which is quite self-explanatory, shows that according
to penetration the coal-tar pitch, though of lower melting-point,
and tested in both pure and mastic forms, is harder at low tem-
peratures and softer at high temperatures than the asphalt; also
that the asphalt has a wider temperature range, that is, the asphalt
is less affected for a given temperature change and softens more
slowly than coal-tar pitch.
The curves in Figs. 109 and 110 show the relative penetration
and ductility of asphalt and coal-tar pitch whose melting-points
are practically equal, as determined by the Kraemer and Sarnow
method.
From a study of the penetration curves the following facts may
be noted :
(1) The asphalt and its mastics are softer than coal-tar pitch
between the approximate limits of 40 and 90 deg. Fahr. (4.5 and
32 deg. Cent.).
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(2) The coal-tar pitch curves show that the pitch is more affected
by change of temperature than the asphalt. This is not quite
obvious, however, unless we assume a common point for both curves,
which would very likely be near the melting-point of both materials.
Then, if measured from this point, the above fact is readily proved.
(3) Of both pitch and asphalt mastics the pitch mastic of pro-
portions 2 : 2 : 1 is more affected by temperature changes.
(4) Of the asphalt mastics, the one of proportions 1:1:1 is
least affected by temperature changes.
1.30
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Asphalt 126° F.
Coal-tar Pitch 103° F.
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Fig. 108. — Relation of Penetration to Temperature of Asphalt and Coal-tar
Pitch; also Asphalt and Coal-tar Pitch Mastic, Mixed in the Proportions
of 1 Part Bitumen, 1 Part Sand, and 1 Part Limestone Dust. (Points of
Curves are the Means of three Sets of Readings on Penetration Machine
Using a No. 2 Cambric Needle, Weighted to 100 Grams and Acting for
Five Seconds.)
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curves:
(a) Asphalt and its mastics are more ductile than coal-tar pitch
(both of the same melting-point), but its rate of change of ductiUty
is less, hence it is less affected by temperature changes.
(6) For work exposed to great temperature changes the asphalt
is to be preferred to coal-tar pitch. For work not exposed to great
temperature changes coal-tar pitch is to be preferred on account of
its greater chemical stability.

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Comparative Tests on Coal-tar and Asphalt Mastics.* Here-
tofore asphalt alone has been used for making mastic for brick-in-
mastic usually used for waterproofing underground structures. The
purpose of these tests was to ascertain the adaptability of straight-
run coal-tar pitch for making mastic for the same purpose.
The tests were made to cover the requisite properties of a mastic
for waterproofing by this method, these properties being as follows:
(1) The mastic must have a small and limited compressibility
at a temperature between 32 deg. Fahr. (0 deg. Cent.) and 77 deg.
Fahr. (25 deg. Cent.)
(2) It must be flexible or pliable, that is, it must be able to bend
on itself without fracture at 40 deg. Fahr. (4.5 deg. Cent.) or less.
(3) it must be adhesive and cohesive enough to heal at 40 deg.
Fahr. or less.
(4) It must be tough enough at 32 deg. Fahr. to resist cracking
due to impact and vibration caused by moving loads.
(5) It must be reasonably ductile at temperatures between 32
deg. Fahr. and 77 deg. Fahr.
(6) It must be of uniform consistency however proportioned.
(7) The extracted bitumen must have very little (not more than
3 per cent) volatile oil.
(8) The mineral aggregate must pass 100 per cent through a
10-mesh sieve.
Two kinds of coal-tar pitch and one of asphalt were used in
making the test specimens. One pitch was a straight-run product
meeting the specifications given on page 281; the other was also a
straight-run product brought down to the same penetration as the
asphalt under test. The asphalt was a refined Mexican oil made
to meet the specifications given on page 282.
Two sets of tests were made. In one, the ingredients were pro-
portioned by weight — one sand, one limestone dust or cement,
four bitumen. In the other, the ingredients were proportioned
by volume — one sand, one limestone dust or cement, two bitumen.
The reason for making two sets of tests, one with about twice as
much bitumen as the other, was to ascertain the relative effect on
the properties of the mastic by the presence of more or less
bitumen.
Since in the past asphalt mastic has been used exclusively in the
brick-in-mastic system of waterproofing, and since there is no
reported failure of this method or material, it was accepted as the
*Test made under supervision of author in the Research Laboratory of the
Barrett Company, in 1915.

standard, i.e., all results were compared to the results obtained on
the asphalt mastic. These values, given in Table XVI, were averaged
and the following conclusions are drawn from a study of this
table:
(1) A limited amount of compressibility being both useful and
necessary in a bituminous mastic, this property shows up generally
in favor of the hard-pitch mastic.
(2) Penetration — a measure of the hardness of the mastic,
but not a very reliable test, owing to the presence of sand particles —
is generally in favor of the hard-pitch mastic.
(3) The bending test, showing the temperature at which fracture
will occur, shows in favor of the soft-pitch mastic; this may be bent
at about 140 deg. Fahr. (60 deg. Cent.) lower than the hard-pitch
mastic.
(4) The healing test, probably the most important, indicating
the inherent capacity of the mastic to restore itself after cracking,
shows in favor of both pitch mastics.
(5) The impact test, indicating the resiliency of the mastics,
a property important for the conditions under which the material
is usually used, shows in favor of the soft-pitch mastic.
(6) The ductility test, indicating the tenacity of the material,
shows in favor of the soft-pitch mastic.
(7) The gas-drip test, indicating the capacity of the material to
resist the deteriorating effect of gas-polluted earth, shows in favor
of both the pitch mastics. This resistance is mainly due to the
presence of the free carbon in the pitches, but is obviously not a
governing property.
From the foregoing it is evident that both pitches are better
in some of the desirable properties than the asphalt, but neither
excels in all the requisite properties. But by interpolating the results
given in the table, a grade of coal-tar pitch was evolved, meeting
the specifications for brick-in-mastic waterproofing given in Chapter
VIII, and this may be used under the same conditions where the
asphalt mastic is used.
Volume Reduction of Asphalt Mastics. In the mastic and water-
proofing industries it is a matter of common knowledge that the
volume of the finished mastic is not equal to the total volume of its
ingredients, just as in the case of concrete. The loss in volume was
assumed to be anywhere between 5 and 20 per cent. The follow-
ing test was therefore made to determine this value with closer
approximation:
Equal volumes of asphalt, sand and cement were mixed in a

fire-heated kettle until a satisfactory mastic was formed. The volume
was then measured and found to be approximately 30 per cent less
than the total volume of ingredients.
Another mastic was then made with equal volumes of asphalt
and mineral aggregate; the latter composed of one part cement and
three parts sand. This mixture showed about 20 per cent loss in
volume. Other mixtures were made and showed losses between these
limits depending on the proportions of sand and cement in the mineral
aggregate, and the length of time the mastic was stirred. This
established the fact that 20 per cent and not 5 per cent is the mini-
mum, and about 30 per cent the maximum reduction of volume for
mastic used with bricks to form what is known as the brick-in-
mastic waterproofing envelope. But even these figures are materi-
ally affected by the duration of the mixing process, the volume
further decreasing with prolonged stirring.
Mastic Bond Affected by Surface Condition of Bricks. In an
effort to determine the relative bonding power of waterproofing
mastic on bricks in various conditions, the following test was made:
Five bricks were embedded in a 50 per cent asphalt mastic, that
is, a mastic composed of fifty parts asphalt and fifty parts mineral
matter. The first brick embedded was dry and clean; this was
followed by a moist brick, then by a wet brick, then by two bricks
somewhat blackened with soot, as would be the case if the bricks
were dry heated over an open wood fire, as is often done. When the
mastic cooled and hardened the bricks were pulled up and showed
the following:
(1) The dry and clean brick could not be extracted from the
mastic intact.
(2) The moist brick showed but little bond and was easily
extracted.
(3) The wet brick showed no bond at all.
(4) The soot-blackened bricks showed fairly good bond, enough
to demonstrate that a thin coat of soot is not objectionable in brick-
and-mastic work.
Relative Compression of Plain Brick, Brick and Mortar and Brick-
in-mastic. The brick-in-mastic specimens were made in accord-
ance with prevailing practice, that is, two bricks were laid in mastic,
side by side, on their largest bed, as stretchers. But for testing, the
specimens were not incased in concrete, as is usually done in prac-
tice. The specimens were four bricks high, with a minimum of
|-inch joints and each completely covered with asphalt mastic. The
proportions of the mastic ingredients were about 40 per cent asphalt,
250
30 per cent sand and 30 per cent cement, by weight. The bricks
were the ordinary building variety, 21 by 3f by 8 inches.
The joints of the wooden form used for making the specimens
were purposely made not absolutely tight, as this is a condition which
occasionally occurs in practice. As a result, some of the hot mastic
leaked out, leaving a considerable void between two bricks above
the level of the leak.
One of .the forms was also made somewhat narrow, that is, its
width did not permit more than about a j^-inch joint. The result
was that on inserting the brick the mastic was squeezed out between
the form-side and brick. The latter was in consequence only partly
covered with mastic.
These conditions illustrate the necessity of making tight-joint
forms and also wide enough to allow sufficient mastic between all
brick faces.
Three specimens were made as above noted (in good forms) and
when tested for compression at about 70 deg. Fahr. (21 deg. Cent.),
gave the results noted in Table XVII, to which, also, are added for
comparison, the ultimate compressive strength of plain brick and
brick and mortar.
TABLE XVII.— ULTIMATE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF BRICK
AND MASTIC, BRICK AND MORTAR AND PLAIN BRICK
Ultimate Compresive Strength
(Lb. per Square Inch)
Brick and Mastic.
Brick and Mortar.*

Plain Bricks.t
360
281
421
2520(a)
2440(a)
3776(6)
5120
5060
4880
Compression on column, ,8 X8 inch base, 1 foot 4 inches high, of common brick and mortar,
(d) Lime mortar, 1 : 3 proportion ; (&) Portland cement mortar, 1 : 2 proportion,
t Compression on largest bed of single bricks.
On all three tests of the brick-in-mastic, the bricks failed first.

The reason for this is that the mastic, when compressed, tends to
spread and actually does so, and however shght this may be, it
places the brick under a transverse tension, consequently reducing
its compressive strength, as indicated in the table above. However
it should be borne in mind that the compressive strength of brick-
in-mastic would be increased considerably, perhaps quadrupled,
by being encased in concrete, as it actually is in practice. The
temperature of the brick-in-mastic will also have a ma.rked effect

upon its strength. A continued, comparatively low temperature,
however, will not prevent the ultimate destruction of the bricks by
transverse tension, but only retard it, unless, of course, the brick-
in-mastic is well encased in masonry to prevent it.
Effect of Temperature of Saturants on Waterproofing Fabrics.
The purpose of this test was to determine (1) the effect of high tem-
peratures on waterproofing felt and fabrics while in course of treat-
ment; (2) the charring temperature of these materials; (3) the
result of treating fabrics without the use of the usual compression
rollers.
Specimens of cotton drill and open-mesh jute burlap were cut
into workable pieces and treated as follows: Eighteen pieces were
saturated with asphalt at different temperatures ranging from 180
deg. Fahr. (82 deg. Cent.) to 500 deg. Fahr. (260 deg. Cent.), raised
by increments of 30 deg. Fahr. ; fourteen pieces were saturated with
coal-tar pitch at different temperatures ranging from 180 deg. Fahr.
to 420 deg. Fahr. (215.5 deg. Cent.) raised by increments of 25 deg.
Fahr. ; ten pieces were saturated with a mixture of asphalt and coal-
tar pitch in equal proportions; the temperatures of the mixture
ranged from 300 deg. Fahr. (149 deg. Cent.) to 520 deg. Fahr. (271
deg. Cent.), raised by increments of 50 deg. Fahr.
The melting point of the pitch used was about 120 deg. Fahr.
(49 deg. Cent.) and that of the asphalt about 160 deg^ Fahr. (71 deg.
Cent.), both determined by the cube-in-water method.
The method of saturating the forty-two specimens was as follows:
Each piece was drawn slowly, as in practice, through its saturant,
completely immersed, and, when withdrawn, was hung up imme-
diately to dry in the air. Of course, this is not the method used by
manufacturers of waterproofing products for treating fabrics. At
the factory the felts and fabrics are drawn through steam-heated
compression rollers immediately after they leave tê saturating tank,
which operation forces the compound into the fibers and removes
the excess saturating material. (See Fig. 60.)
It was interesting and instructive to know though what the re-
sulting condition of the product is when treated as above. All were
well saturated but excessively coated with bitumen. The burlap
specimens showed very few or no open meshes remaining. Both the
asphalt- and pitch-saturated specimens, when weighed, showed a
gradual decrease in the amount of saturant with the increase of tem-
perature, but the " A.-P." (asphalt-pitch) mixture saturated
specimens showed almost constant weight of saturant notwithstand-
ing increase of temperature; in other words, the " A.-P." mixture

remained at practically the same consistency while the others became
more fluid. The pitch-saturated fabrics lost their tackiness first, then
the "A.-P." saturated fabrics and lastly the asphalt-saturated fabrics.
The " A.-P." mixture saturated specimens were devoid of ductility,
cracked easily on being bent around the finger at normal tempera-
ture and showed a dull-black, rough and pitted surface. The
asphalt-saturated and pitch-saturated samples showed a smooth
and lustrous surface.
Several specimens of untreated felt, raw burlap and cotton drill
were then put into a sand bath and heated gradually; at about
400 deg. Fahr. (204.4 deg. Cent.) the felt charred; at 425 deg. Fahr.
(218.3 deg. Cent.) the burlap charred and at about 450 deg. Fahr.
(232.1 deg. Cent.) the cotton drill began to char. The charring
temperatures thus obtained verified previous values obtained dur-
ing the saturation process.
Manifestly the fabrics must be drawn through compression rollers
to obtain not only good saturation but also the proper amount of
coating and, in the case of burlap, sufficient open mesh in the finished
product. The temperature of the saturant has much to do with
the degree of saturation and is, in fact, almost proportional to it.
The possibility of charring the felts and fabrics during treatment is
remote because such temperatures never exceed 350 deg. Fahr. in
practice and besides, the bitumen, especially the pitch, would be
injured first by over-heating, and detected by the excessive fumes
it gives off at the higher (charring) temperatures. The saturant
composed of equal parts of asphalt and coal-tar pitch is obviously
not as good as either of the other two when used as a saturant for
fabrics.
Relative Amount of Saturant and Coating Material on
Treated Waterproofing Felts and Fabrics
It has often been stated that jute fabric cannot be saturated as
well as felt. The results noted in Table XVIII indicate that this
is true for asphalt-treated fabric but quite the reverse for pitch-
treated fabric. It must, however, be borne in mind that the satura-
tion of the jute fabric, even with asphalt, is only a preliminary step
to its final treatment, while with the saturation of the felt its treat-
ment is completed. This is true of most asphalt- and all pitch-
treated felts. On the other hand, saturated cotton fabric (satura-
tion being its only treatment) has 25 per cent more saturant than
the felt.
TABLE XVIII.— RELATIVE AMOUNT OF SATURANT AND COATING

ON TREATED WATERPROOFING FELTS AND FABRICS
Weight in Grams Per Square Foo
''• Treated Materiai,
ASPHALT-
Pitch
(Based
3N Raw Mate-
Material.
Un-
treated.
Treateu.
Treated.
rials) .
No.
Satu-
atu
Per
.' Cent
* of
>d. Satu-
Per
Per
Cent
Satu-
rated
Satu- r
ate
Cent
of
rated.
and
Coated.
rated
C
anc
Date
of
[boating
Total
Bitu-
men.
Open-meah jute fabric
21.70
29.80
71.30
37.1
190.0
227
25.56
59.80
80.11
133.0
79.4
213
3
Open-mesh jute fabric
20 30
35.82
61.82
76.4
128.0
204
22.59
45.80
68.00
. 102.0
98.0
202
5
21.60
50.36
133
24.55
33.65
61.45
37.0
113.0
150
21.60
59.95
177
21.20
47.50
124
19.95
37.60
70.05
88.0
162.0
261
10
21.15
36.55
75.35
72.7
183.0
256
11
22.00
89.40
306
20.18
21.70
39.70
61.20
47.05 £
6.C
78.0
116.0
136.2
41.2
203.9
12
157
13
19.10
59.90 ?
5.7
5 214.0
82.9
295
14
20.35
52.10 i
7.U
5 155.0
172.0
328
15
19.65
51.90 i
S.'i
5 165.0
86.1
251
16
18.45
62.30 '
l.t
237.0
50.2
287
17
21.05
58.90 i
1.4
5 179.0
107.0
286
18
22.50
64 . 20 i
2.',
185.0
SI. 8
266
19
20.30
49.65 '
8.'
143.0
142.0
286
Averages
20.30
55.70 "
S.t
174.0
95.4
269.5
20
Felt Oight grade) . .
28.75
62.85
. 118.0
21
Felt (light grade) . .
25.25
65.00
. 166.0
22
22.25
47.60
. 113.0
23
2»*.89
66.17
. 135.0
24
27.40
52.90
93.0
25
20.55
25.50
35.62
55.30
73.2
114.7
26
29.90
79.26
. 165.0
27
17.30
34 70
101.0
28
26.20
56.80
116.0
29
25.60
53.05
107.0
30
Felt (Ught grade) . .
21.60
24.10
44.70
63.70
106.0
119.0
31
Felt (heavy grade) . . .
59.35
121.20
104.0
32
Felt (heavy grade)
58.51
182.14
211.0
33
Felt (heavy grade)
50.60
125.50
146.0
34
Felt (heavy grade)
64.20
157.60
146.0
35
Felt (heavy grade)
73.80
161.90
119.0
36
Felt (heavy grade)

91.70
66.40
157.10
150.90
71.0
. 132.7
• • • •
37
38
17.05
43.05
. 152.0
Cotton fabric. . . .
19.30
45.62
. 136.0
18.20
44.30
143.6
—

It has also been stated that an asphaltic-treating compound for
jute fabric intended for membrane waterproofing with coal-tar
pitch as a binder is injurious to the membrane because the two
materials are forced to mix (on account of the binder being applied
hot), and produce thereby an inelastic and perhaps deleterious
compound. Careful investigation, however, seems to show that
the amount of treating compound used in the fabric is so little in
comparison with the amount of binder used in the membrane that
there is no apparent harm in using asphalt-treated fabric with coal-
tar pitch binder. The results of weights of specimens noted in Table
XVIII permit the determination of the proportion of treating com-
pound to binder used to form, say, a 3-ply or a 6-ply membrane;
for instance, a square foot of a 3-ply fabric membrane, approximately
j-inch thick, weighs 2 pounds, of which 80 per cent is pitch-binder
and 15 per cent asphaltic-treating compound. Pitch and asphalt
in these proportions, were they actually mixed, would not produce
a very bad compound to be used as a binder. In the field, not more
than the coating on the fabric mixes with the binder, therefore
the percentage of treating compound that mixes with the binder
is still less than that given here.
Further facts disclosed in Table XVIII are that though asphalt-
treated jute fabric has only about 75 per cent as much total bitumen
(that is, saturant plus coating material) as the pitch-treated fabric,
the amount of coating proper on the asphalt-treated fabric is 45 per
cent greater than that on the pitch-treated fabric.
Asphalt-treated and pitch-treated felts of approximately the same
weights are equally well saturated, but heavy felts contain about
10 per cent more saturant than lighter felts.
Effect of Drinking Water on Waterproofing Fabrics. The pur-
pose of this test is to determine the effect on treated and untreated
fabric of one-half year's immersion in water and one-half year's
gradual drying.
In March, 1914, nine specimens of jute fabric, some treated with
asphalt and some with coal-tar pitch and one untreated specimen,
were immersed in plain water, contained in a rectangular tank
1 by 1 by 3 feet. The specimens were suspended from strings
stretched across the tank and labeled for identification. The
water was constantly replenished for six months after which it
was allowed to evaporate completely, which also took about six
months.
In March, 1915, the specimens were carefully examined, and the
following results noted. The untreated jute burlap though thor-

oughly wet for at least six months, had retained its strength com-
pletely but was a little stiff and darker in color than originally.
The bituminous treated specimens showed hardly any loss of strength
and practically no deterioration. Where the coating on the fabric
was good originally, the fabric was entirely unaffected, that is, no
water penetrated the fabric fibers. The bitumen retained its
elasticity and the fine sawdust, which is sprinkled on the
surface of the fabric to prevent self adhesion in the rolls
during shipment and storage, remained intact. Where the fabric
was poorly saturated, a slight loss of tensile strength was mani-
fested. In general, however, the asphalt treated specimens showed
somewhat less resistance than the specimens of fabric treated with
coal-tar pitch.
The test proves (1) the value of thoroughly coating and saturating
the fabric, because thereby it is prevented from absorbing water,
and (2) that plain water is not particularly injurious to bituminous
treated fabric.
Effect of Ground Water on Waterproofing Fabrics. To deter-
mine the effect on fabrics treated with asphalt and with coal-tar
pitch by the action of ground water in direct contact with them,
thirteen specimens of treated jute fabric, each about 4 by 6 inches,
were buried about 3 feet in the ground at City Hall Park, N. Y.,
near the new Broadway Subway location, for a period of 106 days
(from May 6th to August 22d, 1914). Table XIX shows the char-
acteristics of the interred waterproofing fabric.
In another test similar to the above, various grades of cotton
fabric, paper fabric and felt were buried in the ground at Battery
Park, N. Y., at a depth of 4 feet. In less than three months, when
the specimens were examined, it was found that the cotton and
paper fabrics had almost completely decayed and the felt had become
so brittle that it broke in handling.
Another test of a similar nature with various cotton, jute and felt
specimens, but this time each heavily coated with pitch or asphalt,
showed on examination, after 2| months' burial, that both the fabric
and felt were well preserved though the coatings were considerably
pitted.
In each of the above tests the specimens were obtained from
various manufacturers.
These tests conclusively prove the necessity of thoroughly coat-
ing any felt or fabric used as reinforcement in a bituminous water-
proofing membrane. Also that the binder and not the felt or
fabric is the waterproofing material in such a membrane.
256
TABLE XIX.— EFFECT OF GROUND WATER ON WATERPROOFING

FABRICS
Before Burying.
(1). 7 oz. open-mesh asphalt-treated

fabric; well saturated and coated.
2. 7 oz. open-mesh asphalt-treated

fabric; well saturated, one side well
coated, other side poorly coated.
(3). 7 oz. open-mesh asphalt-treated
fabric; well saturated and coated.
(4). 7 oz. open-mesh asphalt- treated
fabric; poorly coated; not saturated.
(5) 8 oz. open-mesh oil-tar pitch-
treated fabric; poorly saturated but
well coated; pliable.
(6). 8 oz. open-mesh oil-tar pitch-
treated fabric; well saturated and
coated; somewhat stiff and brittle
coating.
(7). Seven pieces of 7 oz. open-mesh
asphalt- and pitch-treated fabric, more
or less well saturated and coated.
After Burying.
Shows almost complete decay. Both

asphalt and burlap are very brittle.
No " life " left.
Shows no strength. Asphalt coating
very brittle. Burlap saturated with
water.
Shows brittleness and more or less
decay. Lacks strength.
Shows almost complete decay. Very
brittle.
Shows almost complete decay. Re-
mainder is pliable but weak.
Is brittle, weak and decayed in
several spots.
Specimens so badly deteriorated that

identification is impossible.
Relative Absorption and Strength of Raw and Treated Water-

proofing Felts and Fabrics. To determine the relative amount of
water absorbed by various waterproofing felts and fabrics, and
also their relative tensile strength and stretch, 88 specimens, of
which. 35 were untreated, and the remainder treated with either
asphalt or pitch, were partly immersed in water for three hours and
weighed before immersion and at the end of the first and third hours.
Then the specimens were allowed to dry, after which they were
cut into 1-inch strips and tested for strength and stretch on a
stretching machine. A review of Table XX reveals the following
facts:
1. Untreated jute burlap is much more absorbent than paper
fabric, cotton fabric, felt, building paper, and ready-roofing, all
untreated.
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2. Saturated (only) jute burlap is but little more absorbent than
saturated paper fabric and felt, but much less absorbent than satu-
rated cotton fabric.
3. Untreated jute burlap will absorb in one hour about 70 per
cent, and in three hours about 80 per cent of its weight of water,
while the same burlap, asphalt-saturated and coated, will absorb
in one hour only about 2J per cent and in three hours only about SJ
per cent of its weight of water; while the oil-tar saturated and
coated burlap will absorb in one hour about 5 per cent and in three
hours about 6 per cent of its weight of water.
4. Untreated paper fabric will absorb in one hour about 20 per
cent and in three hours about 30 per cent of its weight of water,
while the same paper fabric, coated either with asphalt or pitch,
will absorb about 4 per cent of its weight of water during both
periods.
5. Untreated cotton fabric will absorb in one hour about 24 per
cent and in three hours about 27 per cent of its weight of water,
while the same cotton fabric, treated, will absorb in one hour only
14 per cent and in three hours only 15 per cent of its weight of water.
6. Untreated felt will absorb in one hour about 55 per cent and
in three hours about 70 per cent of its weight of water, while the
same felt, asphalt-treated, will absorb about 2 per cent and the
tar-treated felt about 3^ per cent of its weight of water during
both periods.
7. The tensile strength (of the warp) of asphalt-treated jute
burlap is increased about 100 per cent and the tar-treated jute
burlap over 125 per cent, as compared to the untreated burlap.
The percentage of stretch is diminished by treatment and is less
for the tar-treated than for the asphalt-treated fabric.
8. The tensile strength of treated paper fabric is practically the
same as that of the untreated, but the stretch is only about 50 per
cent as great.
9. The tensile strength of treated cotton fabric is about 20 per
cent more than the untreated, but the stretch is about 200 per
cent greater.
10. The tensile strength of asphalt-treated felt is increased about
300 per cent, and the tar-treated felt about 600 per cent. But the
stretch is the same for both treated and untreated, this being an
average of 3 per cent in a 2-inch length.
The above conclusions are based on consideration only of the
warp of the fabrics.
It is interesting to note that ordinary blotting paper is about 200

per cent stronger than untreated felt of the same weight, but is about
200 per cent more absorbent, though their unit stretch is the same.
Immutability Test on Various Waterproofing Felts and Fabrics.
To determine the effect of exposure to the elements for a period of
time, thirty-four specimens of waterproofing felts and fabrics, vari-
ously treated, were left in the open air completely unprotected
for periods ranging from five to ten months. During the time of
their exposure they were subjected to rain, hail, snow and sunshine.
From careful examination of these specimens, the following facts
are made evident and considered as warranting attention: (1) The
asphalt-treated fabric is practically unaffected by exposure. (2)
Oil-tar pitch-treated fabric is not in itself affected, but tends to
become stiff from the evaporation of the saturant oils. (3) Raw
and pitch-treated felts are practically unaffected except for the latter,
which tend to harden and become brittle, due to the evaporation of
the saturant oils.
Hence the general conclusion: Pitch-treated felts or fabrics should
not be stored in the open for more than a few weeks before using, and
all membrane roofings should receive a top-coating of bitumen
to preserve the top sheeting.
Compressibility of Treated Jute-fabric Waterproofing Mem-
branes. The purpose of this test was to ascertain the amount of
compression that a waterproofing membrane can withstand without
rupture.
Six membranes were tested, two composed of three plies each,
placed between J-inch mortar discs; two composed of six plies each,
also placed between |-inch mortar discs, and one composed of six
phes and one of twelve plies, both without bituminous binder or
mortar protection discs.
The asphalt binder used in making half the specimens had a melt-
ing-point of about 125 deg. Fahr. (52 deg. Cent.) by the K. and S.
method, and the pitch binder used for making the remaining speci-
mens had a melting-point of about 120 deg. Fahr. (49 deg. Cent.)
by the Cube-in-water method. The temperature of the specimens
was about 75 deg. Fahr. (25 deg. Cent.) when tested.
When pressure was applied to each of the first four membranes,
the mortar discs were the first to fail at about 1000 pounds per square
inch, the membranes remaining uninjured. At about 2000 pounds
per square inch the fabric began to push out on all sides. When
pressure was released and the membrane examined it was found that
when the membrane began to push out radially it was crushed to
destruction at the center. The two membranes that were tested

without the binder and mortar discs were not affected at all at a
pressure of about 3000 pounds per square inch. Both these mem-
branes were merely compressed and became as hard as a board.
On tearing the separate plies apart each of them was found to be
uninjured except for the bituminous coating with which the fabric
was treated, which had been forced into the open mesh of the fabric.
This test demonstrates that a built-up, jute fabric membrane
can safely withstand a direct compression of 1000 pounds per square
inch; that both pitch and asphalt binder of the melting-points and
at the temperature indicated above behave ahke for membrane
waterproofing when subjected to compression.
CHAPTER VIII
WATERPROOFING SPECIFICATIONS
Specification Requisites. Many architects and engineers are
not sufficiently familiar with waterproofing engineering, hence, in
writing specifications, abstractions are freely made from one speci-
fication and used in another. Such practice is inadvisable and should
be guarded against. In writing specifications there is usually re-
quired some of the lawyer's skill in phraseology and the experienced
engineer's knowledge. For those not so fortunate as to possess
both these quahties, a few remarks on the writirig of waterproofing
specifications will not be amiss.
The specification writer should avoid being general, for, to be
specific is the first requisite of good specification writing. Water-
proofing specifications, as indeed all specifications, should be written
open enough to admit of fair competition. They should describe
the materials, their properties and application well enough to enable
manufacturers to make them, contractors to apply them, and engi-
neers or inspectors to approve or reject the materials or their appli-
cation, or the field work in general, on the strength of such specifica-
tions. They should be suited to the conditions surrounding the
particular work. Sufficient instructions should be embodied in the
specifications to enable the engineer to assure himself that the water-
proofing work can be properly executed under them. Equivocal
or incomplete statements should be avoided, while explanatory
clauses should be inserted wherever necessary. The application
of waterproofing materials is more difficult and important than their
manufacture; hence, efficient and sufficient supervision should be
called for. Specific laboratory tests should also be called for, and
these should be basic, not supplemental as they often are at present.
No waterproofing specifications should allow a variation from any
numerical requirement for strength or composition, as determined
by test, of anything more than is consistent with best practice for
the particular property under consideration. Such values are given
for a great many materials, and will be found in the book of yearly
proceedings of the American Society for Testing Materials. But
262
WATERPROOFING SPECIFICATIONS 263

while the results of some acceptance tests may vary more than others
the governing values and their significance should be well understood
before rejecting the material on such grounds. Easy identification
and proper care of all waterproofing materials in the field should be
provided for; also, access to the manufactories to observe the mate-
rials 'n the various stages of their manufacture. The intent of the
specifications should be carefully set forth; the price agreed upon — a
lump sum or per unit of completed work. The material alternatives,
the guarantee and necessary bonds should be clearly set forth.
These few suggestions well pondered, and a careful study of all
the conditions under which the work of waterproofing is to proceed,
coupled with a knowledge of the properties of waterproofing mate-
rials — all in the hands of an experienced engineer or architect — would
result in a type of specification under which litigation would be almost
impossible.
The specifications considered herein are fairly representative
of the advancement that the art of waterproofing has made and which
it enjoys to-day. The selection is varied enough to be of assistance
to the architect or engineer in drawing up waterproofing specifica-
tions for many kinds of structures. The specific information in
each, though not always complete, is modern and in accord with
present practice. Several specifications of proprietary waterproof-
ing materials are included for their suggestive value. The same is
true of the roofing specifications. Some specifications are given in
full while only abstracts from others are stated to avoid cumbrance.
A few original specifications and several specifications of the more
common materials used in waterproofing engineering are included.
By a careful perusal and comparison of these specifications, it
is believed the architect or engineer will find material guidance in
drawing up explicit and practical waterproofing specifications.
Specifications for Waterproofing Materials
Treated Woven Cotton Fabric for Membrane Waterproofing.
Woven cotton fabric for waterproofing purposes shall be made of a
good grade of cotton. In its raw or untreated state, it shall contain
no oils of any kind. It shall weigh not less than 5 ounces to the
square yard and its thread count shall not be less than 50 by 60
per square inch. To be made into a waterproofing fabric, it shall be
thoroughly saturated with either asphalt or coal-tar pitch meeting
the requirements hereinafter specified. No oils or bitumen solvents
shall be used to liquefy either the asphalt or pitch in order to produce

a thoroughly saturated fabric. The fabric after treatment shall
weigh not less than three and one-half times the weight of the
untreated fabric. During treatment, the temperature of the satu-
rating material shall not exceed 275 deg. Fahr. (135 deg. Cent.).
The fabric after treatment shall be elastic and have a stretch in
either direction of at least five (5) per cent without fracture. A
1-inch strip, cut with the warp, shall sustain a weight of at least 60
pounds, and at least 50 pounds with the woof. It must be flexible at
all temperatures between 32 deg. Fahr. and 150 deg. Fahr. (0 to 66
deg. Cent.), and shall not flake or crack when folded upon itself.
It must be of such a nature as to readily conform to any unevenness
of the surface to which it is applied.
The asphalt for treating the woven cotton fabric shall be a refined
product meeting the following requirements: Its melting-point
by the Kraemer and Sarnow method shall be 155 deg. Fahr. (68
deg. Cent.); its penetration by the Dow method shall be .30 cm.,
and its ductility not less than 10 cm. nor more than 20 cm. as meas-
ured on a Smith ductility machine.
The tar pitch for treating the woven cotton fabric shall be a
straight-run, coal-tar pitch meeting the following requirements:
Its melting-point by the cube-in-water method, shall be 110 deg.
Fahr. (43 deg. Cent.); its penetration by the Dow method, shall
be 1.5 cm.; the loss on heating in an electric oven, for five hours
at 325 deg. Fahr. (163 deg. Cent.) shall be not more than 8 per cent
and its free carbon content shall not be more than 28 per cent nor
less than 22 per cent.
Specifications for Bituminous-treated Waterproofing Felt. The
felt must be saturated with an approved asphalt or coal-tar pitch,
and must conform to the following requirements:
The weight per 100 square feet shall be from 12 to 15 pounds
saturated and 5 to 6 pounds unsaturated.
The saturation shall be thorough and complete.
The ash from the unsaturated felt shall not be less than 25 per
cent by weight.
The wool in the unsaturated felt shall not be less than 10 per
cent by weight.
Soapstone, fine sand, or other substance on the surface of the
felt to prevent adhesion shall not exceed 5 pound per 100 square feet
of felt.
The asphaltic saturating compound and the coal-tar pitch satu-
rant shall remain plastic, at ordinary temperatures, after being
heated to 325 deg. Fahr. (163 deg. Cent.) for ten hours.

Both the asphalt- and tar-pitch-treated felts shall be soft, pliable
and tough when received from the factory and until placed in the
work.
The quotient obtained by dividing the tensile strength in pounds,
of a strip 1 inch wide cut lengthwise, by the weight in pounds of
100 square feet shall not be less than 7, and, when cut crosswise,
shall not be less than 85.
The strength saturated shall be at least 25 per cent more than
the strength unsaturated, taken lengthwise (along the warp) and at
least 15 per cent more taken crosswise (along the woof).
Remarks. The above specification applies mainly to a light-
grade felt, such as is commonly used for roofing. A wool-content
of 25 per cent produces the best felt, but unfortunately this has been
reduced to practically zero in the ordinary felts used at the present
time. The requirements for weight and strength called for is readily
exceeded by an average good felt. Only the former, though, is
important, since it is an index of the amount of preserving material
in the felt.
Specifications for Bituminous-treated Jute Fabric for Water-
proofing. Jute fabric for waterproofing purposes shall be made of
jute burlap, saturated and coated with bitumen, and if necessary
sprinkled with sawdust to prevent adhesion in the roll.
The burlap shall have a trade weight rating of either seven and
one-half (71) ounces or eight (8) ounces per square yard and shall
show a uniform open mesh with a uniform thickness of thread in
both the warp and the woof.
The bitumen used for saturating and coating the burlap shall be
asphalt or coal-tar or oil-tar pitch meeting the following require-
ments:
The coal-tar pitch shall be either a straight-run pitch containing
not less than 25 per cent, and not more than 32 per cent of free carbon;
or an oil-tar pitch containing not less than 10 per cent of free carbon.
The coal-tar or oil-tar pitch used as saturant shall melt at approxi-
mately 70 deg. Fahr. (21 deg. Cent.). The coal-tar or oil-tar pitch
used as coating shall melt at approximately 175 deg. Fahr. (80 deg.
Cent.). The melting-points are to be determined by the cube-in-
water method.
The asphalt shall contain in its refined state not less than 98|
per cent of bitumen soluble in cold carbon tetrachloride. The
remaining ingredients shall be such as not to exert an injurious effect
on the burlap.
The asphalt, both saturant and coating shall not flash below

350 deg. Fahr. (177 deg. Cent.) when tested in the New York State
Closed Oil Tester. When heated in an electric oven for five hours
at a temperature of 325 deg. Fahr. (163 deg. Cent.) it shall not lose
over two (2) per cent by weight, nor shall the penetration at 77 deg.
Fahr. (25 deg. Cent.) after such heating be less than one-half of the
original penetration.
The melting-point of asphalt saturant shall be between 100 and
115 deg. Fahr. (38 and 46 deg. Cent.) and of asphalt coating, approxi-
mately 225 deg. Fahr. (107 deg. Cent.) as determnied by the Kraemer
and Sarnow method.
The consistency of the asphalt shall be determined by the pene-
tration, which must be between 0.75 and 1.00 cm. for the saturant,
and between 0. 15 and 0.25 cm. for the coating.
A briquette of the saturant of a cross-section of 1 sq. cm. shall
have a ductihty of not less than fifty (50) centimeters and of the
coating not less than five (5) cm. at 77 deg. Fahr. on a Smith ductility
machine.
All tests herein specified must be conducted according to methods
approved by the engineer.
The very fine sawdust shall be a granulated cedar, pine, or other
suitable wood, and applied on one side of the fabric so that not
more than 5 ounces will cover 100 square feet.
The burlap shall be thoroughly dried before being saturated;
it shall be thoroughly saturated and coated with bitumen, but
shall retain between 30 and 40 per cent of the open mesh of the un-
treated burlap. The fabric after treatment shall be pliable without
flaking at all working temperatures after treatment.
The temperature of the saturant and coating materials during
the process of treating the fabric shall not exceed 300 deg. Fahr.
(149 deg. Cent.).
The machinery and method of saturating and coating the burlap
shall be subject to the approval of the engineer.
The treated fabric shall have a tensile strength in the direction
of its length (warp) of not less than eighty (80) pounds and in the
direction of its width (woof), not less than sixty (60) pounds per lineal
inch of test specimen.
The fabric, when examined under a magnifying glass, shall show
the inner strands to be actually saturated and the outer strands well
coated. A piece of fabric ripped along a line diagonal to the warp
and the woof shall show thorough saturation of the strands. The
percentage of open mesh may be approximated by holding a large
piece of fabric before a light,

The finished fabric shall weigh not less than two and one-half
(2J) times nor more than three and one-half (3|) times the weight
of the raw burlap.
The finished roll of fabric shajl unroll easily. The completed
fabric shall be wound on a core or spool of wood, fiber or other strong
material, not less than two (2) inches in its smallest dimension, and
equal in length to the width of the fabric.
The fabric shall be delivered in rolls not exceeding one hundred
seventy-five (175) feet in length. The width shall not be less than
three (3) feet. The shrinkage due to saturation shall not exceed
two (2) per cent. When the fabric is brought on the work it shall be
stored in a dry and cool place, piled no more than four rolls high,
never stood on ends, and protected against rain and other weather
conditions as well as from injury from resting or falling weights.
Remarks. The above specifications are probably the most com-
plete of their type. Fabric made according to them has been used
veiy extensively and very successfully on the New York Subway
System. Engineers sometimes contend that it is unnecessary to
saturate and coat burlap, arguing that the bituminous binder apphed
on the work is sufficient to protect it. Experience has proven that
saturation and coating of the fabric is essential for best results.
The practice of applying untreated burlap, never very extensive,
is gradually being abandoned.
Specifications for Asphalt for Waterproofing or Dampproofing.*
These specifications cover asphalt for waterproofing and damp-
proofing recommended for use under uniformly moderate tempera-
ture conditions.
The melting-point shall be between 100 and 140 deg. Fahr. (38
and 60 deg. Cent.) as determined by the ball-and-ring method,
and shall be specified for one of the following classes: 130 to 140
deg. Fahr. (54.5 to 60 deg. Cent.); 115 to 130 deg. Fahr. (46 to 54.5
deg. Cent.); 100 to 115 deg. Fahr. (38 to 46 deg. Cent.).
The penetration at 77 deg. Fahr. (25 deg. Cent.), under a load of
100 grams for 5 seconds, shall be not less than 50 nor more than
125.
The penetration shall bear the following relation to the melting-
point: Penetration of 50 to 75 for melting-points between 130 and
140 deg. Fahr. Penetration of 75 to 100 for melting-points between
115 and 130 deg. Fahr. Penetration of 100 to 125 for melting-
points between 100 and 115 deg. Fahr.
* Proposed tentative specifications, Proceedings American Society for Test-
ing Materials, Vol. 17, pp. 712-722 (1917).

The ductility at 77 deg. Fahr. (25 deg. Cent.), when a briquette
of the material having a minimum cross-section of 1 sq. cm. is pulled
apart at the rate of 5 cm. per minute, shall not be less than 30 cm.
The specific gravity shall not be more than 1.08 at 77/77 deg.
Fahr. (25/25 deg. Cent.).
The bitumen soluble in cold carbon bisulphide shall not be less
than 95 per cent.
The loss of a 50-gram sample on heating at 325 deg. Fahr. (163
deg. Cent.), for five hours, shall not exceed 1 per cent. The pene-
tration of the residue from this test shall not be less than 50 per cent
of the original penetration.
The ash shall not exceed 4 per cent.
Specifications for Primer for Use with Asphalt for Waterproofing
or Dampproofing.* These specifications cover primer for use when
specified with asphalt for waterproofing or dampproofing.
The primer shall consist of an asphaltic base, complying in
every respect with the specifications of asphalt for waterproofing
below grade (page 267), which shall be thinned to ordinary paint
consistency with a petroleum distillate having an end point on
distillation not above 500 deg. Fahr. (260 deg. Cent.). Not more
than 20 per cent of this petroleum distillate shall distill under
248 deg. Fahr. (120 deg. Cent.).
Specifications for Asphalt for Waterproofing Surface and Sub-
surface Structures, t Asphalt shall be used which is of the best grade,
free from coal tar or any of its products, and which will not volatilize
more than J of 1 per cent under a temperature of 325 deg. Fahr.
(163 deg. Cent.) for seven hours.
It must not be affected by a 20 per cent solution of ammonia,
a 25 per cent solution of sulphuric acid, a 35 per cent solution of
muriatic acid, nor by a saturated solution of sodium chloride. It
should show no hydrolytic decomposition when subjected, for a period
of ten hours, to hourly immersions in water with alternate rapid
dryings by warm air currents.
For metallic structures, exposed to the direct rays of the sun,
the asphalt must not flow under 200 deg. Fahr. (93.5 deg. Cent.),
nor become brittle at deg. Fahr. (-17.7 deg. Cent.; ^vhen spread
on thin glass.
For structures under ground, such as masonry arches, abutments,
retaining walls, foundation walls of buildings, subways, etc., a flow
* Proposed tentative specifications, Proceedings American Society for Testing
Materials, Vol. 17, Part 1, pp. 712-722 (1917).
t Chicago & Northwestern Railway Company.
\\'ATERPROOFING SPECIFICATIONS 269

point of 180 deg. Fahr. (82 deg. Cent.) and a brittle point of deg.
Fahr. will be required.
A naastic made from either grade of asphalt by mixing it with
sand in the proportion of 1 of asphalt to 4 of sand, must not percepti-
bly indent, when at a temperature of 130 deg. Fahr. (54.5 deg. Cent.)
under a load of 20 pounds per square inch. It must also remain
phable at a temperature of deg. Fahr.
Remarks. It may be noted that the above specifications call
mainly for physical tests. The -kind of asphalt specified must
necessarily be fluxed, as neither natural nor artificial asphalts can,
of themselves, meet the above requirements. Yet the few tests called
for are undoubtedly sufficient to guarantee the quality of the asphalt,
for the loss on heating test limits the amount and grade of fluxing
material, and the flow point and brittle point requirement limits
the grade and quahty of the original asphalt. Unless both of these
materials are of the proper consistenty and properly blended, the
results of the tests would not check with the requirements. The
test requirements of the above speciflcations are a material departure
from the almost standard requirements for waterproofing asphalts,
which usually call for a melting-point test, loss on heating, solubility
in carbon bisulphide or carbon tetrachloride, solubiUty in petrolic
ether, penetration, ductility, and specific gravity.
In the flow-point test requirement, a time hmit should be speci-
fically stated, as also in the indent test for mastic, because neither
the asphalt nor the mastic will fulfill the requirements in unlimited
time. It would seem, though, that one of the so-called melting-
point tests would be better to use then the flow-point test because
the function of the latter is primarily to show the relative flowing
properties of bituminous, and besides-, it is not extensively used in
the industry.
Specifications for Coal-tar Pitch for Waterproofing and Damp-
proofing.* These speciflcations cover coal-tar pitch for waterproofing
and dampproofing recommended for use under uniformly moderate
temperature conditions.
The melting-point as determined by the cube-in-water method,
shall be between 120 and 140 deg. Fahr. (49 and 60 deg. Cent.).
In specifying the melting-point desired within the above hmits, a
variation of not more than 5 deg. Fahr. (2.5 deg. Cent.) in either
direction will be permitted.
The penetration at 77 deg. Fahr. (25 deg. Cent.), under a load of
270 WATERPROOFING ENGINElÎNG

100 grams for five seconds shall not be less than 20 nor more
than 120.
The ductility, at 77 deg. Fahr. when a briquette of the material
having a minimum section of 1 sq. cm. is pulled apart at the rate
of 5 cm. per minute shall not be less than 40 cm.
The loss of a 20-gram sample on heating at 325 deg. Fahr. (163
deg. Cent.) for five hours on pitch of melting-point between 120 and
130 deg. Fahr. (49 and 54.5 deg. Cent.) shall not exceed 9 per cent,
and on pitch of melting-point between 130 and 140 deg. Fahr. (54.5
and 60 deg. Cent.) shall not exceed 7 per cent.
The specific gravity of the pitch at 77/77 deg. Fahr. (25/25 deg.
Cent.) shall not exceed the limits of 1.24 and 1.34.
The specific gravity at 140/140 deg. Fahr. (60/60 deg.Cent.) of the
distillate to 671 deg. Fahr. (355 deg. Cent.) shall not be less than 1.06.
The matter soluble in hot toluol-benzol shall not be less than 65
nor more than 85 per cent.
Specifications for Creosote Oil for Priming Coat with Coal-tar
Pitch for Waterproofing and Dampproofing.* When it is specified
that previous to the mopping on of the hot coal-tar pitch, the wall,
floor, or foundation, shall be painted with a priming coat, the following
specifications for creosote oil shall apply:
Creosote oil shall be of pure tar distillate, free from any sub-
stance foreign to a tar distillate.
The oil shall be entirely fluid at 100 deg. Fahr. (38 deg. Cent.).
The specific gravity at 100 deg. Fahr. shall not be less than 1.00
nor more than 1.06.
Insoluble matter in hot benzol shall be less than 1 per cent.
When distilled, it shall yield: (a) water not more than 2 per cent;
(6) not more than 5 per cent shall distill under 392 deg. Fahr. (200
deg. Cent.); (c) not more than 50 nor less than 30 per cent shall
distill under 455 deg. Fahr. (235 deg. Cent.) : (d) the residue above
671 deg. Fahr. (355 deg. Cent.) shall not exceed 15 per cent; (e)
the residue shall be soft; (/) the speciflc gravity at 100 deg. Fahr.
(38 deg. Cent.) of the fraction distilling between 455 and 599 deg.
Fahr. (235 and 315 deg. Cent.), shall not .be less than 1.00.
Coal-tar Pitch for Mastic Waterproofing. Coal-tar pitch in-
tended for mastic for brick-in-mastic waterproofing shall be a
straight-run residue obtained from the distillation of coal tar and
shall meet the following requirements-
Wax . PROOFING SPECIFICATIONS
271
The melting-point shall be not less than 116 nor more than 122
deg. Fahr. (47 and 50 deg. Cent.), determined by the cube-in-water
method. The penetration (Dow machine) at 77 deg. Fahr. (25
deg. Cent.) with 100 grams acting for five seconds, shall be not
more than 180 and not less than 110.
The matter insoluble in hot extraction in benzol and toluol shall
be not less than 24 and not more than 32 per cent.
On distillation to 671 deg. Fahr. (355 deg. Cent.), the specific
gravity of the total distillate shall be not less than 1.06, determined
at 140/140 deg. Fahr. (60/60 deg. Cent.).
Remarks. Coal-tar pitch meeting the above specifications has
not yet been used for making waterproofing mastic. In fact, no
coal-tar pitch has ever been used for the purpose mentioned in the
specifications, because it was always considered impossible to obtain
a tar-pitch that would be at all plastic at 32 deg. Fahr. (0 deg. Cent.).
But as a result of extensive tests a grade of pitch has been evolved in
which this objection has been overcome. The above specification
is based on that series of tests. The method of making mastic is
explained in Chapter II.
Hydrated Lime for Integral Waterproofing.* Hydrated lime is
a dry flocculent powder resulting from the hydration of quicklime.
It is commercially divided into four classes: (a) High calcium;
(6) calcium; (c) magnesian; (d) high-magnesian.
The classes and chemical properties of hydrated lime shall be
determined by standard methods of chemical analysis.
The non-volatile portion of hydrated lime shall conform to the
following requirements as to chemical composition:
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF HYDRATED LIME
Properties Considered.
High Calcium.
Calcium.
Magnesian.
High
Magnesian.
Calcium oxide
Magnesian oxide
Silica i alumina + oxide
of iron (max.) ....
Carbon dioxide (max.). .
Water
Per Cent.
90 (min.)
5
5
Sufficient to
hydrate the
calcium-oxide
content.
Per Cent.
85-90
Sufficient to
hydrate the
calcium-oxide
content.
■ Cent.
10-25
5
5
Sufficient to
hydrate the
calcium-oxide
content.
Per Cent.
25 (min.)
5
5
Sufficient to
hydrate the
calcium-oxide
content.
* Bppk of American Society for Testing Materials Standards, p. 472, 1916,

A 100-gram sample shall leave by weight a residue of not over
five (5) per cent on a standard 100-mesh sieve and not over 0.5 per
cent on a standard 30 mesh-sieve.
Hydrated lime shall be tested to determine its constancy of
volume in the following manner :
Equal parts of the hydrated lime under test and volume-con-
stant Portland cement shall be thoroughly mixed together and
gaged with water to a paste. Only sufficient water shall be used
to make the mixture workable. From this paste a pat about 3
inches in diameter and i inch thick at the center, tapering to a thin
edge shall be made on a clean glass plate about 4 inches square.
This pat shall be allowed to harden twenty-four hours in moist
air and shall be without popping, checking, cracking, warping or
disintegration after five hours' exposure to steam above boihng water
in a loosely closed vessel.
The sample shall be a fair average of the shipment. Three per
cent of the packages shall be sampled. The sample shall be taken
from the surface to the center of the package. A 2-pound sample to
be sent to the laboratory shall immediately be transferred to an air-
tight container, in which the unused portion shall be stored until
the hydrated lime has been finally accepted or rejected by the
purchaser.
Hydrated hme shall be packed either in cloth or in paper bags
and the weight shall be plainly marked on each package.
The name of the manufacturer shall be legibly marked or tagged
on each package.
All hydrated lime shall be subject to inspection.
The hydrated lime may be inspected either at the place of manu-
facture or the point of delivery, as arranged at the time of purchase.
The inspector representing the purchaser shall have free entry
at all times while work on the contract of the purchaser is being per-
formed, to all parts of the manufacturer's works which concern the
manufacture of the hydrated lime ordered. The manufacturer shall
afford the inspector all reasonable facilities for inspection and
sampHng, which shall be so conducted as not to interfere unneces-
sarily with the operation of the works.
The purchaser may make the tests to govern the acceptance or
rejection of the hydrated lime in his own laboratory or elsewhere.
Such tests, however, shall be made at the expense of the purchaser.
Unless otherwise specified, any rejection based on failure to
pass tests prescribed in these specifications shall be reported within
five working days from the taking of samples,

Samples which represent rejected hydrated Hme shall be pre-
served in airtight containers for five days from the date of the test
report. In case of dissatisfaction with the results of the tests, the
manufacturer may make claim for a rehearing within that time.
Remarks. The above specifications will be of material aid to
the architect and engineer in obtaining a product dependably suit-
able for^waterproofing by the integral method. Though it is claimed
that there is little or no difference which grade of hydrated lime is
used, still, the following facts have positively been ascertained:
The high magnesian Hme (25 to 40 per cent magnesia) though it
slakes and sets more slowly, takes up less water, generates less heat
and expands and shrinks less than the high calcium lime; also that
even ordinary magnesian lime (5 to 25 per cent magnesia) works
more smoothly and though it also sets slower, it is stronger than highi
calcium lime.
Specifications for Waterproofing Concrete and IMasonhy
Structures
Specifications for Dampproofing Concrete with Coal Tar. The
concrete surface to be dampproofed should be smooth, thoroughly
clean and dry. The entire surface should be mopped with a coating
of dead oil, using all that the concrete will absorb. If applied in
cold weather, the dead oil should be heated; in hot weather it can
be applied cold.
The dead oil should conform to the Specifications for Creosote
Oil for Priming Coat with Coal-tar Pitch for Waterproofing and
Dampproofing, page 270.
When the entire surface is completely mopped with the dead oil,
it should be remopped with a straight-run coal-tar pitch, following
same with additional moppings until the whole surface has a bright,
patent-leather appearance. The coal-tar pitch should conform to
the Specification for Coal-tar Pitch for Waterproofing and Damp-
proofing, page 269.
Both the dead oil and the coal-tar pitch must be delivered on the
work in packages that are plainly marked with the manufacturer's
brand, and indicating the grade and quality of the material.
Waterproofing Flat Concrete Surfaces with Coal-tar Pitch Mastic.
The mastic shall consist of gravel, sand and coal-tar pitch. The
materials shall be mixed together in the proportion of three parts of
gravel, two parts of sand, and one part of coal-tar pitch by volume.
The sand and gravel shall be thoroughly dried, and all materials

heated sufficiently to permit thorough mixing, but in no case shall the
temperature exceed 300 deg. Fahr. (149 deg. Cent.).
The gravel shall be from i to f inch in size.
The sand shall pass 100 per cent through an 8-mesh sieve.
The pitch shall have a melting-point of about 125 deg. Fahr.
(52 deg. Cent.) by the cube-in-water method.
The mixture shall be spread over the surface to the required thick-
ness, compacted either by tamping or rolling, and given a mopping
of coal-tar pitch the same as is used in the mixture.
If ballast is to be applied directly on the mastic, the latter should
be 2 inches thick. If there is sufficient space to allow for a sand
cushion above the mastic, 1| inches of mastjc is sufficient.
Remarks. The above specifications are concise but somewhat
incomplete. By specifying a |-inch (maximum size) gravel; the in-
corporation of at least one part cement or limestone dust in place
of one of the parts of gravel; and more test requirements for the
pitch, such as free carbon content, specific gravity of distillate oils
and penetration (which would permit identification of the pitch on
the work), a more certain grade of mastic would result.
Specifications for Waterproofing Concrete Structures by the
Integral Method. Watertightness shall be secured by the addition
of A * into the mass or by plastering or veneering the interior or
exterior of the structure with a continuous coat of waterproofed
cement mortar.
Concrete should consist of one (1) part of cement, two (2) or three
(3) parts of sand and four (4) or five (5) parts of stone each to meet
standard requirements. The quantity of A to be used is 8 to 16
pounds per cubic yard of puddled concrete. Introduce the water-
proofing at the mixer, by mixing it into water first.
Placing of concrete shall be continuous throughout definite
stages and joints between different days' work shall be carefully
treated to obtain positive bond.
Cement mortar shall be prepared by thoroughly tempering a dry
mixture of one (1) part of cement to either two (2) or three (3) parts
of sand with water to which A has been added as follows:
Under ordinary conditions 10 pounds per cubic yard of mortar;
permanent ground water, 16 to 24 pounds per cubic yard of mortar;
ground water pressure, up to 32 pounds per cubic yard of mortar;
the mortar to be | to 1 inch thick.
The continuous cemsnt coat must be applied in several layers
* These specifications are for the use of a proprietary calcium-oleate com-
pound, herein designated by A.

after the underlying concrete has been cleansed of dust and dirt.
The concrete surface should be washed with a 10 per cent solution
of acid water and afterward rewashed thoroughly with clear water
to remove the acid.
The prime or scratch coat is to be well troweled.
The final coat must be floated with a wooden or cork float to
avoid air-cushions. The work is to be protected against the rays of
the sun or in winter against freezing.
Keep mortar damp so as to prevent too rapid drying.
Remarks. The above specifications are cited merely because
they are typical of many of those issued for proprietary integral
waterproofing compounds. It is exphcit enough, but since no state-
ment of composition or properties of the waterproofing compound
is included, what may be expected of the use of the material depends
upon the integrity of the manufacturers. In Chapters II and X
will be found information which should be consulted before the above
type of specifications are accepted as a model by the architect or
engineer.
Specifications for Waterproofing Concrete and Masonry Struc-
tures by the Integral-mortar Surface Coating Method. It is the
intent of these specifications to obtain a watertight structure.
Watertightness shall be secured by plastering the interior sur-
face of the structure with a continuous coat of Portland cement
mortar waterproofed with B * waterproofing paste.
The mortar composing the plaster coat shall consist of one (1)
part of cement and two (2) parts of sand, to meet the following
requirements:
The cement shall be a high-grade Portland, which has been care-
fully tested and found to satisfactorily meet the requirements of the
Standard Specifications of the American Society for Testing Materials
and preferably gi-ound so that eighty per cent (80%) shall pass a
standard two hundred (200) -mesh sieve.
The sand shall consist of spherical grains of any hard rock that
is practically free from clay, absolutely free from organic matter,
and uniformly graded in size from coarse to fine.
The waterproofed cement mortar shall be prepared by thoroughly
tempering (to required consistency) a dry mixture of one (1) part of
cement and two (2) parts of sand, with water to which B waterproof-
ing paste has been added in the proportion of one (1) part of paste
to eighteen (18) parts of water, as directed by the manufacturer.
* These specifications are for the use of a proprietary alum-soap paste
compound, herein designated by B,

Before plastering the cement mortar on the hardened concrete,
the surface of same shall be treated as indicated in the following:
The hardened surface shall be mechanically roughened by chip-
ping and very thoroughly cleaned with a heavy wire broom, so as to
remove all dust and dirt. A jet of steam shall be employed to clean
the wall, if available.
To the mechanically cleaned surface apply with a large acid
brush, a hberal coat of one to ten (1 : 10) solution of hydrochloric
acid (muriatic acid). Allow the acid to remain until it has exhausted
itself, which will require at least ten minutes. Apply a second coat
of acid solution if the first does not sufficiently clean and expose
the surface of the aggregate.
With a hose under good pressure, slush the surface so as to remove
the salts and loose particles resulting from the action of the acid.
Continue the slushing until the old concrete is thoroughly cleaned and
soaked to its full capacity. Thoroughly wire-brush the surface so
as to remove the particles which have been loosened by the action
of the acid.
To the cleaned saturated surface apply with a strong fiber brush
a coating of pure cement mixed to a thick creamy consistency with
water to which B waterproofing paste has been added in the pro-
proportion of one (1) part of paste to eighteen (18) parts of water.
Rub in vigorously so as to fill all crevices and cavities produced by
the action of the acid.
Immediately after applying the above slush coat, the first coat
of waterproofed cement mortar shall be applied to a thickness of
three-eighths (f) of an inch directly on the slush coat, and well
troweled and rubbed into the crevices of the surface. This first
coat shall be lightly scratched before showing initial set. Before
this first coat has reached its final set, the second coat shall be applied,
of equal thickness, so as to give a full average thickness of three-
quarters (f) of an ioch. Special care shall be exercised to apply
this finish coat before the first coat has reached its final set. The
finish coat shall be thoroughly floated to an even surface and sub-
sequently troweled free from any porous imperfections.
Where water is running through the wall, proper drainage must
be provided by drilUng holes and inserting tubes in the wall, to con-
centrate the flow of water. With the pressure relieved, the water-
proofed plaster coat shall be applied to the drained portions of the
wall. The drainage pipes shall remain open until the waterproofed
plaster coat has thoroughly set and is capable of resisting the pressure
by its own adhesive strength, when the drainage pipes shall be closed

with suitable plugs and coated with the waterproofed cement
mortar.
The floors shall be prepared and treated exactly as indicated
above, and finished with a waterproof cement mortar to a thickness
of two (2) inches. Special care should be exercised to bond the wall
coating to the floor coating, so as to make the waterproofed coating
continuous over the entire surface.
When hardened, the waterproofed plaster coat shall be sounded
with a light hammer and all loose and defective plaster shall be cut
out and replaced.
Remarks. Consistent with proprietary waterproofing materials
specifications the one above does not mention anything about the
property or quahty of the compound specified. Neither is there
included a guarantee that the application of this material will make
a watertight job for any period of time. On small or unimportant
work, the engineer or architect may permit waterproofing under
the above type of specifications, but for large or difiicult work
careful investigation and technical and practical tests are essential.
This procedure would imdoubtedly tend toward final economy and
more certainty of results.
Specifications for Waterproofing Cement Stucco by the Integral
Method. The materials composing the stucco should consist of:
Twelve parts clean sharp sand; one part hydrated hme; five parts
standard Portland cement.
The waterproofing paste * should be mixed: One part water-
proofing paste; eighteen parts water.
The paste should be dissolved in one part of water to insure a
perfect blending, after which add the other seventeen parts water
and stir until smooth.
The cement and hydrated lime should be mixed to a uniform
color, before sand is added, then add sand and mix again to a uniform
color, after which add the waterproofed water, or " milk " obtained
as per preceding paragraph. This mortar must be well " worked "
and apphed immediately. No mortar should be used after standing
more than thirty minutes.
All stucco should be two-coat work. The first coat should be
mixed as above with the addition of sufficient long cow hair for key-
ing, when apphed to metal lathe. If on masonry, the surface must
be saturated with water before applying and the plaster apphed before
base is dry.
* The waterproofing paste referred to in these specifications is a quasi-soap
or quasi-coUoidol paste.

After the first coat has been applied it should be roughened so
as to form a base for keyina; the finishing coat, which must be floated
in order to densify the plaster.
The finished stucco must be kept wet for four or five days by
covering with burlap or other suitable material and sprinkled at
least twice a day.
Remarks. The remarks appended to the preceding specifica-
tions also apply here. The hydrated hme called for in this speci-
tion is of itself an efficient waterproofing agent.
Specifications for Waterproofing Foundations by the Membrane
System. The foundation shall be waterproofed, so that the interior
will be permanently free from moisture, by a continuous sheet of
waterproofing surrounding the exterior and bottom to the height
directed by the engineer.
The surface of all masonry upon which the waterproofing is to
be applied shall be comparatively smooth and as dry as is practic-
able.
Coat the entire surface on which the waterproofing is to be applied
with tar pitch,* into which, while hot, imbed a layer of treated felt,t
following this with alternating layers of felt and pitch until five
layers of felt and six moppings of pitch have been applied. All felt
must be bedded into the pitch while the latter is still hot but in no
place shall felt touch felt.
At all wall angles, corners and any place where in the opinion of
the engineer the waterproofing course will be subjected to unusual
strain, there shall also be used one layer of reinforced felt t and an
additional mopping of pitch. Where laps are left to be connected
after other work is completed, they shall be not less than 10 inches
wide and at least two of the five plies shall be of reinforced felt, and
care shall be taken to protect such laps while other work is in progress.
Where waterproofing is applied on the exterior of perpendicular
walls, it must be permanently protected by a layer of concrete or
course of brick, and until such permanent protection is in place,
care must be taken not to break or injure the waterproofing in any
way. On horizontal waterproofing the temporary protection must
be 1 inch of cement mortar applied immediatelj' after the felt and the
pitch are laid.
* A straight-run coal-tar pitch, having a melting-point between 140 and 150
deg. Fahr. by the cube-in-water method.
t A tar-saturated felt of good grade and medium weight.
I This reinforced felt is composed of one layer of tar-saturated felt bonded
to one layer of unsaturated cotton-woven fabric. This combination is used as a
single ply in itself.

On all interior waterproofing, tlie permanent covering must be
of sufficient weight and strength to withstand the maximum water
pressure.
Specifications for Waterproofing Subsurface Structures by the
Integral Motor Surface Coating Method. Waterproofing shall con-
sist of cement mortar facings waterproofed with C* These facings
(or coatings) shall be applied to those surfaces of walls (interior or
exterior below grade); upper surface of floor slabs; basement and
sub-basement; pits, tunnels, etc., where waterproofing is indicated
in plans and specifications.
The mortar for these facings shall be composed of one part of
cement of brand approved by architect, two parts of clean sharp
sand, to which shall be added 1| gallons of C for each bag of cement.
These waterproof facings shall be from | to 1 inch applied in at
least two coats on walls and not less than 1 inch thick applied in
one coat on floor surfaces. The finish coat shall be well floated to
close all pores.
' Thoroughly mix the cement and sand dry.
Put enough C for one batch into an empty barrel and add a small
quantity of water, stirring until entirely smooth. Then stir in more
water, but not more than will be required to give a stiff mortar.
Mix this liquid in the cement and sand as usual, turning over
until the color of the mortar is uniform.
The measured amount of C may be added to the charge in a
batch mixer without first dissolving in the gaging water; no more
than the usual time of mixing is needed.
Where the masonry is new, clean and rough, it is necessary merely
to saturate the surface with water. It is very important to use as
much water as the surface will take up; otherwise the mortar will
be sucked dry before it has a chance to set properly.
Old surfaces, such as smooth concrete, brick-work, stone, etc.,
must be chipped, bush-hammered or sand-blasted until suitably
rough; rubbed with a wire scratch-brush to remove loose particles,
paint, slime, etc.; washed with dilute muriatic acid (mixed one to
four in a wooden pail), and finally flushed down with clean water to
remove all traces of acid. After seeing that the wall is saturated
v.ith water, the mortar must be applied as soon as possible.
Over a very hard, seasoned concrete, a thin cement wash, applied
before the mortar coat, and allowed to harden sHghtly, will promote
the adherence of the new mortar.
* These specifications are for the use of a proprietary asphaltic-emulsion
paste compound, herein designated by C.

C waterproofing compound will not make up for careless or un-
skilled labor. The precautions of ordinary good practice must be
observed in every point, just as if C were not used.
Remarks. The company issuing the above specifications is
frank enough to admit that the material it specifies will not make
up for careless or unskilled labor, and that the precautions of good
practice must be observed in every point if the waterproofing mate-
rial is to be effective. In Chapters II and X will be found facts
and figures showing what may be accomplished by the use of experi-
enced labor and careful supervision without the addition of any in-
tegral waterproofing, if the importance of the work warrants the
expense of these extra precautions.
Specifications for Waterproofing Tunnels and Subways
Specifications for Waterproofing New York Subways * by the
Membrane and Brick-in-mastic Systems. General Directions. In
general, waterproofing of the structure will be limited to the roof
and to those surfaces near ground water or mean high water if ground-
water level is found for any reason to be below mean high water.
At other places free drainage shall be provided by pipe drains, hollow
tile or broken stone.
At the stations the entire structure shall be waterproofed.
The protecting masonry shall be concrete, common bricks or
hollow terra-cotta blocks as directed, and shall be not less than four
(4) inches in thickness.
In places where permanent sheeting is placed at the waterproofing
line, the waterproofing, if permitted by the engineer, may be applied
against the sheeting.
All surfaces to which waterproofing is to be applied shall be made
as smooth as possible; on these surfaces there shall be spread hot
melted coal-tar pitch in a uniformly thick layer; on this layer of
pitch shall be laid a treated woven fabric of such material as may be
approved by the engineer; this process shall be repeated until such
number of layers as may be required by the engineer have been placed
and a final coat of the pitch shall then be applied.
The term " ply " as used in these specifications shall mean a layer
of treated woven fabric (except the dry-ply), both sides of which
shall be coated with coal-tar pitch at the time of laying.
The number of plies of waterproofing over the roof between sta-
* Dual Subway System built under supervision of Public Service Commission
for the First District, State of New York, D. L. Turner, Chief Engineer.
tions shall in no case be less than three (3), except as hereinafter
provided where brick laid in asphalt mastic is used.
On the sidewalls at the station the same conditions as in the pre-
ceding paragraph shall apply.
On the sides and bottom of the structure below a line two (2)
feet above ground water, or, if ground water is below mean high-
water level, then (2) feet above mean high water, one (1) ply of water-
proofing, as described above, shall be used with one or more courses
of brick laid in asphalt mastic; the number of courses of brick to
be determined by the engineer.
The requirements in the preceding paragraphs of this section
likewise shall apply to the roof of the structure within station limits
and over the tracks passing through the station within said limits.
The quality of brick used for brick-in-mastic waterproofing
shall be the best quality common brick, burned hard entirely through,
regular and uniform in shape. The brick shall be properly dried
and shall be heated before laying.
Six (6) plies of waterproofing fabric may be substituted for brick-
in-asphalt-mastic, if approved by the engineer, and will be paid for as
provided for fabric waterproofing.
Asphalt mastic shall contain not less than one-third (f ) asphalt,
the other ingredients to be sand and limestone dust or sand and
cement. The ingredients are to be in proportions governed by local
requirements and weather conditions. In melting and mixing the
mastic its temperature shall not exceed 350 deg. Fahr. (177 deg.
Cent.)
Any masonry that is found to leak at any time prior to the com-
pletion of the work and final acceptance thereof shall be cut out and
the leak stopped, at the sole expense of the contractor.
Both the coal-tar pitch and the asphalt must be delivered on the
work in packages that are plainly marked with the manufacturer's
brand, and indicating the grade and quality of the material.
The coal-tar pitch shall be straight-run pitch containing not
less than twenty-five (25) per cent and not more than thirty-two
(32) per cent of free carbon, which will soften at approximately 70
deg. Fahr. (21 deg. Cent.), and melt at 120 deg. Fahr. (49 deg.
Cent.) (by the cube-in-water method) being a grade in which dis-
tillate oils distilled therefrom shall have a specific gravity of 1.05.
The asphalt used shall consist of fluxed natural asphalt, or
asphalt prepared by the careful distillation of asphaltic petroleum,
subject to the approval of the engineer, but however prepared, it
shall comply with the following requirements:

The asphalt shall contain irl its refined state not less than ninety-
five (95) per cent of bitumen soluble in cold carbon disulphide,
and at least ninety-eight and one-half (98^) per cent of the bitumen
soluble in cold carbon disulphide shall be soluble in cold carbon
tetrachloride. The remaining ingredients shall be such as not to
exert an injurious effect on the work.
The asphalt shall not flash below 350 deg. Fahr. (177 deg. Cent.)
when tested in the New York State Closed Oil Tester. When twenty
(20) grams of the material are heated for five (5) hours at a tempera-
ture of 325 Fahr. (163 deg. Cent.) in a tin box two and one-half
(2|) inches in diameter, it shall not lose over three (3) per cent by
weight, nor shall the penetration at 77 deg. Fahr. (25 deg. Cent.)
after such heating be less than one-half (i) of the original penetra-
tion.
The consistency shall be determined by the penetration which
must be between 75 and 100 at 77 deg. Fahr.
The melting-point of the material shall be between 115 and 135
deg. Fahr. (46 and 57 deg. Cent.) as determined by the Kraemer
and Sarnow method.
Penetrations indicated herein refer to the depth of penetration
at 77 deg. Fahr. in hundredth centimeters of a No. 2 cambric needle
weighted to one hundred (100) grams acting for five (5) seconds.
A briquette of the soHd bitumen of cross-section of 1 sq. cm.
shall have a ductility of not less than twenty (20) cm. at 77 deg.
I'ahr. the material being elongated at the rate of five (5) cm. per
minute. (Dow molds.)
All tests herein specified must be conducted according to methods
approved by the engineer.
The fabric to be used shall be a woven fabric which shall have
been treated with coal-tar pitch or asphalt before being brought on
the work. The fabric * and the material used in its treatment shall
be approved by the engineer.
All concrete shall be dry before waterproofing is attached. If,
in the judgment of the engineer, it is impracticable to have the con-
crete dry, then there shall be first laid a layer of treated felt of
approved quality, on the upper surface of which is to be spread the
first layer of pitch or asphalt.
Each layer of pitch or asphalt must completely and entirely
cover the surface on which it is spread without cracks or blow
holes.
The fabric must be rolled out into the pitch or asphalt while the
* For fabric specifications, see p. 265.

latter is still hot, and pressed against it so as to insure its being
completely stuck over its entire surface, great care being taken that
all joints are well broken by overlapping, and that, unless other-
wise permitted, the ends of the rolls of the bottom layers are carried
up on the inside of the layers on the sides, and those of the roof
down on the outside of the la.yers on the side so as to secure a full
lap of at least one (1) foot. Especial care must be taken with this
detail.
When the finishing laj'er of concrete is laid over or next to the
waterproofing material, care must be taken not to break, tear or
injure in any way the outer surface of the pitch or asphalt.
None but competent men, especially skilled in work of this kind,
shall be erhployed to lay the waterproofing.
Standard Specifications fcr Waterproofing the Philadelphia
Subways by the Sheet-mastic. Brick-in-mastic and Membrane
Systems. It is the intent of these Specifications * to secure a sub-
way structure that shall be entirely free from percolation of outside
water, and the contractor shall do all the work in such manner and
take such precautions as will secure this result and shall guarantee
the watertightness of the work for three (3) years. Surfaces shall
be hard and dry before any waterproofing is attached, and shall
first be coated with an asphalt paint made from the asphalt herein
specified diluted with 42 deg. Baume naphtha to the proper con-
sistency and free of oil. If for any reason it is impracticable to
have the surface dry, and the engineer so orders, there shall first be
applied one (1) layer of double-thick roofing felt.
The waterproofing shall be done as follows:
The roof shall be waterproofed with two (2) layers of asphalt
mastic, each one-half (|) inch thick, and protected on top by three
(3) inches of 1 : 3 : 6 concrete.
The floor or invert shall be waterpvcofed with one (1) ply of
treated fabric in compound and two (2) courses of hard brick, laid
flat in compound, aU laid on a bottom course of 1 : 2 : 4 concrete.
The side walls shall be waterproofed with one (1) ply of fabric
treated in compound, against four (4) inches of 1:3:6 concrete,
four (4) inches of hollow tile brick or the concrete sheathing of the
trenches. Against the fabric shall be laid eight and one-half (8^)
inches of brick dipped in compound. The sidewall treatment shall
extend up to an elevation two (2) feet above ground water line.
The asphaltic compound to be used for waterproofing or for the
* Standard Specifications for Construction of Subway Structure; Dept. of
City Transit, City of Philadelphia, January, 1917.
284 WATERPROOFINa ENGINEERING

preparation of mastic shall be composed of fluxed refined natural
lake asphalt, or of asphalt obtained by the distillation of asphaltic
petroleum. It shall contain at least ninety-five (95) per cent of
bitumen soluble in carbon disulphide (CS2), shall have a melting-
point between 150 and 180 deg. Fahr. by the cube method, and a
ductility at 40 deg. Fahr. of at least 5 cm., and at 77 deg. Fahr. of
at least 20 cm. by the Dow method. The mastic shall be prepared
on the work by thoroughly mixing with the asphaltic compound
properly graded limestone dust and sand, at a temperature between
300 and 375 deg. Fahr., so as to make a homogeneous mass. The
mastic shall be proportioned as follows:
Soluble bitumen, 12 to 18 per cent as may be found necessary;
Mineral aggregate passing 200-mesh screen, 25 to 30 per cent;
Mineral aggregate passing 50-mesh screen, 20 to 30 per cent;
Mineral aggregate passing 4-mesh and retained on 10-mesh screen,
20 to 30 per cent.
Coal-tar pitch, if used for either fabric waterproofing or for the
" brick in compound " method, shall be straight-run residue from the
distillation of coal tar. It shall have at least seventy-five (75) per
cent of bitumen soluble in benzol (CeHe), a melting-point between
120 and 140 deg. Fahr., and a ductility at 40 deg. Fahr. of at least
5 cm. Where coal-tar pitch is to be used for waterproofing, the
sizing paint to be applied to the concrete surfaces in advance of the
waterproofing shall be raw coal-tar.
The plans show the invert and sidewalls of the subway structure
waterproofed, where waterproofing is expected to be necessary,
by brick laid in compound, but all or part of this work, may be
ordered to be done by using one or more plies of the fabric water-
proofing.
The brick used in waterproofing shall be straight and hard, of the
quality prescribed for " Brick Masonry." The floor and sidewalls
of the subway structure shall be waterproofed in the following man-
ner: The excavation for the subway floor shall be made to the proper
grade and thereon shall be placed a layer of 1 : 2 : 4 concrete, trow-
eled smooth on top. After this concrete has set and is hard there
shall be spread on it a complete layer of the hot compound described
above, as thick as is workable, without cracks or blow holes. On^.
(1) layer of the treated fabric shall be spread on the coated surface
while the compound is still hot and be pressed flat against its entire
surface with an electrically heated iron, so that it shall firmly adhere
to the surface without bubbles or air spaces. The exposed surface

of the fabric shall then be completely coated with hot compound.
On this surface two (2) courses of brick shall be laid flat. The
brick shall have previously been dried, and while warm shall be
dipped in compound and laid on a bed of the compound on the
coated fabric. The compound shall completely fill the spaces between
the bricks and the top course finished off with a thin layer of the
compound. The waterproofing shall be continuous and extend
around all projections of the invert and sidewalls of the subway.
Upon the coated brick laid on the invert there shall be built at the
sides the waterproofing for the sidewalls by placing one (1) ply
of treated fabric as herein described against the concrete sheeting,
or against four (4) inches 1:3:6 concrete or hollow-tile masonry.
Against this coated layer of fabric there shall be laid eight and
one-half (8^) inches of dried warm brick, dipped in hot compound
and laid in compound while hot. The bricks shall break joint,
and the spaces between the bricks be completely filled with com-
pound.
The fabric shall be an approved woven cotton cloth, weighing
before treatment, not less than 5 ounces per square yard, with at
least thirty (30) threads per inch. It shall be thoroughly saturated
with the asphaltic compound described above before laying, shall
have no admixture or coating of mineral or other matter, and shall
weigh after saturation not less than fourteen (14) ounces per square
yard. The term " ply " shall be understood to mean a layer of woven
cotton fabric saturated with compound before laying, with a layer
of compound on each side of it applied in laying. A complete layer
of hot compound as thick as is workable shall be evenly spread on
the surface to be waterproofed, without cracks or blow holes. The
fabric shall then be spread on the coated surface while the compound
is still hot, and be pressed flat against its entire surface with an
electrically heated iron, so that it shall firmly adhere to the surface
without bubbles or air spaces. The exposed surface of the fabric
shall then be completely coated with the hot compound. Where
steel or concrete sheathing is placed at the waterproofing fine, the
waterproofing from the floor line to two (2) feet above ground water
line shall be applied against the sheathing.
Asphaltic material shall be delivered to the work in original pack-
ages, marked with the manufacturer's name and brand, and indicating
the grade and quality of the material.
Where holes or void spaces are to be filled or built in after the
removal of temporary posts, shores or braces, the utmost care shall
be taken to bond the new concrete or other material to the prior

work, and to make the placing of patches of waterproofing continu-
ous and watertight. The contractor shall execute his work in such
a manner as to eliminate as far as possible such patchwork.
Every care shall be exercised not to puncture or otherwise injure
the waterproofing after it is in place and when applying the protect-
ing masonry. If any leaks are found before the completion of the
work, the defective portions shall be cut out and efficiently
repaired.
Only competent men skilled in this particular class of work will
be permitted to do the waterproofing. The contractor will be
required to guarantee the efficiency of waterproofing by the render-
ing of watertight structure during the three-year period for main-
tenance.
Waterproofing shall not be done when exposed to wet weather,
nor to a temperature below 40 deg. Fahr., and it shall be applied
only when the surface to be treated is perfectly dry.
Remarks. The above specifications refer to the method of deter-
mining the melting-point of bitumen as the "cube-method";
there are two distinct methods for finding the melting point of bitu-
mens that fall under this head; one is the " cube-in-air," the other
is the " cube-in-water " method, the latter giving lower results for
the same bitumen and is not as suitable for asphalt. It would be
better if the exact method preferred were stated in the specification.
The specifications further call for bricks to be imbedded not in
the usual mastic but in pure asphalt. A good mastic is stronger than
its constituent asphalt. Mastic is also more substantial than pure
asphalt and cheaper as well. For these reasons alone, brick-in-
mastic is preferable to brick-in-asphalt.
The specifications permit the use of coal-tar pitch with a melting-
point between 120 and 140 deg. Fahr. For waterproofing by the
membrane system, coal-tar pitch of this melting-point has been very
successfully used on underground work. But mastic made of coal-
tar pitch with a melting-point above 120 deg. Fahr. is not suitable
for subsurface waterproofing in this climate. On the other hand,
if the pitch is intended for use with bricks without incorporating
any foreign ingredients it will lack " body " and the bricks will soon
rest one upon the other.
One test requirement of coal-tar pitch in the specification is
that it should have a ductihty of 5 cm. at 40 deg. Fahr. A straight-
run coal-tar pitch of the melting-point called for, has- practically
no ductility at this temperature.
The specifications also call for a woven cotton fabric of a certain

weight, raw and treated; as weight has little bearing on the strength
of the material it would seem a better poUcy to specify a tensile
strength. A woven cotton fabric whose ratio of tensile strength in
the warp and woof approaches unity, is best for the purpose of water-
proofing. The tensile strength in the warp should not be less than
60 pounds per lineal inch.
Specifications for Waterproofing Tunnels on the Pennsylvania
Raikoad.* It is intended that the interior of waterproof structures
shall be permanently free from moisture or discoloration due to the
percolation of water or other liquids from outside sources. This
end shall be attained by means of a continuous flexible waterproof
sheet surrounding the exterior of the structures.
Pitch used shall be straight-run coal-tar pitch, which shall soften
at 60 deg. Fahr. (15.5 deg. Cent.) and melt at 100 deg. Fahr. (36
deg. Cent.) : being a grade in which distillate oils distilled therefrom
shall have a specific gravity of 1.05.
The felt shall be {trade name and manufacturer giren) or be equally
satisfactory to the engineers.
Coal-tar pitch, when applied, shall be at a temperature of not
less than two hundred fifty (250) deg. Fahr. (121 deg. Cent.). The
pitch shall be mopped on the surface of the masonry to a uniform
thickness of not less than j^ inch. Each layer of pitch must com-
pletely cover the surface on which it is spread without cracks or
blowholes. The felt must be rolled out into the pitch while the latter
is still hot and pressed against it so as to insure its being completely
stuck to the pitch over its entire surface. Great care must be taken
that all joints in the felt are well-broken, and that the ends of the
rolls of the bottom layer are carried up on the inside of the layers
on the sides, and those of the roof down on the outside of the layers
on the sides, so as to secure the full laps herein specified.
Waterproofing must be protected against injury at all times
to the satisfaction of the engineers.
Any waterproofed structure that is found to leak at any time prior
to the completion of this contract shall be made tight by the con-
tractor in a manner satisfactory to the engineers.
Waterproofing shall consist of six (6) layers of felt and seven (7)
layers of pitch alternating, each strip of felt to lap not less than one
(1) foot upon the previously laid strip and each section of water-
proof sheet shall lap at least one (1) foot with the adjoining section.
Waterproofing will be measured by the square or one hundred
(100) superficial feet and paid for accordingly.
* Transactions, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 69, p. 211.

Remarks. The above specification would have increased merit
did it not leave the acceptance of materials, the protection of the
waterproofing, etc., to the discretion of the field engineer. The
engineer's judgment is undoubtedly sound, and his intentions
undoubtedly good, but his experience may be very limited in regard
to waterproofing and too often he considers waterproofing not a
very important item of the work. The properties of waterproofing
materials are not a matter of common knowledge as the properties
of other construction materials are, neither are systems of water-
proofing as standardized as other branches of construction. It seems
therefore that the specification writer would be amply justified in
receiving the best advice and information regarding these matters
and incorporating them in the specification as a help and guidance
to the field engineer. The melting-point of the pitch called for
in the specifications is indefinite since the method of determining
same is not given.
Specifications for Mixing and Placing Grout for Waterproofing
Tunnels.* Under this item shall be included the transportation of
grouting materials, the operation of grouting plant and all other
labor, not specifically included' in other items, connected with the
mixing and placing of all grout in any part of the work included in
this contract, whether such placing is by pouring, by forcing through
pipes or by impregnation by use of the grouting pad, imder any
required pressure not exceeding 300 pounds per square inch. The
work to be done under this item shall include all requisite precau-
tions to prevent the setting of grout which may escape upon the
exposed surfaces of the masonry, and all measures necessary for the
removal of grout which may have adhered to such surfaces and for
restoring such surfaces to their original condition.
Grouting will be done to fill all voids in dry packing or elsewhere
over the tunnel arch, to close cracks, seams and fissures in the
rock about the tunnel or shafts, to increase the imperviousness of the
masonry Uning, to insure a watertight contact with, and the com-
plete protection of, steel work embedded in the masonry, and for
other purposes as required.
Except where it may be ordered to reduce leakage in wet ground,
or to increase the stability of shattered, moving or unstable ground,
or in connection with sections of masonry lining built to control such
leakage or to support such heavy ground, grouting under pressure
* The above specifications are extracted from the general specifications
issued by the Board of Water Supply of the City of New York in 1910, for the
construction of a portion of the City Tunnel of the Catskill Aqueduct, in the
Boroughs of Bronx and Manhattan.

will not generally be ordered under this item, in any place, except
in less deep portions of shafts where the external water-pressure is
comparatively light, until three months after placing the complete
ring of hning masonry at that place. Grouting shall be kept as
nearly up with the concreting as the three months' interval permits.
Grout shall be mixed of a consistence suitable to the work in hand,
in general as thick as can with certainty be made to completely fill
the voids. It is the intention to make grout which is to be forced
into pipes not less rich than IJ parts, by weight, of sand or stone
dust to one part of cement. All ingredients shall be entirely free
from lirnips when put into the mixer. When the grouting of any
seam, void, or section of dry packing has begun, it shall, unless other-
wise expressly ordered, be prosecuted continuously until completed,
without any intermission long enough to allow the grout to take an
initial set. In order to insure a complete fiUing of voids, as in dry
packing over the tunnel arch, and to avoid occluding air in the
interstices of such dry packing, the grout shall be delivered uni-
formly and steadily, not in violent spurts or blasts.
By a sufficient number and suitable spacing of grout pipes, by
the simultaneous use of a sufficient number of grouting machines,
and by changing of connections as required, grouting of dry-packed
spaces or of other spaces over the tunnel arch shall be so done, except
in cases where the engineer deems it impracticable, that all voids
can be filled without requiring any grout to travel more than 25 feet
after leaving the grout pipe; and this distance shall be reduced as
required. Grouting of any section of tunnel shall begin at the bot-
tom and proceed uniformly upward unless some other order of grout-
ing is directed. In grouting spaces over the tunnel arch through
pipes having their upper ends at different elevations, grouting shall
invariably begin at the lowest pipes, and no connection shall be made
to pipes higher up untU the grout has completely filled the space
below such higher pipes, as shown by the grout flowing out of them.
These spaces, whether dry-packed or not, are to be divided into
sections of a length not exceeding 50 feet by masonry cut-off walls
built across them and tight against the tunnel roof.
Wherever 50-foot sections over the tunnel arch, or other large
voids, are being grouted, such number of grouting machines as may
be ordered, generally not less than two, shall be concentrated on
each such section or void. Grouting will be considered to be com-
pleted, in each case, when no more grout can be forced into the seam,
void or dry-packed space under the required pressure up to 300 pounds
per square inch.
290 WATERtROOFlNG ENGINEERING

Regrouting of sections of shaft or- tunnel once grouted shall be
done if and as required. Water may be ordered forced into pipes
for the purpose of opening channels in grout previously placed, or
for other purposes, in which case any required pressure up to 300
pounds per square inch shall be applied.
Under the item of sand for grout the contractor shall furnish at
some central point natural or artificial sand of the quality below
specified, for grout. The specifications for sand for concrete shall
apply equally to the sand furnished hereunder, except that the sand
for grout is to be of such fineness that 100 per cent will pass a sieve
having sixty-four openings per square inch, and 45 per cent will
pass a sieve having 1600 openings per square inch, the wires of the
sieves being respectively, 0.035 and 0.013 inch in diameter. To
obtain this degree of fineness it may be necessary to roll coarser
natural sand or stone screenings.
For convenience in handling and measuring into the grouting
machine the sand shall, unless otherwise specifilly permitted, be put
up in strong sacks each containing a standard weight of sand con-
taining not more than an ordinary degree of moisture (3 to 5 per cent).
The quantity to be paid for under this item shall be the number of
ton3 of sand actually mixed in grouting machines, in accordance
with order, for grout placed as above specified.
The quantity to be estimated for payment under this term shall
be the number of cubic yards of liquid grout actually mixed in accord-
ance with orders. The volume will be computed from the quantities
of dry materials, on the assumption that the grout is mixed, in each
case, of the consistency established as a standard for that case. The
contractor shall keep an accurate tally of the quantities of materials
used in grout each day, in each heading or shaft, and shall report
such quantities to the engineer not later than the following day.
From time to time as the engineer deems necessary, tests will be
made to determine the relation between the volume of grout and the
quantities of the dry materials, and the estimates will be based upon
these tests.
If in the opinion of the engineer there is avoidable waste of grout
into the interior of shaft or tunnel, the volume of grout unnecessarily
wasted, as estimated by him, shall be deducted from the quantity
to be paid for.
Remarks. The process of grouting has been resorted to in several
other places throughout the country for sinking shafts in coal mines
and salt mines, for waterproofing linings in waterworks tunnels and
inverted siphons, for solidifying rock foundations for dams and other

structures; but nowhere has this process been used so extensively,
so exhaustively studied and experimented with, and so successfully
prosecuted as on the aqueduct grouted under the above specifica-
tions. A complete description of the grouting process, the grouting
equipment, a history of grouting on various works, and a great
deal of other valuable information will be found in the Proceedings
of the Brooklyn Engineers' Club, Vol. XIX, page 131, 1915, Brooklyn,
New Yoik.
Specification for Waterproofing rneumatic Caisson.* The floors
of shaft caissons (see Fig. Ill) shall be waterproofed with six (6)
plies of fabric t and seven (7) layers of coal-tar pitch. In order to
avoid fumes from hot pitch in compressed air, the fabric shall be
made up in normal air in pieces or mats of three plies with coal-tar
pitch binder (melting-point 120 deg. Fahr. (49 deg. Cent.) by the
(cube-in-water method), each thickness bonding four (4) inches on
edges. These triple layers shall be in pieces of convenient size as
required by the engineer and shall be passed through the airlock
into the air chamber of the caisson. The earth or rock in the bot-
tom of the chamber shall be covered with a layer of concrete, about
six (6) inches in thickness, troweled smooth with a coating of mortar
containing equal parts, by volume, of cement and sand. Upon this
coating shall be spread a layer, not less than one-sixteenth (ys)
inch in thickness of soft pitch which will soften at 32 deg. Fahr.
(0 deg. Cent.) and melt at about 60 deg. Fahr. (15.5 deg. Cent.)
so that it can be spread without heating. Upon this shall be spread
a triple layer of fabric with lap of twelve (12) inches on longitudinal
joints giving four-ply along the laps, and with lap of eighteen (18)
inches on transverse joints. All laps shall be laid in soft coal-tar
pitch. The three-ply layer shall be covered with a layer of one-
sixteenth (^) inch of soft pitch, and another three-ply layer of
fabric, laid in the manner described, and so as to break joints with
the first layer, followed by a final coating of soft pitch. Upon this
shall be laid one course of brick, on the flat, in mortar containing
equal volumes of cement and sand. Care shall be taken to secure the
best obtainable bond between the waterproofing and the metal work
of the caissons. Other parts of the railroad which are not fined with
cast iron and which are required to be waterproofed in compressed
air, may be required to be waterproofed in the manner described
above.
'Public Service Commission Specifications for New York Rapid Transit
R. R. Route 48, Section 31 (William and Clark St. Tunnel), April, 1914.
t For quality of fabric here referred to, see p. 265.
292
Before placing the first course of concrete in the floors of shaft

caissons, under drains shall be laid to a central sump as directed by
the engineer, and all tendency to uplift of the concrete floor ahall
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be prevented by continuous pumping for a period of ten (10) days

after the completion of the concrete floor above the waterproofing.
The arrangement for pumping shall be such as to prevent drawing
sand from beneath the floor. After the expiration of said period of

ten (10) days, pumping from the sump shall be suspended and the
sump capped and made watertight and the air pressure gradually
reduced to one-half the pressure due to the hydrostatic head. If
defects in the waterproofing appear, the contractor shall repair the
defects. After a satisfactory test, the concrete filling in the sump
shall be completed.
The utmost precautions in regard to fire in the caisson chamber
shall be taken at all times while the waterproofing layers of fabric
and pitch are exposed, and no hghted candles or matches will be
allowed.
Specifications for Waterproofing Railroad Structures

Specifications for Waterproofing Concrete Structures on the
Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway. The necessary pro-
vision for drainage and expansion must be made in designing the
structure. The waterproofing should never be compelled to resist
hydrostatic pressure, and the membrane should always be protected
by a layer of concrete.
Fill all openings and pockets in the concrete, except expansion
joints, with cement mortar, and round off all sharp corners. Wher-
ever waterproofing stops on a vertical parapet, the end should be
flashed into a groove in the concrete.
Thoroughly clean and dry the concrete surface, using wire
brushes and being careful to remove all the laitance. If necessary,
use hot sand to dry the concrete. Apply a coat of gasoline to the
clean dry surface and follow with a coat of cold primer spreading
the primer evenly with a brush. Omit the primer where tar paper
is to be placed and over expansion joints.
After the primer coat has completely dried, apply a coat of pure
hot asphalt, and mop until the layer has a thickness of | inch.
While the asphalt is still hot, begin laying the burlap. Lay the
first strip of burlap transverse to the drainage at the lowest point.
Lay the strips shingle fashion, as for tar and gravel roofs, and parallel
to the first strip working up to the summit and exposing one-third
of each width of burlap to the weather. Press each strip firmly
into the asphalt, then mop well with pure melted asphalt taking
care to thoroughly saturate the burlap and to fill all cracks and blow
holes. Lap the joints in the strips 6 inches. On this three-ply
layer of burlap spread a continuous layer of hot asphalt mopping
well until a layer of | inch is obtained. See (/) Fig. 112.
294
After the |-inch layer of asphalt pn top of the burlap has become
cold spread a |-inch layer of concrete evenly over the surface.
Then press a layer of expanded metal into the concrete and cover the
metal with a layer of concrete 5 inch thick making the total thick-
ness of the concrete If inch thick and trowel the concrete smooth.
6 'or more
Burlap.^ \.
2 Layers of Tar Paper -
Broken
Stone
Filling
(Al ENLARGED SECTION AT BRIDGE ABUTMENT
Concrete^ Expanded Metal
3 Layers of Burlan>.
*^ '^Coat of Primer Asphalt'

(D) TRANSVERSE SECTION OF WATERPROOFING
Expanded Metal
3 Layers of Eurlap'
IT
(B) SECTION OF EXPANSION JOINT

AT OFFSET IN WATERPROOFING SURFACE
to) SECTIOW OF FIXED JOINT

AT OFFSET IN WATEBPROOFING SURFACE
Surface of "Waterproofingf to conform
to Surface or Base
3
(E) TRANSVERSE SECTION OF SLAB
(F) LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF WATERPROOFING
(GJ DETAIL OF SUMMIT
3 Layers of Burlap-^ '
(H) SECTION OF EXPANSION JOINT
Fig. 112. — Standard Methods of Waterproofing Bridge Floors, C. M. & St. P. Rj.
Protect the concrete from the sun for twenty-four hours after laying.
The joints in the expanded metal should be lapped 6 inches. (See
id) Fig. 112).
After the work has been brought up to the desired point from both
sides, interlap, in order, the strips which reach across the joint,
mopping asphalt between burlap surfaces. Place a strip of burlap
WATERPROOKIXG SPECIFICATIOXS 295

along the joint for a closing strip; complete by laying the upper
i inch of asphalt as before described. See (g) Fig. 112.
If possible the waterproofing should be laid in one run the full
width transverse to the drain slope of the surface to be waterproofed.
The ends of the burlap strip should be flashed into recesses in the
walls, curbs or parapets as shown at (e). Where longitudinal
joints are necessary cut the burlap long enough to extend 12 inches
beyond the primed and asphalted surface of the concrete and use
care as the strips are laid that the 12-inch strip is kept free from
asphalt. When the succeeding section is to be waterproofed, fold
back the projecting strips of burlap over the completed waterproofing
and bring the new up against the completed portion of the water-
proofing, interlapping the projecting ends of the burlap with the new
burlap as the work progresses; this is shown at (/). On concrete
trestle or subway slabs longitudinal joints in the waterproofing
should preferably be on the center line of the slabs. If it is neces-
sary to place joints in the waterproofing over joints in the slabs
special care should be taken.
Lay two continuous strips of tar paper 36 inches wide over the
expansion joint, being careful to see that no asphalt gets between or
under the two strips of tar paper. Then mop the top strip with hot
asphalt and carry the waterproofing over the top of the paper
the same as if no joint existed. See {b) and (h).
The burlap is to be a treated, 8-ounce, open-mesh burlap fur-
nished in widths of 36 to 42 inches.
The concrete is to be one part Portland cement, two parts tor-
pedo sand and three parts stone or gravel that will pass a |-inch
ring.
The mortar is to be one part Portland cement and two parts
washed torpedo sand.
The primer is made by pouring hot asphalt in 80 deg. Baum6
gasoHne until mixture will spread readily with a brush.
Pure asphalt conforming to accepted specifications is to be used.
Before using the asphalt heat it in a suitable kettle to a temperature
not exceeding 450 deg. Fahr. (232 deg. Cent.). The temperature
is to be taken with a thermometer. Asphalt heated above 450 deg.
Fahr. or giving off yellow fumes is to be discarded as overheated.
The expended metal is to be equivalent to {manufacturer's name
stated) " 2|-inch No. 16 Regular " expanded metal. The tar paper
will be furnished in rolls 36 inches wide.
Remarks. In describing the color of fumes coming from the sur-
face of overheated asphalt as being yellow, the author desires to

correct this general misconception and state that the fumes of burned
asphalt are bluish black and the fumes of coal-tar pitch are yellow
with a greenish tinge.
Specifications for Waterproofing Concrete Structures on the
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad. The waterproofing shall
consist of a mat of four ply of burlap and one ply of felt thoroughly
saturated and bonded together with waterproofing asphalt and
covered with 1 inch of sand-and-asphalt mastic. No waterproofing
shall be done when the temperature is less than 60 deg. Fahr.
(15.5 deg. Cent.).
The surface of the concrete shall be smooth, clean and dry.
Upon this surface there shall first be applied, with brushes, a coat
of priming paint, which shall be thin enough to penetrate the con-
crete and form an anchorage for the waterproofing.
After this priming coat has dried, a heavy coat of waterproofing
asphalt, heated to a temperature of 400 deg. Fahr. (204 deg. Cent.),
shall be applied with mops, the width of the burlap, and while
this is still hot a layer of burlap shall be bedded in it. The burlap
shall be laid just behind the mopping and swept with a broom, and
must be free from folds and pockets. The surface of this burlap
shall be heavily mopped with waterproofing asphalt, and three
more ply laid in the same manner, making a four-ply burlap mat all
thoroughly saturated and bonded together. The top of the burlap
mat shall be heavily mopped and one thickness of felt saturated
with asphalt laid on it, the edges lapped at least 3 inches, and sealed
with asphalt. The top of this felt shall also be mopped with water-
proofing asphalt. This shall then be covered with 1 inch of asphalt
mastic laid in one layer, the mastic to be composed of one part of
waterproofing asphalt and four parts- of fine gravel graded from
J inch to fine sand, the top leveled off with wooden floats and
mopped with a heavy coat of asphalt.
At all the expansion joints in the concrete a fold, to allow for the
expansion of the structure, shall be formed by laying the burlap and
felt over a 1-inch pipe and removing the pipe as the mat is being
completed.
Where the work is stopped before being completed, at least 3 feet
of burlap at the end and half the width of the burlap at the side shall
be left exposed to form a splice. Special care shall be taken to seal
the waterproofing at the sides and ends of the bridge. The burlap
and mastic shall be carried up the parapet walls at the sides and the
ends concreted in a recess in the walls so that no water can enter.
The burlap shall be carried down over the back walls at the ends of

the bridge to cover all construction joints and shall run into a line
of tile to facilitate the escape of the water.
The burlap shall be 8-ounce, open-mesh, high-grade burlap satu-
rated with an asphalt meeting the specifications for waterproofing
asphalt. It shall come in rolls which shall be placed on end for ship-
ment and storage, and shall not stick together in the roll. The felt
shall be a good quality wool felt, saturated and coated with an
asphalt meeting the specifications for waterproofing asphalt. It
shall come in rolls, which shall be placed on end for shipment and stor-
age, and shall not stick together in the roll. It shall not weigh less
than 15 pounds per 100 square feet. The primer shall be an asphaltic
compound of approved quality and capable of adhering firmly to the
concrete.
The waterproofing asphalt shall meet the following requirements:
(1) The specific gravity of the asphalt desired shall be greater than
0.95 at 77 deg. Fahr. (25 deg. Cent.). (2) The flowing-point shall
not be less than 130 deg. Fahr. (54.5 deg. Cent.) nor more than
140 deg. Fahr. (60 deg. Cent.). (3) The flash point shall not be
lower than 450 deg. Fahr. (232 deg. Cent.). (4) The penetration
at 80 deg. Fahr. (27 deg. Cent.) for a period of thirty seconds shall
be at least 15 mm. and must not exceed 20 mm. This penetration
to be measured with a Vicat needle weighing 300 grams, one end
being 1 mm. in diameter for a distance of 6 cm. (5) When heated
to a temperature of 325 deg. Fahr. (163 deg. Cent.) for seven hours
the loss in weight shall not exceed 2 per cent and the penetration
of the residue at 80 deg. Fahr. and for the period of thirty seconds
using the same instrument as described above shall not be reduced
more than 50 per cent. (6) The total soluble in carbon disulphide
shall not be less than 99 per cent. (7) The total soluble in 88 deg.
naphtha shall not be less than 70 per cent. (8) The total inorganic
matter or ash shall not exceed 1 per cent. (9) Cold test, (a) A
cube of asphalt 1 inch on edge shall be soft and malleable at a tem-
perature of deg. Fahr. ( - 18 deg. Cent.) . (6) A fllm of the asphalt
having a thickness not less than -^ inch shall be so pliable at deg.
Fahr. that it can be bent in a radius of 2 inches. The total time
consmned in the bending of this film shall not exceed three seconds.
(10) The asphalt shall not be affected by any of the following solu-
tions, after being immersed in them for a period of three days: (a)
A 25 per cent solution of sulphuric acid; (b) a 25 per cent solution
of hydrochloric acid; (c) a 20 per cent solution of ammonia.
Remarks. The above specification differs from the previous one
mainly in that it specifies a 1-inch thickness of asphalt mastic as a

protective coat over the membrane. This is good practice but it
requires very careful selection of materials, and good workmanship
in its preparation and application for the best results. In describing
the testing of the waterproofing asphalt, no mention is made of the
method of determining the flowing-point. Besides, from the tem-
perature given, it is evident that the melting-point is meant, and not
the flowing-point, because the flowing-point is only a comparative
test.*
Limiting the work of waterproofing to an atmospheric tempera-
ture of 60 deg. Fahr. is at least 20 deg. too high and therefore too
restrictive a clause. A surface-coating of sand on top of the mastic
is an advisable- requirement, as this tends to prevent abrasion of the
surface by the ballast.
Specifications for Waterproofing Solid-floor Railroad Bridges, f
The depth of steel or concrete construction shall be such as to allow
a sufficient distance from top of rail to top of steel or concrete
floor for proper waterproofing and protection from the cutting action
of the ballast. Under ordinary conditions, a depth of from 3.5 to
4.0 feet from top of rail to clearance line below is sufiicient.
Provision shall be made for grades of at Wast 1 per cent on the
floor of the bridge to remove water promptly. Where this cannot
be done in the steelwork, cement mortar, with a minimum thick-
ness of 21 inches, shall be placed so as to drain the water to the inlets.
Cast-iron inlets shall be set at proper places in the floor and
provided with movable top grates. The down-spout from each
inlet shall be provided with a trap and cleanout, which shall be
accessible from below the bridge. The down-spout shall be of
wrought iron, and connected to a sewer or arranged according to local
conditions.
On top of the prepared surface of the concrete shall be placed
either of the following:
1. One or more thicknesses of felt or fabric, of quality and
applied as specified hereafter, together with proper protection.
2. Asphalt mastic at least IJ inches in thickness, of quality and
applied as specified hereafter.
Felt, Burlap or Fabric. When waterproofing material of this
kind is to be used, either of the following types shall be adopted:
1. From four to six layers of felt.
2. One middle layer of treated burlap, with four layers of felt.
3. One layer of felt, two layers of burlap, and two layers of felt.
* See Chapter VII on Flow-point Test.
t Proceedings, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 40, No. 10,

4. One middle layer of treated burlap, and two layers of asbestos
felt.
5. Either one or two layers of treated cotton-drill fabric.
After the completion of the felt or fabric waterproofing, the entire
surface shall be covered and protected by one of the following
methods:
1. Straight, hard-burned brick laid flat, with joints filled either
with waterproofing compound or cement grout. (Waterproofing
compound should only be used as a filler on flat or nearly flat
surfaces.)
2. A layer of concrete from 2 to 2| inches thick with wire rein-
forcement.
3. A layer of about 1| inches of asphalt mastic used only on top
of asbestos felt.
On top of the protection coat, and outside the line of the ties,
a line of half-round cast-iron pipe, 6 inches in diameter, and per-
forated frequently, shall be placed to collect the water and convey
it to the inlets.
All openings in the steelwork shall be thoroughly closed, either
by calking with burlap dipped in hot asphalt, or by the use of sheet
metal sufficient to maintain the concrete base before applying the
burlap and asphalt.
Wherever called for by the plans, the decks of the bridges shall
be protected with 1:3:5 concrete, with f-inch stone or gravel,
mixed as specified hereafter, finished with a 1 : 2 mix of cement
mortar, | inch thick, troweled to a smooth surface on top. This con-
crete shall be allowed to dry thoroughly so as to prevent the forma-
tion of steam when the hot waterproofing materials are applied.
All vertical or sloping surfaces of concrete or steel shall be cleaned
of dust, dirt, loose particles, paint, and grease. The use of a hand-
bellows is recommended for cleaning loose dust and dirt from the
surfaces. For cleaning paint and grease from the steel and freshen-
ing the surfaces of asphalt, where a junction of old and new is to be
made, or where a pocket of pure asphalt is used against the girders
and the felt or mastic, gasoline shall be used, either by swabbing
the surface with it, or by pouring a small quantity over the surface
to be cleaned and setting fire to it. The use of a blow-lamp is
also recommended.
These surfaces shall then be painted with two coats of approved
asphalt, diluted with gasoline. The materials of the first coat shall
be proportioned so as to give a brownish tint. The second coat shall
have a larger quantity of asphalt.
300 WATERPIlOOPING ENGINEERING

Both coats of paint shall be thoroughly applied and worked into
the surfaces, so as to give a uniform coating of the asphalt.
Paint shall not be applied to damp concrete or steel. The paint-
ing shall be done immediately in advance of the application of the
waterproofing materials and before dust has had time to collect.
If the concrete is damp before the waterproofing is applied, the
surface shall be first covered with a 2-inch layer of hot sand and
allowed to stand for from one to two hours, after which the sand
shall be swept back, uncovering sufficient surface to begin work,
and the operation repeated over a new surface.
All concrete shall be of such consistency that when dumped in
place it shall not require much tamping, .and shall be laid with a
view to be an aid to the watertightness of the structure, and not
merely a support for the waterproofing materials. All showing
surfaces shall be troweled to a smooth, hard surface.
In cases where concrete haunching against girders is called for by
the plans, forms shall be used, and the concrete shall be of a wet
consistency.
On the prepared surface, apply the specified number of layers of
approved saturated and coated felt (with a finished surface) weighing
about 14 pounds per 100 square feet.
The bids shall be based on the use of the type of felt specified
in the above paragraph, but additional alternate bids will be con-
sidered, based on felts or fabrics other than these, which may be
approved by the chief engineer. In the event of such alternate
bids being made, the bidders shall present with them sufficient data
as to the methods of manufacture, quality of materials, and references
to places where such felts or fabrics have been used, giving dates of
application.
All materials shall be delivered on the work in their original
packages, and properly branded.
The asphalt used shall consist of fiuxed natural asphalt, or asphalt
prepared by the careful distillation of asphaltic petroleum.
It shall contain, in its refined state, not less than 98 per cent of
bitumen soluble in cold carbon-disulphide. The remaining ingre-
dients shall be such as not to -exert an injurious effect on the
work.
When 20 grams are heated for five hours at a temperature of
325 deg. Fahr. (163 deg. Cent.) in a tin box 2J inches in diameter,
it shall not lose more than 2 per cent by weight, nor shall the pene-
tration at 77 deg. Fahr. (25 deg. Cent.) after such heating, be less
than one-half of the original penetration. The consistency shall

be determined by the penetration, which must be between .75 and
1.00 cm. at 77 deg. Fahr.
The penetration indicated herein refers to the depth of penetra-
tion, in hundredths of a centimeter, of a No. 2 cambric needle,
weighted to 100 grams, at 77 deg. Fahr., acting for five seconds.
The melting-point shall be between 150 deg. and 190 deg. Fahr.
(66 and 88 deg. Cent.).
A briquette of the solid bitumen, having a cross-section of 1
sq. cm., shall show ductility at 40 deg. Fahr. (4 deg. Cent.) and at a
temperature of 77 deg. Fahr. shall show a ductility of not less than
20 cm., the material being elongated at the rate of 5 cm. per min.
(Dow molds.)
All flashing and reinforcing around inlets and other places speci-
fied shall be carefully executed.
Waterproofing shall not be done in wet weather, or at a tempera-
ture below 32 deg. Fahr., without special orders from the chief
engineer. The felt shall be laid shingle fashion, the first two layers
longitudinally and the last three transversely to the center line of
the bridge, where five layers are called for, and as specified in detail
in other cases, and shall be carried up the haunching and made secure
against the girder in a satisfactory manner. The flashing against
vertical or inclined surfaces shall be in accordance with the direc-
tions of the chief engineer, if not indicated on the plans. The first
layer of felt shall not be cemented to the floor of a steel bridge,
except around the drain outlets. On an arch bridge, the first layer
shall be cemented to the top of the arch. At no point shall there be
less than the specified number of thicknesses.
As the hot asphalt is spread, the felt shall be immediately rolled
into it, rubbed and pressed over the surface so as to eliminate air
bubbles and insure thorough sticking. One mopful of the asphalt
shall not be spread over more than 1 square yard of surface at one
mopping. Not less than 2.5 to 3 gallons of asphalt shall be used on
100 square feet of a single layer of felt. The top layer shall also be
mopped and the work done so that the layers shall be one compact
mass.
The finish of the waterproofing against the girders or concrete
shall be made with a pocket of pure elastic asphalt of the quality
specified above, except that the melting-point shall be between 140
and 180 deg. Fahr. (69 and 82 deg. Cent.), the ductility at 40 deg.
Fahr. shall be at least 3 cm. and the adhesive quaUties shall be
satisfactory to the chief engineer. The surfaces with which this
material comes in contact shall be dry, absolutely free from dust or

grease, and, previous to its application, shall be covered with a
thin paint made by dissolving the asphalt in gasoline.
Particular care shall be taken to make a tight joint around gus-
sets, stiffeners, and the ends of girders.
Care shall be taken to prevent injury in any way to the waterproof-
ing by the passing of men or wheelbarrows over it, or by throwing
any foreign materials on it.
After the waterproofing course has been completed, the horizontal
surfaces shall be protected by a course of straight, hard-burned and
dense brick, laid flat in a bed of 1 to 3 cement mortar, with full
joints. There shall be not less than ^ inch of mortar between the
felt and the bricks. The brick shall not increase in weight more
than 10 per cent when immersed in water for seven hours.
The haunching, and about 18 inches in width of the horizontal
surface adjacent to the haunching, shall be protected by about
21 inches of 1 : 3 : 5 concrete, reinforced with No. 8 or No. 10 wire
cloth, electrically welded.
Every care shall be taken to insure satisfactory and thoroughly
watertight joints between the main layer of waterproofing and the
girders; and special attention shall be given to stiffeners, gussets,
etc.' The waterproofing shall also be carried down over the back
walls to below the elevation of the bridge seat, or as directed.
Rolls of felt shall be stored on end, and not laid on their sides.
Waterproofing shall be done only by experienced and expert
waterproof ers.
Application of Waterproofing. Wherever called for, the decks
of bridges shall be waterproofed with natural rock asphalt mastic,
as specified below.
The concrete, prepared as specified heretofore, shall be water-
proofed with asphalt mastic equal in quality, as to ingredients used
and resistance to water, to the following specifications:
Sicilian rock asphalt mastic . 60 parts
Clean, sharp, graded grit and sand to pass a sieve of 8
meshes per inch 30 parts
Asphalt as specified above for membrane binder 10 parts
These proportions shall be varied when required by special con-
ditions on the work.
The mixture shall be made at the site of the work, shall be heated
to a temperature of from 250 to 300 deg. Fahr. (121 to 149 deg. Cent.)
and shall be stirred until all the ingredients are thoroughly incor-
porated. It shall then be spread and thoroughly worked, to free

it from voids, and shall be ironed to a smooth surface with smoothing
irons, if so directed. All mastic shall be applied in two coats, making
the required thickness. The two coats shall break joints, and the
mastic shall be distributed evenly. Where the thickness of the
concrete plus mastic is less than 2i inches, the full thickness shall be
made up of asphalt mastic.
Pockets of asphalt shall be placed against all metal, and mastic
along girders, around stiff eners, gussets, etc., as specified above.
Great care shall be taken around expansion joints, drain-pipes,
and similar places, where a separation may take place.
After the mastic is laid, it shall be mopped with pure melted
asphalt, and the surface shall be spread with a layer of clean, coarse
sand, to harden the top.
The pockets of asphalt placed against the girders, stiffeners and
gussets shall be protected by about 2| inches of 1 : 3 : 5 concrete,
reinforced with No. 8 or No. 10 wire cloth, electrically welded.
The furnishing and erection of the steelwork for the bridge to
be waterproofed will be executed under a separate contract, and the
riveting will be completed, the erection finished, and the steel floor
cleaned up ready for the waterproofing, before the work on this
contract is begun. In addition to the foregoing, the contractor
shall make a final cleaning of the steelwork before the work of water-
proofing is begun.
Specifications for Waterproofing Station and Platform Floors
of Railroad Viaducts by the Sheet-mastic Method. Where an asphalt
floor is called for on mezzanines or station platforms, it shall be laid
on 2-inch, tongue and grooved, yellow pine, the maximum width of
the board being 6 inches. This board surface shall not be mopped
with asphalt, but shall be covered with a layer of one-ply building
paper or untreated felt. Where the asphalt floor is laid on concrete,
the dry-ply shall be omitted, and a mopping of asphalt substituted.
The surface mixture shall consist of the following proportions
by weight: Eleven and one-half (llj) parts of asphalt, ten and one-
half (IO5) parts of sand, thirty (30) parts of grit, forty-four (44)
parts of hmestone dust, and four (4) parts of Portland cement.
The sand shall be clean, sharp, and free from dirt, mica and
vegetable matter. It shall contain both coarse and fine particles
and shall be graded according to the percentages herein specified.
Sand which does not fulfill the above requirements in its natural
condition shall be screened, washed, or mixed with other sand to
produce a result in accordance with said requirements. Of the ten-
and one-half (lOi) parts of sand, 100 per cent shall pass through a
ten-mesh sieve; 40 per cent shall pass through a forty-mesh sieve,
10 per cent shall pass through an eighty-mesh sieve.
All the grit shall pass through a four-mesh sieve, 30 per cent
through an eight-mesh sieve, and 100 per cent shall be retained on a
sixteen-mesh sieve.
All limestone dust shall be of such fineness that it shall leave a
residue of not more than 20 per cent on a hundred-mesh sieve, and
not more than 90 per cent on a two hundred-mesh sieve.
The fineness of the Portland cement shall be such that it shall
leave, by weight, a residue of not more than 8 per cent on a hundred-
mesh sieve, and not more than 25 per cent on a two hundred-mesh
sieve; the wires of the sieves being respectively .0045 and .0024 inch
in diameter.
All proportions herein mentioned are by weight.
The asphalt shall conform to the requirements (given in the
specifications for " Waterproofing Subways by the Membrane
System," page 281), except that when 20 grams of the material are
heated for five hours at a temperature of 325 deg. Fahr. (163 deg.
Cent.) in an electric oven, the loss in weight shall be not more than
1 per cent and the penetration shall be between .30 and .50 cm.
at 77 deg. Fahr. (25 deg. Cent).
The asphalt floor mixture shall be made in an approved mechani-
cal mixer or by hand in open fire-heated kettles. When made by
machine, the ingredients should be weighed .out and put into the
mixer which shall cook and mix the mastic until it is of uniform con-
sistency and temperature. Pre-heating of ingredients is dependent
on the type of machine used, and shall be resorted to as directed by
the engineer. At the end of each day's work, the mixer shall be
thoroughly cleaned. All materials used in making mastic should
not be unduly exposed to the weather. The mastic shall be brought
to the place of application in wooden pails properly covered so as to
retain the heat. The temperature of the mastic in the mixer should
not exceed 400 deg. Fahr. (204 deg. Cent.) and it should not be less
than 300 deg. Fahr. (149 deg. Cent.) at the time of application.
When the mastic is made by hand, the sand, grit, limestone dust,
cement and asphalt shall be heated to approximately 325 deg. Fahr.,
the asphalt being heated separately. The maximum temperature
of the sand, grit and limestone dust, as delivered at the mixing
kettle, shall not. exceed 375 deg. Fahr. (191 deg. Cent.) and the
maximum temperature of the asphalt shall not exceed 350 deg. Fahr.
(177 deg. Cent.).
The Portland cement shall be thoroughly mixed dry with the

sand, grit and limestone dust. This mixture shall then be sprinkled
into the hot and molten asphalt until a homogeneous mixture is
produced, in which all particles are thoroughly coated with asphalt.
The mastic shall be prepared on or close to the work and in
amounts not exceeding that quantity which can be laid in one working
day. The maximum temperature of any batch of mastic immediately
after being mixed shall not exceed 400 deg. Fahr. and the minimum
temperature when delivered on the pine floor shall be not less than
300 deg. Fahr.
The mastic, containing materials which will become separated
by subsidence while the asphalt is in a melted condition, shall be
thoroughly agitated before being drawn and while in the supply
kettles. Approved methods of agitation shall be used.
The contractor shall, at his own expense, provide a sufficient
number of accurate, properly constructed thermometers for deter-
mining the temperatures of the mastic at all stages of the work.
After the mixture has been spread and compressed to a uniform
thickness of one (1) inch, it shall be rubbed to a smooth surface with
a wooden float. Expansion joints shall be provided where neces-
sary.
Remarks. The above specifications are used by the Public
Service Commission, 1st Dist., State of New York, on all new elevated
work of the New York Dual Subway System. The clause calling
for the board surface not to be mopped, but covered with a layer
of building paper or untreated felt, is at variance with most similar
specifications, but has been found necessary to avoid the formation
of vapor bubbles on the finished mastic surface. The clause per-
mitting the asphalt floor mastic to be made either in a mechanical
mixer or by hand, is believed to be a good departure from former
limitation to hand mixing.
Specifications for Waterproofing Concrete Floors. Thoroughly
mix one-half each of D * and tested Portland cement by weight.
They should be mixed (dry) until absolutely uniform in color and
showing no streaks. Then set aside until ready for use.
Lay floor base and topping as usual. The topping should be at
least f inch thick and should be made of one part good tested Portland
cement and two parts clean, sharp, coarse sand, free from loam and
clay. See that the topping is not made too wet, then float well.
After the topping is laid and evened, as is usually done, powder
or dust the floor with the D cement mixture, using 30 pounds of
* These specifications are for the use of a proprietary preparation of finely
powdered iron, and designated by D.

mixture (15 pounds each of D and cement) to each 100 square feet
of topping. Use a small flour sieve for sifting or distributing this
mixture over the surface. Allow dust coat to stand about five
minutes, then float mixture in well with wooden trowel and tiowel
hard.
When fairly set, showing no signs of surplus water on surface,
trowel a second time until the topping has a smooth, hard finish.
After the floor is from twenty-four to forty-eight hours old,
cover it evenly with an inch layer of wet pine sawdust or shavings,
sand or bags and rewet same twice daily for four or five days. Do
not apply the sawdust, etc., until the floor is thoroughly set, as same
may adhere to and ruin the finish of the floor.
Do hot use floor for seven days, or while it is curing. Under no
circumstances should heavy trucking be done on a floor less than
thirty days old. Cover the floor with boards to assure complete
protection.
Specifications for Waterproofing Roofs
The Shingle (Tile) Method. The intention of this specifiication
is to secure a watertight roof by the application of a waterproofing
felt layer and an overlying covering of tiles. The roof, prior to the
application of the roofing, shall have been constructed in strict
accordance with the plans. The roof sheathing should be well
laid and tight, all chimneys and walls above roof line completed,
and all vent-pipes through the roof properly fastened.
The gutters shall be placed in position, extending over the roof
sheathing (and cant strips, if same are used), and under the felt
and tile at least 8 inches. All valley metal shall be in place, and the
width of same must be 24 inches with both edges turned up J inch
for the entire length of the valley. This valley metal shall be laid
over one layer of felt running the entire distance of the valley. All
flashing metal used alongside and in front of dormers, gables, sky-
lights, towers, perpendicular walls, also around vent-pipes and
chimneys, shall be placed in accordance with the requirements of
the tiles.
Upon the properly prepared roof, the sheathing shall be covered
with one thickness of asphalt or pitch-treated roofing felt, weighing
not less than 30 pounds per square. The felt should be laid with
25-inch laps, and fastened with capped nails. The felt shall be
laid parallel with the eaves, and lapped about 4 inches over all
valley metal. It shall also be laid under all flashing metal, and turned

up about 6 inches against all vertical walls. Upon this felt layer
the tiles shall be fastened with copper nails. They shall be well
locked together, lay smoothly, and no attempt shall be made to
stretch the courses. The tile must be laid so that the vertical hnes
are parallel with each other, and at right angles to the eaves.
The tiles that verge along the hips shall be fitted close against
the hip board, and a watertight joint made by cementing the cut hip
tile to the hip board with a good elastic cement. Each piece of hip
roll shall than be nailed to the hip board, and the hip rolls cemented
where they lap each other. The interior spaces of the hip and ridge
rolls must not be filled with pointing material.
The tiles shall be of the pattern known as {brand of tile and name
of manufacturer here mentioned). The tile as specified above must be
of shale, hard burned, and of {insert color desired) color. All hip and
valley tile shall be cut to the proper angle before burning.
Remarks. The above specifications are applicable to pitched
roofs only. It does not emphasize the importance of the felt layer
underlying the tiles. The one defect of tile roofing is that it is sub-
ject to breakage, and when this happens almost sole dependence for
continued watertightness (until the tile is replaced) is upon the felt.
Therefore the felt should be applied with care, and be of the elastic,
built-up, membrane type, that is, consist of at least two plies
cemented and properly nailed down. The grade and hardness of the
pitch or asphalt used as binder, must also be considered. A good
feature is that it permits the selection and use of many patterns of
tile.
Composition Roofing Method. {A) Over Board Sheathing*
Lay one (1) thickness of sheathing paper or unsaturated felt weigh-
ing not less than five (5) pounds per one hundred (100) square feet,
lapping the sheets at least one (1) inch. See Fig. 113.
Over the entire surface lay two (2) plies of tarred felt, lapping
each sheet seventeen (17) inches over preceding one, and nail as
often as is necessary to hold in place until remaining feltis laid.
Coat the entire surface uniformly with coal-tar pitch.
Over the entire surface lay three (3) plies of tarred felt, lapping
each sheet twenty-two (22) inches over preceding one, mopping with
coal-tar pitch the full twenty-two (22) inches on each sheet, so that
in no place shall felt touch felt. Such nailing as is necessary shall
be done so that all nails will be covered by not less than two (2)
plies of felt.
* This specification should not be used where roof incline exceeds three (3)
inches to one (1) foot.
308
Fig. 113. — Details of Built-up Slag Roof over Board Sheathing.

Spread over the entire surface a uniform coating of pitch, into
which, while hot, embed not less than four hundred (400) pounds
of gravel or three hundred (300) pounds of slag to each one hundred
(100) square feet. The gravel or slag shall be from one-quarter (})
to five-eighths (|) inch in size, dry and free from dirt.
The roof may be inspected before the gravel or slag is applied
by cutting a slit not less than three (3) feet long at right angles to
the way the felt is laid. All felt and pitch shall bear the manufac-
turer's label.
(B) Over Concrete* 1. Coat the concrete uniformly with hot
pitch, see Fig. 114.
2. Over the entire surface lay two (2) plies of tarred felt, lapping
each sheet seventeen (17) inches over preceding one, mopping with
coal-tar pitch the full seventeen (17) inches on each sheet, so that in
no place shall felt touch felt.
3. Coat the entire surface uniformly with pitch.
4 and 5. Same as for waterproofing roofs over board sheathing.
Remarks. The above specifications are equally applicable to
roofs waterproofed with asphalt-treated felt and asphalt binder.
For best result, with built-up roofings, both the coal-tar pitch and
the asphalt must be carefully selected, as other than the best grades
of these materials are very vulnerable to the weather.
The Tin Roofing Method, f All of the tin used for roofing all
parts of a building shall be tinned iron sheets, which shall be stamped
with the brand and thickness on each sheet.
All tin used for standing seam roofing shall be ICJ thickness,
14 by 20 inches, applied with the 14-inch face parallel to the eaves,
forming seams with a double lock. All tin for standing seam roofing
shall be put together in rolls with the cross seams formed and
soldered, same as specified for flat seam roofing.
All standing seam roofing shall be fastened to roof with 2-inch
wide tin cleats, spaced 8 inches apart, with cleats locked into seams,
and each cleat fastened with two 1-inch barbed wire nails.
All tin used for flat rooflng shall be IC thickness, 14 by 20 inch
size, using flat seams, with |-inch lock. Flat seam roofing should
* This specification should not be used where roof incline exceeds three (3)
inches to one (1) foot, and when incline exceeds one (1) inch to one (1) foot, the
concrete must permit of nailing or nailing strips must be provided.
t Richey's " Building Mechanics' Ready Reference."
t Plates are made in two weights, IC and IX. The IC is No. 30 gauge,
and weighs 0.5 pound to the square foot. The IX is No. 28 gauge, and weighs
0.625 pound per square foot. Either grade is suitable for either flat or standing
seam roofing.
310
FiQ, 114. — Details of Built-up Slag Roof over Concrete Slab.

be made up and soldered in the shop in long lengths, which must be
painted on under side with one coat of paint and allowed to dry
before applying to the roof. All flat-seam roofing shall be fastened
to roof with 2-inch wide flat tin cleats, spaced 8 inches apart, with
cleats locked into seams, and each cleat nailed to roof with two 1-inch
barbed wire nails. When the rolls of tin are laid on roof the edges
shall be turned up i inch at right angles to roof, when the cleats shall
be installed. Then another course shall be applied with |-inch
upturned edge, the adjoining edges shall be locked together, and the
seam so formed shall be flattened to a rounded edge and well soldered
and soaked in.
All valleys shall be formed with flat seam roofing, using 14 by 20
inch sheets laid in the narrow way, with cross seams put together and
well soldered, same as specified for flat roofing.
All flat seams thi-oughout the roof, including such other parts as
may need soldering to make perfectly watertight, shall be soldered
with best grade of guaranteed half-and-half solder (half tin and half
lead), using nothing but rosin as a flux. Not less than 2 pounds of
solder shall be used per square on standing seam roofing, and not less
than 8 pounds per square on fiat seam roofing, all to be well sweated
into the joints.
All rosin used in soldering must be carefully cleaned off from all
surfaces before any paint is applied to the tin.
All tin shall be painted one coat on concealed or under side, as
heretofore specified, and two coats on all exposed surfaces: the first
coat shall be given four weeks to dry before the second coat is applied.
All paint shall be applied with hand brushes and well rubbed in.
Litharge only shall be used as a drier. No patent drier or turpen-
tine is to be used. The first coat on upper surface shall be applied
as soon as laid, and the tin must not be permitted to rust before
painting.
Specification for Waterpfoofing Railroad Station Roof.* All
roofs in connection with the station buildings shall be made
absolutely watertight and weatherproof with {name of manufacturer)
" Built-up Asbestos Roofing " or equal thereto.
The asphalt shall be {name of brand) or equal thereto and shall
be applied sufficiently hot to flow freely.
The felt shall be asphalt-saturated asbestos felt {name of brand)
or equal thereto.
The parapet walls, plumbing pipes, smoke pipes, etc., to a height
of not less than 4 inches, the lower edge of the main roofs and all
* New York Municipal Railway Corporation, Brooklyn, X. Y.
roofs at the walls and pipes to a width of not less than 12 inches
shall be thoroughly mopped with asphalt and therein, while it is
still hot, shall be embedded one thickness of felt to which a second
thickness of felt shall be thoroughly wiped with hot asphalt. The
two thicknesses shall be not less than 4 inches high on the walls and
pipes nor less than 12 inches wide on the roofs and shall be applied
before the flashings and roof boxes are set in place.
After the copper flashings and roof boxes have been set and the
leaders connected, the surface of the roofs shall be covered with not
less than three thicknesses of felt laid 10| inches to the weather,
thoroughly embedded and wiped down in hot asphalt and well wiped
to the flashings and leader boxes, the felt to be rolled close behind
the mop so that no missing of hot asphalt can possibly take place.
The entire surface shall be finished to a smooth, even surface with
a heavy coat of {name of manufacturer) " Asphalt Roof Coating "
or equal thereto.
All flashings and cap flashings in any way required to make the
entire work absolutely weathertight shall be furnished as a part of the
work under this section.
The flashings, cap flashings, and roof boxes shall be made of 16-
ounce cold rolled copper except the flashings and cap flashings to the
smoke pipes which shall be 20-ounce cold rolled copper.
The mason shall be furnished the cap flashings to be built into the
concrete; these are to be 8 inches wide and built 2 inches into the
concrete with the built-in edge turned up J inch; they are to be set
not less than 8 inches above the roof and where stepped should be
lapped not less than the height of the step.
The flashings shall be turned 4 inches under the roofing and shall
be of sufficient width to fit closely under the built-in portion of the
cap flashings; they are to be set after two layers of roofing have been
applied as hereinbefore specified, and the cap flashings are to be bent
down and heavily tinned and soldered at all corners and angles.
All soldering in any way required to make the entire work abso-
lutely watertight and weatherproof, shall be done in the neatest and
best manner. The copper which is to be soldered shall be heavily
tinned and all joints shall be thoroughly sweated and neatly soldered
over and all superfluous solder shall be neatly removed.
All sheet metal work and roofing shall be delivered at the final
completion of the works, clean, whole, perfect, and absolutely water-
tight and waterproof.
CHAPTER IX
PRACTICAL RECIPES AND SPECIAL FORMULAS
Origin and Nature of Special Formulas
Considering the many varied purposes and conditions under
which the different systems of waterproofing are found serviceable,
it is surprising how few are the basic waterproofing compounds in
common use. Not more than fifty of such compounds are in the
market. Of these compounds the integral system claims about
30 per cent, the surface coating system about 40 per cent, and the
membrane and mastic systems about 30 per cent. The grouting and
self-densified processes are not considered in this connection because
they require, besides a good grade of material, only scientific manipu-
lation for successful work. The general nature of most of the basic
compounds is discussed in Chapter V. On the other hand, of the
special waterproofing compounds there are at least several hundred.
The nature of these, of course, is in most instances kept as a trade
secret. Still, from time to time, some chemists and engineers dis-
cover or invent useful waterproofing compounds or new processes
for utilizing old compounds. These are often published in the
technical press of both the chemical and engineering professions.
Government chemists, and engineers in particular, are very resource-
ful and liberal in this regard. The United States Department of
Agriculture, the Department of Interior and the Department of
Commerce and Labor, publish annually scores of bulletins and tech-
nical papers some of which are replete with valuable information,
suggestions, and tests on new and old waterproofing methods and
materials,* which are often distributed free and never for more
than cost. These pubhcations are regarded with great favor and au-
thority in the waterproofing industry; and well they may be, for they
are always unbiased, truthful and practical, the only adverse criticism
* As illustrations of the types of these papers, see Bulletin No. 230 of the Office
of Public Roads, U. S. Department of Agriculture; Technologic Paper No. 3
of the Bureau of Standards, Department of Commerce and Labor; Bulletin No.
329 of the U. S. Geological Survey, Department of Interior.
313

being occasioned, in a few instances, by the occasional incompleteness
of the data and the results based thereon.
Waterproofing formulas, like paint formulas, are often individual
secrets,, kept by the discoverer from the world for his commercial
advantage. Like most paints, waterproofing compounds, unless
investigated by the most competent chemists, often baffle chemical
analysis, and more often chemical synthesis. The method of com-
bining, or the process of manufacturing most waterproofing com-
pounds, is more difiicult and kept more secretive than is the knowl-
edge of the constituent ingredients. Of course, where compounds
are patented, a certain amount of information is divulged to the
public, but the patent prevents the unlicensed use of the compounds.
This facilitates and sometimes encourages the marketing of imita-
tions, better or worse, which the purchaser must guard against by
careful investigation.
In compihng this chapter the author has freely availed himself of
all the above-mentioned sources with due acknowledgment. In-
cluded also are formulas and practical recipes derived from personal
experience and the experience of a few associates in both the
chemical and engineering professions. In making compounds from
any of these formulas, care and judgment are essential to success.
They are arranged under the general heads of Masonry Treatments,
Treatments for Tanks, . Floor Treatments, Roofings, and Water-
proof Cements, but no strict divisions were attempted.
Masonry Treatments
Waterproof Mortar. For masonry joints: equal parts of sand
and cement with sufficient water to form a plastic paste produces a
very waterproof mortar; for surfacing and stucco work a 1 : 2
mortar is very efficient provided it is allowed to dry very slowly.
A mbcture consisting of one-sixth underburnt and one-sixth well-
burnt powdered brick, one-third slaked lime, and one-third sand,
will make a dense, waterproof mortar.
Dampproof Coating Compounds for Masonry. An easily made
and applied coating for dampproofing purposes consists of about
20 per cent, by weight, of paraffin (melting-point between 104 and
122 deg. Fahr. (40 and 50 deg. Cent.) dissolved in 80 per cent of a
petroleum oil mixture. This mixture may be made of about 45 per
cent benzene, 25 per cent wood turpentine and 30 per cent
•kerosene.
PRACTICAL RECIPES AND SPECIAL FORMULAS 315

A similar compound can be made by mixing about 5 per cent, by
weight, ©f paraffin, 5 per cent alumina resinate, 45 per cent benzine
and 45 per cent kerosene.
A good surface-coating compound can be made in the form of a
thm paste by mixing with water to the required consistency, about
96 per cent by weight of powdered cast iron and 4 per cent of sal-
ammoniac. This paste should be carefully appHed, preferably in
two coats with a stiff brush, as it is necessary for it to adhere to the
concrete to be effective.
A solution of water glass (about 5 per cent) when applied as a
coating to a surface containing lime will form a hard, impervious
finish by the chemical action between the lime and the alkaline
sihcate or water glass. On concrete it is rather difficult to accomplish
this action because the lime is not free to get at.
Surface Coatings for Masonry. A liquid, waterproof, surface
coating, consists of the following formula: 70 per cent of asphalt,
30 per cent of turpentine substitute or other petroleum product.
The petroleum product should be added while the asphalt is hot.
The mixture can then be applied cold with a brush. It may also be
mixed as an integral compound in mass concrete or mortar in quanti-
ties ranging between 5 and 10 per cent by weight of cement.
A plastic form of waterproof surface coating may be made as
follows: Pine creosote oil, about 40 per cent; fiber asbestos, 30 per
cent; pine pitch 30 per cent. The pitch and oil must be cooked
together and the asbestos added while the mixture is hot. This
material is viscous enough to be troweled on the masonry and can
be applied to a wet or dry surface.
A durable, tough, and elastic compound that can be used for
both roof coverings and flashings consists of a good grade of refined
asphalt mixed with from 5 to 25 per cent of stearine pitch. The
proportion is governed by the consistency desired and the melting-
point of the asphalt.
The following surface coating will remain plastic and elastic for
a long time. It is applied cold, by troweling on the surface to be
waterproofed. Hot elaterite, about 85 per cent; mixed with about
15 per cent of castor oil or cotton-seed oil. If a little gutta percha is
added, the compound is considerably improved.
An impervious surface coating for industrial concrete wash basins,
etc., can be obtained by rubbing the inside surface with a cement
brick just after removing the forms. This brick can be made of a
1 : 2 mortar. While rubbing, the concrete surface should be sprinkled
constantly with water; this will form a paste over the surface and

tend to fill the pores. Two or three rubbings in this manner will
produce a very impervious surface.
Dampproofing for Brick Walls.* In applying the following com-
pounds all dampness of the wall must first be allowed to dry up as
much as possible. The process of dampproofing then proceeds as
follows: One coat of boiled linseed oil is first applied over the wall
and all joints. All holes are then puttied up with a paste composed
of pure hnseed oil and whiting, colored with fine brick dust or Vene-
tian red. Venetian red, thinned with equal parts of boiled linseed
oil and turpentine, is then applied as a second coat. Finally a third
coat of red oxide and drier is apphed as a finish coat. The color
may be changed from a red to any desirable tint using white lead as
the base, tinting with oil color to suit.
Another formula is as follows: Venetian red mixed with skim
milk (casein). The action of the hme base in the Venetian red will
make the curd of the milk insoluble in water. Should the Venetian
red be free from lime, then lime water, whiting or quick hme must
be added to the milk before mixing the Venetian red with it. (To
ascertain whether the Venetian red contains whiting or hme, a portion
of it is dropped in some commercial sulphuric acid, and if the red
powder does not effervesce, lime in the form needed is not present,
and the aforesaid alkaline addition must be made.) If the color
is to be waterproofed, however, to each gallon thereof must be added
one-half gallon boiled linseed oil and well stirred. Both these mix-
tures, when properly made, will not wash off for years.
A water-shedding, dampproofing compound for brick and con-
crete masonry may be made by mixing about 80 per cent of kerosene
with 10 per cent of acetone and 10 per cent of creosote. This com-
pound should be applied with a brush and thoroughly rubbed in on
a clean surface. It tends to fill the pores of the masonry and shed
water from the surface.
A damp-resisting paint can be made by mixing, until solution is
effected, melted Manila or Copal gum with linesed oil or China wood
oil ; this mixture is then dissolved in benzol or naphtha. It is applied
with a brush in several coats. For a top coat it is well to evaporate
more of the gum and add more of the drying oil. The compoimd
may also be mixed with any desired pigment.
Stone Preserving Compositions, f With the following liquid
compound it is possible to preserve a brownstone front against the
* " 739 Paint Questions Answered," published by The Painters' Magazine of
New York in 1904.
t " Scientific American Cyclopedia of Formulas," 1915.

weather without altering its appearance, its stony aspect not being
altered by the liquid after it has penetrated and dried. Ten gallons
of thinning Hquid, such as fish oil, or linseed oil, mixed with 2 pounds
dry zinc white, and 5 pounds powdered brown oxide. Before apply-
ing the hquid, the surfaces should be brushed clean with wire brushes.
Paraffin is the best material for rendering natural stones, con-
crete and brick-work impervious to water. If dissolved in the pro-
portion of one-third paraffin and two-thirds kerosene, it remains
soft longer and penetrates the stone further. Paraffin is unaltered
by weather or acids. If carefully melted in, it does not change the
color of the stone; it simply deepens the color like water. It is
cheap, easily applied and efficacious. It is most easily appUed in
hot weather.
Leaks in concrete walls can be stopped by enlarging the cracks
and applying a hot mixture of Portland cement and caustic soda,
which sets almost instantly. The concrete around the leak should
be cut out so that the hole or groove is larger at the base than at the
surface. The hot paste is then apphed rapidly with gloved hands,
first against one side of the cavity and then successively around the
sides of the cavity until it is completely closed. The soda should
be mixed with little water and be boiling hot when the cement is
added in amounts enough to make a stiff paste.*
Treatment for Tanks
Preserving Concrete Tanks from Commercial Liquids, f The
following fluids may be stored in tanks made of plain dense con-
crete of 1 : 2 : 4 mix without causing any deterioration in the con-
crete: Menhaden oil, Unseed oil, rosin oil, 4 per cent caustic soda
solution, tanning solution, and sauerkraut.
For safely storing sulphite liquor and cider vinegar in concrete
tanks, the only satisfactory method found to protect the concrete
from disintegration is by applying a surface coat of an oil-gilsonite
compound. This compound is made by dissolving 100 parts, by
weight, of gilsonite in 250 parts of turpentine, and adding 5 parts
of neutral petroleum oil. At ordinary temperatures, with frequent
stirring, about twenty-four hours will be required for a perfect
* Engineering Record, March 3, 1917.
t Results of a series of tests, extending over a period of more than a year,
made for the Portland Cement Association to determine the effects of commercial
liquids on concrete tanks, by the Institute of Industrial Research, Washington,
D. C. Reported in Engineering Record, Vol. 74, No. 16, October 14, 1916.

solution. Two coats of this mixture should be applied with a bnish
to the inner surface allowing at least twenty-four bom's for each
to dry.
For safely storing molasses in concrete tanks, in a manner so that
neither the molasses nor the concrete is injured, the inner surface
should be well protected with two coats of Bakelite varnish. Con-
centrated brines may similarly be stored in concrete tanks by coat-
ing the inside with two layers of the above-mentioned oil-gilsonite
compound between which is placed an asphalt-treated fabric.
Upon this one-ply membrane should be placed a 1 : 2 cement mortar
coating, and the latter painted with two coats of Bakelite.
Cement to Resist Benzine and Petroleum.* Gelatine mixed
with glycerine yields a liquid compound when hot, but which
solidifies on cooling, and forms a tough, elastic substance, having
much the appearance and characteristics of India rubber. The
two substances unite to form a mixture absolutely insoluble in pe-
troleum or benzine, and the problem of making casks impervious to
these fluids may be solved by brushing or painting them on the
inside with this compound. Water must not be used with this
compound.
Wooden and Iron Tanks Made Watertight. Wooden tanks should
first be drained well and permitted to dry out thoroughly. Then
the hoops must be tightened and
the inside be given a coat or two
of hot paraffin oil or melted paraffin
wax, applied while hot. This done,
the iron or steel hoops should receive
a coat of red lead and the outside of
the tank one or two coats of good,
elastic oil paint of any color desired, f
Joints in iron tanks that have
opened up can be sealed effectively
by calking with proper tools (see
Fig. 115). This operation consists
Fig. 115.— Calking Operation with in beating down the edges of the
Hand or Pneumatic Calking metal against the face of the opposite
Tools. plate. The round -nosed calking
tool is usually employed in modern
practice. A more effective way of callcing is with lead wool hammered
* " Scientific American Cyclopedia of Formulas," 1915.
t " 739 Paint Questions Answered," published by The Painters' Magazine
of New York in 1904,

into the joint. Coating the outside of the joint with a thick apphca-
tion of a hard, tough asphalt or a sealing w-.x of a similar nature,
is also effective except for hot-water tanks. Both of these materials
must be applied on a properly cleaned surface.
A preserving varnish for wood and metal tanks is easily made by
mixing three parts of pure asphalt (solid or hquid variety) with four
parts of boiled linseed oil and from fifteen to eighteen parts of
turpentine.
Floor Treatments
Concrete Floor Hardener. The following formula is used for
hardening concrete floors: Powdered pig iron mixed with about
2 per cent, by weight, of salammoniac. This mixture may be
floated on a partially set concrete surface which is thereby hardened
for a depth of a fraction of an inch, but it is not very durable. The
mixture may also be combined with Portland cement in equal
proportions by weight to form a mortar that is applied, about
f inch thick on a clean surface of concrete. This mortar coat will
create a dense and impervious floor if properly and carefully applied.
A serious objection to the use of this formula is the frequent discol-
oration of the surfaces treated due to the uneven distribution and
oxidation of the powdered metal.
Wooden Floor and Flooring Made Watertight.* Flooring
may be made impermeable by being painted with a solution of
parafHn wax dissolved in kerosene. The coat will last for about
two years.
RooriNGS
Roofing Paper.f Old newspapers or sheets of wrapping paper
in good condition may be converted into waterproof roofing material
by coating them with hot coal-tar pitch or asphalt with a brush,
and uniting two or more sheets. These mats can then be apphed
to a roof, shingle fashion, creating a cheap but good roofing for sheds
and shanties and for temporary, small constructions.
Roofing Cement. A waterproof bituminous cement for binding
roofing felt, one that will not flow readily in the summer's heat,
may be made by mixing one part of burnt lime (but not siaked)
with seven parts of coal tar, both by weight. The lime is powdered
t " Scientific American Cyclopedia of Formulas," 1915,

and sprinkled into the hot tar, with which it mixes intimately. The
mixture hardens on coohng and therefore must be applied hot.
Waterproof Cements
Adhesives. The following waterproof cements can be made with
but little difficulty or previous experience:*
(1) Shellac, 4 ounces; broax, 1 ounce; boiled in a httle water
until dissolved, and concentrated by heat to a paste.
(2) Carbon bisulphide, 10 parts; oil of turpentine, 1 part;
mixed with as much gutta-percha as will readily dissolve in the
mixture.
(3) Tar, 1 part; tallow, 1 part; fine brick dust, 1 part; the
latter should first be warmed over a very gentle fire; the tallow
added, then the tar, and the whole thoroughly mixed. This com-
pound must be applied while hot.
(4) "Good quality gray clay, 4 parts; black oxide of manganese,
6 parts; lime, reduced to powder by sprinkling with water, 90
parts; the combination mixed, calcined and powdered.
(5) A very strong cement, but one which requires to be applied
directly after being made as it sets very quickly, is the following:
Quicklime, 5 parts; fresh cheese, 6 parts; water, 1 part. The lime
is slaked by sprinkling with water; thereupon it is passed through
a sieve, and the fresh cheese is added. The latter is prepared by
curdling milk with a little vinegar and removing the whey.
(6) A cement adapted for joining stone, metal, wood, etc., can
be made as follows: Fresh curd, as before, 1 part; Roman (natural)
cement, 3 parts. This must be well mixed and quickly applied.
(7) A cementing paste composed of hydraulic lime and dissolved
water glass will withstand the action of heat as well as water.
(8) Glue, 1 part; black rosin, 1 part; red ochre, j part; mixed
with the least possible quantity of water.
(9) Glue, 4 parts; boiled linseed oil, 1 part; oxide of iron, 1 part
all by weight and well mixed together.
(10) A good cement is made by mixing about 7 parts of htharge
and 93 parts of burned clay or whiting together reduced to a fine
powder and made into a paste with linseed oil.
t (11) A cement may be formed by mixing into a paste freshly
calcined oyster shell lime, well sifted and ground fine with white of
egg.
t " 739 Painters Questions Answered," Painters' Magazine, New York.
PRACTICAL RECIPES ANP SPECIAL FORMULAS 321

(12) Four parts, by weight, of shellac boiled with 1 part, by-
weight, of borax in water until the shellac is dissolved. This mix-
ture should be kept boiling until it is of a paste-like consistency.
To use this paste it must be heated and applied with a clean brush.
(13) For many odd and varied purposes, commercial sealing wax
will prove a very good wg,terproof cement. It consists of hard
resinous materials, such as lac, with some form of pigment, as ver-
milion. Beeswax alone or mixed with a fine mineral dust can also
be used to advantage.
Waterproof Cement for Leather.* A waterproof cerrent for
leather is prepared by dissolving gutta-percha, caoutchouc, benzoin,
shellac, mastic t and similar materials, in some convenient solvent
like carbon disulphide, chloroform, ether or alcohol. The best
solvent, however, in the case of gutta-percha is carbon bisulphide,
and ether for mastic. The most favorable proportions are as follows:
Gutta-percha 200 to 300 parts to 100 pr.rts of the solvent, and 75 to
85 parts of mastic to 100 parts of ether. From 5 to 8 parts of the
foimer solution mixed with 1 part of the latter and boiled in a water
bath to any consistency desired makes a good cement.
Waterproof Compounds for Textile Fabrics-J Textile fabrics
can be made waterproof by succesrive impregnations with a solution
of soap and a solution of ahun. Or, by successive impregnations
with a solution of alumina sulphate (made by dissolving in ten times
its weight of water), and a soap solution composed of 1 ounce light-
colored rosin, 1 ounce of crystallized soda, boiled together in 10
ounces of water until dissolved. Also by impregnation, first with a
solution of ammoniacal cupric sulphate of 10 deg. Baum^ at 77 deg.
Fahr. (25 deg. Cent.) then, with a solution of caustic soda of 20
deg. Baume. Increased impermeability will be obtained by using
sulphate alumina iii place of caustic soda. To watei-proof one side
of cloth, it must be imbued on the wrong side with a solution of
isinglass, alum, and soap in equal parts each dissolved separately,
and made into a solution with sufficient water. Another method is
to impregnate the fabric with hot, molten paraffin.
Sheets of canvas or tarpaulins may be made waterproof by paint-
ing the surface? with or dipping them in a mixture of coal tar,
gasoline and a good Japan drier in the proportion of 5 : 1 : 1.
* " The Manufacture of ^'arnishes and Kindred Industries,'' by Livache
and Mcintosh, Vol. 3, p. 376.
t A form of resin secreted by shrubby trees cultivated on the island of Chios
in the Greek Archipelago.
t " Scientific American Cyclopedia of Formulas," 1915, Munn & Co., Inc.
Waterproof Compound for Drawing and Tracing Sheets.*
Drawing and tracing sheets can be made waterproof, so that they
may be used in wet places, as in mines, for instance, by the applica-
tion, to one or both sides, of a preparation composed of rubber and
benzol. The preparation is made by dissolving a quantity of pure
rubber in benzol and thinning down with more benzol to any desired
consistency. The rubber first swells enormously and in about
twenty-four hours is ready for use. For use as a waterproof adhe-
sive the solution should be fairly stiff. Only the pure gum rubber
is satisfactory for this purpose.
* Engineering News-Record, Vol. 81, No. 13, September 26, 1918, p. 597.
CHAPTER X
WATERPROOFING APPLIED
Waterproofing applied forms an important part of waterproof-
ing engineering and also a very interesting one. It describes accom-
plishment in the field. Chemical analyses and physical tests of
waterproofing materials are important but they are, after all, mostly
accelerated tests. Service is the real " acid test " for all waterproof-
ing materials and their apphcation. The best criterion of the rela-
tive merits of the various materials and systems of waterproofing
discussed in previous chapters is their efficacy and endurance in
service. Many secret and patented compounds and various types
of waterproofing cannot be fairly judged in any other way than by
their past performences. In fact, certain grades of asphalt have won
favor and preferance for waterprbofing purposes by no other means
than past service. Coal-tar pitch is extensivelj'^ used for water-
proofing underground structures for the same reason. On the other
hand, many integral and surface-coating compounds proved their
unworth in this manner though apparently successful in the labora-
tory. The grouting process of waterproofing is advancing rapidly
now only because of its efficiency as proved in service.
In this chapter will be found practical instances of each of the
six systems of waterproofing previously discussed ; also the standard
and special materials used, the methods of application and where
possible the degree of success obtained.
Examples of Surface Coating Applications
Water Storage Works, U. S. Reclamation Service. The storage
works and tunnel connected with the Strawberry Valley Project *
in the U. S. Reclamation Service are located in the Wasatch Moun-
tains at an elevation of 7500 feet, sui rounded by mountains, some of
which reach an elevation of 10,000 feet above sea level. There is a
wide variation in temperature in this vicinity during the entire
* Enginerring News, Vol. 73, No. 15, April, 1915.
323
year, and the climate is very severe during the winter months, the
lowest temperature on record being 50 deg. Fahr-. below zero. The
snowfall ranges from 10 feet in low years to 24 feet in high years.
On account of these conditions of extreme cold, with alternate thaw-
ing and freezing, the action of water and frost on concrete that is
not impervious is very marked. It was therefore decided to treat
the concrete with some sort of preventive against absorption of water
by the surfaces exposed.
A study was made of the various waterproofing processes in com-
mon practice. Because the structures had been completed, and in
view of the extraordinary conditions, it was decided to treat the verti-
cal surfaces with alum and soap solutions (Sylvester process) and the
horizontal ones with paraffin.
The alum solution was made by dissolving 2 ounces of alum in
1 gallon of hot water. The soap solution was composed of | pound
of castile soap dissolved in 1 gallon of hot water. The paraffin
was boiled to rid it of any water content, as the presence of water
rendered it hard to apply. Ordinary commercial products were
used.
The surface to be treated with paraffin was first entirely freed from
all moisture, loose concrete, dirt aftd other foreign substances. The
paraffin was then heated and applied to the surface of the concrete
with a paint brush and was forced into the pores by flashing the
flame of a blow torch over the surface.
In the application of the alum and soap (which produces an in-
soluble aluminum stearate in the pores and on the surface of the
concrete), the surface of the concrete was first prepared in the same
manner as for the paraffin treatment. The alum solution was
then applied at a temperature of 100 deg. Fahr. with a moderately
stiff brush, and was then worked in with a stiff horse-brush. While
the surface was still moist from this treatment the hot soap solutiiDn
was applied in the same manner. One treatment with each solution
in the manner described above constituted a coal. If other coats
were deemed necessary, they were applied in a manner similar to the
first coat, after the preceding coat had been allowed to stand twenty-
four hours or more. The work of application was carried on by two
men, one applying the solution and the other following and working
it in as described above.
No actual tests were made to determine the imperviousness of
the concrete after treatment, but the structures that were repaired
and treated have gone through two severe winters and no further
disintegration of the concrete on any part thereof has occurred.
WATERPROOFING APPLIED 325

Gate Houses of Croton Reservoir.* In the New York City
Croton Reservoir the face walls of the back bays of gate houses were
built of hard-burnt brick laid in cement mortar. A space between
the walls 4 feet wide was filled with concrete. The brick walls were
12 inches thick and 40 feet high and irapo\mded water under a
head of 36 feet. When the reservoir was first filled and water let
into the gate houses, it filtered through the walls to a considerable
amount.
The Sylvester process for repelling moisture from external walls
was used to waterproof the walls of these gate houses. This con-
sisted of two washes or solutions for covering the surface of brick
walls, one composed of castile soap and water and one of alum and
water. The proportions were f pound of soap to 1 gallon of water;
and J pound of alum to 4 gallons of water, both substances being
perfectly dissolved in the water before being used.
The first, or soap wash was applied, at boiling heat, with a flat
brush, taking care not to form a froth on the brick work. This
wash remained twenty-four hours so as to become dry and hard
before the second or alum wash was applied ; which was done in the
same manner as the first. The temperature of this wash when
applied was between 60 and 70 deg. Fahr. At least twenty-four
hours elapsed before a second coat of the soap wash was put on.
These coats were repeated alternately until the walls were made im-
pervious to water. Four coatings rendered the brick wall imperme-
able under a pressure of 40-foot head. The cost was about ten cents
per square foot for four coats.
Retaining Walls, Rock Island Failrcad. The retaining walls
and abutments on the Chicago track elevation work of the Rock
Island Railroad Lines are waterproofed with a coal-tar pitch com-
position applied to the back of the walls. The expansion joints of
these walls were waterproofed by placing a strip of burlap and felt
over each joint and mopped with the same composition. Later
observations showed these coatings to be satisfactory.
Beaver Park Dam.f The Beaver Park Dam in Colorado is a
masonry structure of the rock-fill type. It was made watertight
by the application of reinforced concrete facing to its upstream
face, as indicated in Fig. 116. This concrete face was placed with
no rods or ties to secure it to the rubble face of the dam, as the
interstices in the rubble face were depended upon to give sufficient
* Abstract of Paper read before the American Society of Civil Engineers by
Mr. Wm. L. Deardon, May 4, 1870.
t Engineering News, Vol. 73, April 8, 1915.
326
bond between the concrete and the hand-laid wall. The concrete
is reinforced horizontally and vertically with wire fabric of diamond
mesh, the main wires being No. 4 gauge,'spaced 5 inches apart. No
expansion joints were provided, and although the concrete face has
been exposed to severe temperature conditions, few or no tempera-
ture cracks have occurred.
The concrete in the lower portion of the wall forming the water
face and in the gate tower was of 1:2:4 mixture, the aggregate
consisting of crushed trachite, while the upper portion of the wall
and tower was made of a mixture consisting of practically equal parts
of sand and gravel. Up to a point about 20 feet below the crest,
a calcium-oleate waterproofing compound was added to the water
used to gauge the mixture. The specifications provided that one part
El J04 |*-16-H Uubblo Maaonrj laid

. El ISS^^s^t/ in Cement Mortar
~ Roiaforocd Conorote
Floor
14: i Slope, Hubble

JAMOnrj pointed
^th Cement Mettar
SPILLWAY SECTION
MAIN SECTION
Fig. 116. — Sections through Beaver Park Dam Showing Waterproof Facings.
of the compound was to be added to an equal amount of water

and thoroughly dissolved, after which eleven more parts of water
were to be added, and this solution used in mixing the concrete for
all 24-inch walls and a somewhat weaker solution for thinner walls.
The results obtained by using this compound seemed so unsatis-
factory to the engineer, , that its use was ordered discontinued, and
extra cement was added to the concrete at the same cost, which gave
much better results.
Queensboro (Steinway) Tunnel. The Queensboro tunnel in
New York City (formerly known as the Steinway tunnel), is about
80 feet below ground-water level in water-bearing rock. In its
reconstruction the stations were enlarged and waterproofed. It was
proposed to waterproof one very large station by the membrane
system, and two remaining small ones by the surface-mortar-coating
system. The membrane was to consist of six plies of treated fabric
laid in coal-tar pitch and applied over the arch as shown in Fig. 117.
For lack of head room and on account of the great expense involved
in securing this head room the membrane was not installed. In-
327
stead, a waterproofed surface mortar-coat was applied. In 1916

the two small stations and a portion of the very large station were
treated with a 1-inch mortar coat, waterproofed with a proprietary
liquid compound composed of a mixture of calcium chloride and a
Proposed 6 ply waterprocflng

membraDe, abaadoned for
lact of headrcom.
Pay line for

concrete.
Fig. 117. — Typical Half-section through Station.
carbohydrate and applied with a trowel on the inside of the arch and
sides. This surface mortar coat contained about 7 per cent of the
waterproofing liquid (added to the gauging water) was easy to apply
but troublesome after apphcation, required repairing, and even then
it did not remain entirely impervious thereafter. In 1917 the remain-

ing and major portion of the large station was waterproofed by the
appUcation of a similar mortar coat f inch thick, made of a 1:2
mixture containing an alum-goap paste compound mixed In the pro-
portion of one part paste to fifteen parts of gauging water. As a
result of this work the leakage was markedly reduced. Some blast-
ing in the vicinity may have contributed to the difficulty of making
these waterproofed mortar coats entirely impervious.
Nashville Water Works Reservoir. In repairing and water-
proofing the Nashville Water Works Reservoir * precaution was
taken against cracks opening at the junction of the new masonry
with the old, by using a flexible U-shaped, heavy, sheet-lead stop
joint. This was inserted by cutting a dove-tail groove in the con-
crete core from bottom to top of the ends of the old wall, and by
anchoring one end of the lead joint therein with rich concrete in
advance of the new masonry, but leaving the other end free. The
fold in the joint was protected with tar felt to assure free movement,
and the new masonry was built around the free end thereof. This
contrivance was simple, effective, of very little trouble, and inex-
pensive. See Fig. 118. For waterproofing the interior face of the
walls, the cement gun was used and the work proceeded in the fol-
lowing manner: The walls were first thoroughly cleaned of all
scale and foreign matter by means of pneumatic-hammer chisels
so as to afford sound stone faces for the mortar. By the same
means the old mortar joints were gouged out to depths varying from
1 to 3 inches for the cement-gun mortar. The walls were then
Ganrl -blasted and sprayed immediately in advance of the cement-
gun, resulting in clean, sound, stone faces and mortar joints.
The cement-gun mortar, composed of one volume of Portland
cement to three volumes of clean sand, followed right behind the sand
blasting and spraying before the walls could dry. The whole
interior of the walls, including the new masonry, was thus coated
and made watertight.
Before laying the asphalt-treated felt membrane used to water-
proof the floor, the old concrete floor was carefully cleaned and
flushed off with a powerful stream, and all loose scale removed. All
rough places and sharp depressions were then filled and brought to a
smooth plane with rich cement mortar. After thoroughly drying,
the floor was well painted with a priming coat of asphalt dissolved
in naphtha. This was followed with a very heavy coat of asphalt
heated to a temperature of about 325 deg. Fahr. The asphalt-
treated felt followed closely behind this mop coat, in alternate layers
* Engineering News, Vol. 73, May 6, 1915.
329
of felt and heavy mop coats. Each layer of felt was carefully rolled
down before the succeeding coat and next layer of felt were applied,
care being taken to squeeze out all the air bubbles. The felt over-
Brick Parapet ] | — i'

wau Nr*^ ^
6Ply-
Existiag Floor
Kew Concrete
SECTION SHOWING WEDGE
JOINT AT OUTSIDE WALL
SECTION SHOWING
JOINT AT DIVISION WALL
imm
Fig. 118. — Showing Waterproofing Details of NashviUe Reservoir Wall and

Floor.
lapped and broke joints 3 inches on longitudinal edges and 10 or

12 inches on ends. Five layers of the felt were employed, ending
with a heavy mop coat all over the top.

The reservoir, repaired as above described, was for all practical
purposes watertight for over two years. In May, 1916, it was
emptied during the warm weather for cleaning. During the process
of cleaning and removing the mud out of the basin, the cement-gun
mortar was exposed to the sun's rays, and badly checked and cracked.
These defects were corrected by cutting the mortar out of all visible
checks and cracks to the original masonry. These cut-out cracks
were then filled with cement gun-mortar. A water curtain was
then provided to sprotect the walls from the effect of the sun's rays.
This was accomplished by means of a perforated pipe laid around
the inner edge of the top of the wall, from which the water trickled
down and spread over the mortar lining. By these means, the basin
was again made watertight.
The Hudson-Manhattan Tunnels.* Wherever work was executed
by open-cut methods on the Hudson-Manhattan Tunnels, between
New York and New Jersey, the structure was waterproofed with
treated fabric and coal-tar pitch applied in the usual manner, making
a complete envelope around it. As the greatest part of this work,
however, was executed by tunnel methods this manner of waterproof-
ing was not feasible except in small portions of the work. The
method adopted, therefore, was invariably to grout with Portland
cement in the rear of the cast-iron ring lining or concrete lining, and
in the majority of cases this application answered the purpose of
making the tunnels perfectly watertight. Owing to the impervious-
ness of neat cement this was the only waterproofing adopted
on the coffer-dam walls of the Church Street terminal and
approaches.
In the iron-lined sections of the tunnel all joints of the plate
segments were made watertight by grommetting the bolts with flax
and red lead under the bolt washers, and calking the spaces between
the joints of the plate lining with a thread of lead wool, followed up
and supported with rust-joint cement. Throughout the concrete
work, waterproofing was done by plastering the internal and exposed
surface with one of the usual types of waterproofing compounds
mixed with neat Portland cement and applied with a trowel, this
method answering admirably in a majority of cases. At the same
time, in persistent leaks, it was found necessary to cut right back
into the concrete and expose the voids and then reconstruct such
portion of concrete with a rich mixture of cement. As a general
rule, for waterproofing of concrete work a rich mixture of cement in
* " Subways and Tunnels of New York," by G. H. Gilbert, Lucius I. \Vight-
man and W. L. Saunders.

the concrete with thorough and efficient ramming answered the
purpose and constituted the only waterproofing used.
Reinforced Concrete Standpipe. At Attleboro, Mass., a large
reinforced concrete standpipe, 50 feet in diameter, 106 feet high from
the inside of the bottom to the top of the cornice, and with a capacity
of 1,500,000 gallons, has been constructed and is in the service of the
waterworks of that city. The walls of the standpipe are 18 inches
at the bottom, and 8 inches at the top. A mixture of 1 part cement,
2 parts sand, and 4 parts broken stone, the stone varying f rom j inch
to 1| inches, was used. The forms were constructed, and the con-
crete placed, in sections of 7 feet. When the walls of the tank had
been completed, there was some leakage at the bottom with a head
of water of 100 feet. The inside walls were then thoroughly cleaned
and picked and four coats of plaster applied. The first coat con-
tained 2 per cent of hydrated lime to 1 part of cement and 1 part
of sand; the remaining three coats were composed of 1 part sand. to
1 part cement. Each coat was floated until a hard, dense surface
was produced; then it was scratched to receive the succeeding coat.
On filling the standpipe after the four coats of plaster had been
applied, the standpipe was found to be not absolutely watertight.
The water was drawn out; four coats of a solution of castile soap
and one of alum (Sylvester process) were applied alternately,
and under a 100-foot head, onlj^ a few leaks then appeared. Prac-
tically no leakage occurred at the joints; but in several instances a
mixture somewhat wetter than usual was used, with the result that
the spading and ramming served to drive the stone to the bottom
of the batch being placed, and, as a consequence, in these places,
porous spots occurred. The joints were obtained by inserting
beveled tonguing pieces, by thoroughly washing the joints and
covering them with a layer of thin grout before placing additional
concrete.
Examples of Membrane Applications
East View Timnel.* Tunnels are usually not waterproofed by the
membrane system because of the difficulty of applying the membrane
and making it adhere to the ai'ch. Therefore the grouting process
is generally used. The surface-coating sj-stem can also be used
successfully, but the materials must be carefully chosen and apphed.
But it may be impossible to employ either of these systems with good
results because of the presence of disintegrating agents in the soil
* New York Board of Water Supply Report 1916, p. 135.

or rock through which the tunnel passes. Under such condition
the membrane syst,em is best used, and a case in point is the
following: A 1700-foot portion of the East View Tunnel of the New
York Catskill Aqueduct was built in rock containing iron pyrites
from which the compound, sulphuric anhydride (SO3) is dissolved by
the ground water, forming sulphuric acid. This solution, percolating
through the seams of the rock, attacked the limestone aggregate of
the concrete and also the cement sufficiently to cause disintegration
in the concrete lining of the tunnel. It was therefore decided to
waterproof this section by means of a 3-ply bituminous membrane.
The method pursued ih doing this work was as follows: To the
face of the partly disintegrated lining was nailed, shingle fashion, No.
28 gauge sheet iron. This acted as a shedding surface for the drip
and a dry-ply upon which the membrane was applied. The fabric,
which was 3 feet wide was cut up into 6-foot lengths preparatory
to applying same. Hot asphalt was mopped on the sheet iron over
an area equal to about half the width of the 6-foot strips. Then a
strip of fabric was applied (transversely to the center line of the
tunnel) and pressed into the binder. The other half of the strip
was similarly applied. The second and third plies were laid up like-
wise, the top ply receiving a final coating of asphalt on its entire
surface. Within and against this membrane a brick wall, 1 foot
thick, was built completely around the waterproofing.
On the completion of this work the cracks and crevices in the
semi-disintegrated concrete, and also the space between the sheet
iron and the concrete lining, were grouted. For this purpose 3-inch
pipes were attached to the sheet iron and waterproofed around the
joint before the brick wall was built. The results obtained by this
method of waterproofing the tunnel proved entirely satisfactory.
The asphalt used on this work was a Mexican refined asphalt
with a penetration of .55 cm. at 77 deg. Fahr. The fabric was a
saturated cotton drill. The asphalt was heated in the tunnel in a
rectangular kettle whose source of heat was a battery of gasoline
torch burners under it. The gas, contained in a tank under pressure,
consisted of about one part gasoline to four parts kerosene.
Long Island Railroad Subway. The Atlantic Avenue section
of the Long Island Railroad * in Brooklyn, N. Y., is built of con-
crete (see Fig. 119). The 5-foot arches, forming the roof are sup-
ported by transverse I-beams. This roof was waterproofed in the
following manner: After the concrete had thoroughly set and been
well dried out by the sun, the upper surface was swabbed over with
* " Modern Tunnel Practice," by D. McNeely Stauffer.
333
hot, medium-hard, coal-tar pitch such as will soften at a temperature

of 60 deg. Fahr., and melt at a temperature of 100 deg. Fahr. as deter-
mined by the cube-in-water method. The coal-tar pitch was put
on until it had a uniform thickness of not less than ys inch. Imme-
diately upon the first coat, and while it was still melted, was laid
1-ply of felt, lapping at least 4 inches on all cross-joints, and at least
12 inches upon all longitudinal joints. The felt was at once covered
with a uniform thickness of the coal-tar pitch, and upon that was laid
a second ply of felt which was also covered by not less than ys inch
of coal-tar pitch. This membrane extended over the ends aiid down
street Grade
Slope l":6'
^l"Cement Waterproofing
} Cross-section through-Manhole. J Cross-section between Manholes.

Fig. 119. — Cross-section of Atlantic Avenue Subway, Brooklyn, New York.
the sides, as shown in the cross-section. After the waterproofing

had thoroughly hardened, a 1-inch layer of Portland cement mortar
was laid uniformly over it with a trowel. This mortar coat was laid
in 5-foot squares alternately for the purpose of providing for expan-
sion and contraction. The work was accomplished without difficulty
and with very good results.
Manhattan-Bronx Rapid Transit Subway. The first Rapid
Transit Subway in New York City built and finished between 1900-
1903, was waterproofed with a membrane composed of two to eight
plies of felt, each mopped with hot asphalt, as laid. On several
sujall sections of the subway, the felt waterproofing was made more
S34 WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING

effective by the application of one or two courses of hard-burnt
brick laid in hot asphalt mastic. This was generally against the
2-ply membrane. The membranous waterproofing on the exterior
surfaces of the masonry shell made it unnecessary to provide an
extensive system of drains or sump pits of any magnitude, for the
collection and removal of water from the interior of the subway.
A few leaks have developed, mainly due to enlarged cracks, which
required extensive repairs; but in general the waterproofing is good
after twelve years' service.
The Dual Subway System, New York City.* Two types of water-
proofing were used on the 48 miles of new two-, three-, and four-
track subways, viz., the bituminous membrane and the brick-in-
mastic envelope (the latter, described under examples of mastic
applications), the former on the roof between stations and on side
walls at stations when above mean high or ground water; the latter
both at and between stations on roof, side walls and floor when below
mean high or ground water. See Table XXI for details.
The fabric used for the membrane was 7| and 8 ounces open-
mesh, jute burlap saturated and coated with bitumen. •
The application of the membrane to the roof is typical of its
general use on the entire structure. The concrete roof was swept
clean and all surface projections chipped away. The smooth sur-
face, if dry, was then carefully mopped with coal-tar pitch, using
ordinary wash mops for this purpose. The treated fabric was care-
fully unrolled on the mopped surface (see Fig. 120) stretched across
the entire width of the subway, where possible, overlapping IJ feet
on either side. As it was unrolled it was pressed into the still hot
coal-tar pitch and its surface mopped. A bond with the first coat
of binder on the concrete surface was thus made through the open-
mesh of the fabric. A second ply of fabric was then applied so
that it broke joint either at the middle or at the one-third point of the
width of the fabric. The surface of this layer was similarly mopped.
A third strip of fabric was applied, breaking joint over the second
and carefully pressed into the still hot binder. This process con-
tinued until the required number of plies were laid. The surface of
the top ply then received a final coating of binder, leaving it smooth.
The waterproofing membrane that was thus formed was allowed to
cool after which a 4-inch protective coat of concrete was placed
thereon extending over the entire width of the subway.
* Public Service Record, published by the Public Service Commission for
the State of New York, First District, November, 1915, D, L. Turner, Chief
Engineer.
33^
At the time of its a])plic:ituiii the pitch had a tcmperatuie of

325 cleg. Fahr. in warm weather and 375 cleg. Fahr. in cold weather.
No waterproofing was done during an air temperature below
34 deg. Fahr.
A few leaks developed during construction, but almost without
exception proved to be due to careless workmanship, such as tares
or punctures or foot-scjuare holes accidentia' left unwaterproofed
on the removal of struts and shores.
Fig. 120. — Showing Method of Ap]ilying Treated Fabric on Roof of .Subway.

(Note RoUs of Fabru'. Pitch-carrying Pails, and 3iIop.)
Bergen Hill Tunnels, Pennsylvania Railroad.* In waterproofing

the Bergen Hill tunnels of the Pennsylvania Railroad System,
three general t3'pes of construction for the arch were decided on,
as shown in Fig. 121. The first, as shown at A, was to be used where
the tunnel was quite dr}'. In this type the sand wall was omitted
entirely and the concrete and rock packing were built up together,
the rock packing impinging to a certain extent on the concrete and the
concrete squeezing somewhat into the rock [lacking. The section
shown at B was used where the tunnels were damp or where there
were slight droppers, not forming a continuous stream. The back
lagging of 1-inch boards, which was left in place provided a practically
smooth outer surface on the concrete arch and allowed the concrete
and rock packing to be built almost simultaneously. It was con-
* Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 6S, p. 142.
336
sidered that the free drainage through the rock packing, the surface
of the boards and the smooth outer surface of the concrete in the
arch would allow the comparatively small quantity of water in these
parts of the tunnel to find its way to the sides, thence to the ditches
at the bottom, rather than percolate through the concrete. This
proved to be very generally the case, as is shown by the dry condition
of the tunnel as built. The back lagging was used over the arch,
Method of
lapping MatB
DETAILS OF WATERPROOFING
One layer of felt with 4" overlap to
be nailed to lagging of inch boards,
using tin washers on nails over the
whole of the intrados of the arch be-
fore starting any concrete or placing
any of the permanent felt and pitch
waterproofing. The waterproofing
over the arch can be laid in mats of
three thicknesses of felt properly
joined together with pitch made as
shown diagrammatically at x.
Each of these mats of three-ply felt
will be overlapped half the width of
the mat, as shown diagrammatically
at J/.
Fig. 121. — Various Types of Arch Waterproofing Used on Bergen Hill Tunnels.
both where the sand wall was built and where it was omitted, as well
as being placed over the waterproofing of the arch as an armor
course where waterproofing was required. Where the sand walls
were built and waterproofed, and where the waterproofing was not
carried over the arch, the waterproofing was turned in at the top,
as shown at C.
The third method provided for waterproofing the whole of the
arch. This was the same as B except for the addition of the water-
proofing inside the back lagging. In placing this waterproofing,
the felt was cut in strips about 11 feet long (about 1 foot longer than
the length of a section of arch) and six thicknesses were cemented

together with hot coal-tar pitch. These mats were then laid, shingle-
fashion, as shown at D, up the sides of the arch until a space about
5 feet wide remained at the crown; shorter mats were then brought
out over this, laying them perpendicular to the axis of the tunnel.
Care was taken in making all laps, irrespective of the direction in
which the arch was built, so that they would lay ^^•ith the grade,
that is, so that the water would tend to flow over the edges of the
laps rather than against them.
The method of waterproofing that part of the timbered section
which was very wet is shown at F. A lagging of 1-inch boards
was nailed up the sides i^^nd to the soffit of the segmental timbering,
all the spaces outside of this lagging being carefully filled with rock
packing. Before starting any concrete work a single thickness of
waterproofing felt was nailed to the inner side of the lagging, wkich
not only served to protect the finished surfaces of the concrete
from the water which fell copiously from the roof, but also provided
a comparatively dry surface to which the regular 6-ply waterproofing
could be cemented with pitch and held in position while the concrete
was placed against it
Boston Tunnels.* A section of the Boston, Mass., subway con-
sists of two tunnels underneath the Fort Point Channel. These tun-
nels are built with an outer shell 9 inches thick made of Southern
long-leaf pine-wood segments and an inside concrete shell 2 feet thick
(minimum) with steel reinforcement. These tunnels are water-
proofed by the application of a bituminous membrane to the interior
of the wooden shell before placing the interior concrete fining (see
Fig. 122). This membrane consists of layers of treated cotton fabric
mopped with hot asphalt. Two layers are put on the invert and three
on the sides and arch. In applying the waterproofing to the sides
and arch, the first layer of cloth was mopped on one side with asphalt
and then nailed to the wooden fining with roofing nails, the mopped
side being against the wood. The second and third layers weje
then stuck on with successive moppings of hot asphalt. The result
afts;- three years' service is entirely satisfactory.
Waterproofing Railroad Viaducts. The following unique method
of waterproofing the Martins' Creek and Tunkhannock Viaducts
on the new line which the Lackawanna Raih-oad has recently built
west of Scranton, Penna., is described as follows by Mr. G. J. Ray,
Chief Engineer.! "The structures referred to were treated alike,
the same waterproofing materials being used in each case. The
* Engineering Record, August 21, 1915.
t Engineering News, Vol. 75. March 2, 1916.
338
floor system over each main arch is divided into three parts by four
transverse expansion joints — two adjacent to each pier and one at
each of the quarter points of the span. The floor is drained by
downspouts through all spandrel walls, excepting those at the
two intermediate expansion joints, and the drainage is discharged
into the openings between the two ribs of the main arch. The
drainage is prevented from flowing over the expansion joints by
dikes built across the floor (enlarged details are shown in Fig. 123).
" The waterproofing proper was done by using three plies of
saturated cotton fabric laid in hot asphalt. The concrete was first
Fig. 122.— Waterproofing is Placed against Wooden Lining and Outside of

Concrete on Shield-driven Tunnel, Boston, Mass.
mopped with the hot asphalt. The three layers of cloth were then
laid in the usual manner, each layer being mopped before the appUca-
tion of the succeeding layer. This waterproofing was carried up
the sides of the parapet wall to the top of the ties and directly across
all expansion joints, so that the waterproofing was in reahty continu-
ous from one end of the bridge to the other. At the expansion joints
one additional layer of the saturated fabric was laid across and
folded in the expansion joint beneath a copper flashing, similarly
laid, over which the three layers of waterproofing were placed. A
fold was provided in the waterproofing at the joints to provide
for expansion and the entire joint filled with the hot asphalt.
WATERPROOFIXG APPLIED
339
" As a protection to the waterproofing, asphalt-mastic mixed with

washed torpedo gravel, was apphed hot in two f-inch layers over the
entire area of the waterproofing. In order to avoid injury to the
waterproofing by the hot mastic, 1 ply of asbestos felt was first laid
SECTION B-B
SECTION A-A
Fig. 123. — Dike Form of Expansion Joint, and Details of Waterproofing on the
Martin's Creek Viaduct.
over the entire area of the membrane. An opening was left in the
mastic directly over the center of each expansion joint and filled with
the hot asphalt. The asphalt-mastic was used for protection in prefer-
ence to brick or concrete, since our experience elsewhere with this
mastic, under ballast, indicates that it does not crack and in reality

forms a secondary waterproofing surface on which the drainage
readily passes to the downspouts."
Terrace, United States Capitol. The pavement over the terrace
chambers of the United States Capitol at Washington, D. C, has
been made watertight by the membrane system after many failures
by other systems.*
Many methods of waterproofing have been tried on this great
expanse (about 200,000 square feet) of walk, to wit: felt and coal-
tar pitch, asphalt and burlap, sheet asphalt, etc. In 1906 a sheet-
lead pan was placed under one section. The sheet lead was bedded
in cement mortar on the base slab and was covered with a 3-inch
reinforced concrete slab and a 1-inch wearing surface. But even
this construction was of no avail, partly because of the extreme
expansion movement, partly because of unskilled burning of the sheet
joints and partly because of the inherent difficulties of flashing
around the vault light frames. The sheet lead on being uncovered
was found to be considerably pitted.
The expansion and contraction movements of the terrace struc-
ture are excessive, owing tjo wide variations in temperature and
extreme exposure. Insufficient provision was made for inevitable
expansion movement, and to this defect can be finally traced the
repeated failures to keep the terrace chambers watertight. Final
success was largely due to recognizing expansion difficulties and pro-
viding for such movement by watertight, sealed expansion joints.
Specifications were issued for this work in 1914. The notable
features of these specifications consisted (1) in securing a bituminous
compound having maximum adhesiveness and cohesion, (2) in using
small (1 square yard) freshly saturated cotton fabric sheets, with
wide laps, mopped into place and covered with protective masonry,
(3) in the free use of special expansion and flashing joints.
The material over the terraces was removed down to the con-
crete slab over the floor arches which disclosed numerous fractures
in the base slab. Each crack, treated as an expansion joint, was
cleaned out, heated with a gasoline torch, partly filled with a special
asphalt compound and tooled with a hot iron as shown in Fig. 124.
The slab was also cut for expansion joints, as shown in Fig. 125.
After the expansion joints were filled, the pavements were
brought up to subgrade by a filling of 1 : 3 : 6 concrete. Upon the
leveled subgrade was laid single sheets of impregnated cotton drill.
The sheets were 1 yard square and were laid with 2-inch laps. A small
area of subgrade was cleaned and mopped with hot compound just
* Engineering News, Vol. 76, No. 14, October 5, 1916.
341
previous to laying each sheet. The laps were made tight by follow-
ing with a hot smoothing iron. ITpon the membrane thus made there
was laid, as armor for the waterproofing and as a wearing surface,
a granohthic pavement (1:1:2 mixture with 5 to f inch washed
bluestone chips), marked off in scjuares. These squares were sepa-
rated by expansion joints continuous with the expansion joints in
the subbase, as shown in Fig. 125, also along the balustrades, vault
lights, and at every point where flashing would ordinarily have been
emploj'ed.
In waterproofing the expansion joints, the cut in the bottom slab
was heated, painted and partly filled with the asphaltic compound.
Then the membrane was brought down into the opening and the joint
pointed with mortar. The joint was covered with a patch strip
Fig. 124. — Slab Cracks Made into Expansim .Joints in Waterproofing the
Capitol Terraces, Washinst.iin, 1). C.
(see detail A" on Fig. 125), completing the lower half. When the
granolithic paving was laid, wood strips, tap-ered f to j inch, were
inserted as joint forms. When the concrete had set, the wood was
pulled out, the opening heated and partly filled with the compound.
The remaining space was pointed with mortar. In this way a covered
and sealed reservoir was created at each expansion joint. As the
structure contracts and expands, the mortar plug is drawn down or
forced out, the seal being preserved. After one summer's use the
joints were found all closed nearlj' tight, demonstrating that by use
of a thin plastic membrane underlying the wearing surface the latter
could be kept from spalling or cracking.
Manhattan and Brooklyn Railroad Viaducts. In building rail-
road viaducts through city streets, where space is usually very
valuable and scarce, and economy of operation the governing factor
in the type of structure required, it has become the practice to con-
struct the stations underneath the track level, instead of projecting
342
343
them into the side streets on a level with the tracks. This new
practice necessitates the portion of track floor or road bed directly-
over the station mezzanine to be perfectly watertight. To best
accomplish this the steel work at these locations of the elevated
|<-!Af>-j{^
_2l4i_
^■^.^Vi^-^'-'t^^r
' Waterproofingr shall be fluehed

, over braoketB and against girders
I to form a perfect seal.
CROSS SEQTION "A-B
N6.I8 Qalvanized wire lath l^^'meeh \

S'oVide, entire length. Waterproofing
CROSS SECTION OF CONCRETE DECK

PLAN SECTION AT BASE OF RAIL on through spans
8H0WINQ METHOD OF WATERPROOFING 4 PLAOINClt
OF PROTECTIVE CONCRETE
METHOD USED BY
NEW YORK MUNICIPAL- RAILWAY OORP.
ON BROADWAY ADDITIONAL TRACKS
BROOKLYN, NEW YORK
Fig. 126. — Method of Waterproofing Concrete Decks on Through Spans, Used
by the New York Municipal Railway Corporation.
structure should be designed free of bays and unnecessary connections,
and should also be encased in concrete. This concrete, forming the
roadbed, may be constructed in sections as shown in Fig. 128,
which is not advisable, or in monolithic form as shown in Figs. 126
344
and 127. A design very successful in this respect is used by the
New York Municipal Railway Corporation of Brooklyn, N. Y., on
several of its elevated lines (see Fig. 126).
Waterproofing on the concrete roadbeds over the mezzanine floors
of these stations consists of a 2-ply membrane composed of treated
cotton fabric and asphalt binder, applied over the concrete and lapped
on to the steel girders. Sometimes the ends of the membrane were
Fig. 127. — Section of Girder of Railroad Viaduct Showing Membrane Water-

proofing, Protective Concrete, and Drip Channel.
put into V-joints between the concrete and steel webs; these joints
were then filled with an adhesive, elastic, bituminous compound.
Over this membrane was placed a minimum of 4 inches of protective
concrete. This concrete is brought up the sides of the girders to the
top flange in monolithic form. This trough-type construction of
track floors has proved very succersful. A design even more efficient
than the above one, from the waterproofing standpoint, is shown
in Fig. 127. In this design a dripping surface is provided by the
345
substitution of a steel channel for one of the cover plates of the steel
girder. Fig. 128 shows the design of a steel and concrete roadbed
on a few railroad viaducts in New York City. The waterproofing
details, one of which is shown in Fig. 129, were not entirely-
adequate.
In connection with the design and construction of watertight steel
and concrete road beds of railroad viaducts it is proper to point out
to the engineer whose duty it is to design the waterproofing for such
locations that he would do well to carefully study the details connected
therewith. He knows, for instance, that the structure is subject to
i^y^y^^4li^ ^
j^ a Rods 6 Ctrs.
y, a Kods 1 6 Ctre.
Fig. 128. — Typical Construction of Mezzanine Roof on Elevated Railroad
Structures in New York City, Showing Location and Protection of Mem-
brane Waterproofing.
severe vibration; he should know, also, that a comparatively thin

layer of concrete or mortar is almost useless for the protection of
waterproofing under such conditions. He probably knows that only
the membrane or perhaps the surface-coating types of waterproofing
are serviceable for such a structure, but he should know also that
joints between steel and concrete can remain watertight only so long
as the joint filler remains plastic, though even this is doubtful, in view
of the difficulties experienced in the design lastly referred to.
Still another feature peculiar to such structures, as shown in Fig.
128, would be revealed by a careful study of details and that is, that

openings, large and small, crevices and pockets in the joints and
connections of the steel members which cannot be filled or covered
with the bed concrete, require calking. Or else the waterproofing
must be carried up the sides of the steel work, suitably protected
and high enough to effectually prevent the percolation of water
through the joints and connections. Unless either of these things is
done no amount or quality of waterproofing of the roadbed proper
will make the structure watertight.
The following is a case in point that has been brought to the
attention of the author and well illustrates the need for careful
study of waterproofing details. Fig. 128 is a cross-section through a
steel viaduct where a mezzanine floor, roadbed, and elevated plat-
form are shown.
The purpose of the concrete roadbed is to form a solid roof
protection for the structure underneath, and the concrete of the ele-
vated platform serves a like purpose. Now, it is rightly assumed by
the engineer that the concrete may crack in the course of time and
allow water to seep through to the mezzanine floor below. To
obviate this danger he specifies a 3-ply membrane to be laid on the
concrete, and covered with a 4-inch protective coat of concrete.
Realizing that the protective concrete cannot make a watertight
joint with the webs of the girders or beams, the concrete covering
is designed so as to leave a V-shaped joint between it and the steel,
as shown in Fig. 129.
Even when a good elastic compound is used as a filler, the mate-
rial cannot last for more than a few years and retain the properties
requisite for waterproofing under this condition. Hence, sole reliance
upon such a material to always effectively seal the joint, is unwar-
ranted. Still more so is the use of a high melting-point bitumen, such
as a hard coal-tar pitch or asphalt, because they become extremely
brittle materials at temperatures but little below the ordinary. Al-
most the first train that would cross the viaduct during cold weather
would cause the pitch in the V-joints to crack and break away from
one of the two surfaces, after which it would be useless as a means
of preventing water from seeping through the joint or getting around
and under the membrane. It is a fact that plastic joint fillers have
actually failed in this regard; that is, the joints between the steel
and the filler opened and nullified the value of the rest of the water-
proofing. It is equally a fact that this result is inevitable, because
of the varying rates of vibration between the structural materials
when a train passes over the structure due to the relatively different
inertia of the steel and the concrete.
WATERPROOFING APPiÎED
347
348
An arrangement that would prove more efficient, though somewhat

costlier, is shown at A in Fig. 130. In this form of construction, the
effective waterproofing of the structure, or rather, the making of
watertight joints is practically independent of the joint filler. This
-Joint Filler
-Joint Filler
-3-Ply Membrane
FLANGE ANGLE V-JOINTS
l-'.-.-.y:- ■.<!■. •■^.■■•S

"Sheet Cqpjier
^ Joint Filler
'mmm^mmmf 3-Fly Membrane
\^MMM^
iW-'^'i^J^^l^fiSl-i Mop concrete

" %'=i7;-.''V:^%;"^^r t under flashing
FLASHING V-JOINT
Fig. 130. — Improved Types of V-joints for Elevated Structures.
form of construction may also be modified so as to have the angle iron
act as a flashing instead of a joint, as shown at B in Fig. 130. A
strip of thin sheet lead between the angle and web is recommended.
An arrangement, whereby the angle iron is eliminated and a copper
flashing substituted, is shown at C, Fig. 130. This desien is mor(>
349
efficient than the above two, because if the joint filler should fail to
act, it would still be almost impossible for water to get around the
flashing and seep through the joint. This design, however, is costlier
and requires great care. when applying and soldering together the
sections of the flashing and in the selection of the metal. In design-
mg the protective concrete, it is often necessary and always advis-
able to reinforce it with some form of wire mesh of which the trans-
verse ends should be left projecting somewhat into the joint filler.
Fig. 131 shows a way to utiUze the protective concrete so as to secure
watertightness in the track floor. Other methods will undoubtedly
Pig. 131. — Waterproofing Details around Ferrules at Drains, also Showing

Increased Utility of Protective Concrete over Membrane on Mezzanine
Track Floor of Elevated Structure.
suggest themselves upon careful consideration of the conditions at
hand. The purpose of this digression is merely to call attention to
the need of studying waterproofing details and carefully selecting
the materials.
Perhaps the citation of another glaring instance of an ineffectual
design and apphcation of waterproofing will impress the architect,
engineer and contractor with the serious consequences following a
disregard of the need to study details and understand the selection
of waterproofing materials.
A very important station on one of the Brooklyn (New York)
Elevated lines consists of a double-deck concrete structure built
partly below ground surface. The ceiling above the platform of
the lower deck is raised and forms the train platform of the upper
350
deck. The track floors between the platforms of the upper deck are
waterproofed with a 6-ply membrane made of treated jute fabric
and coal-tar pitch having a melting-point of 120 deg. Fahr. by the
cube-in-water method. This membrane terminates directly over
the webs of the platform girders as shown at A, Fig. 132. These
girders support concrete walls which, in turn, support the platform
of the upper deck. The first summer after the station was com-
pleted considerable quantities of the binder exuded through and all
along the construction joints between this concrete and the top flange
of these girders.
Fig. 132. — Cross-section of Station Platform and Track Floor, Showing Scheme
of Waterproofing Proposed and Used on a Sub-level Railroad Structure
in New York City.
The resulting defacement of the structure and injury to the water-

proofing was, however, not due to a poor grade of material nor bad
workmanship in the application of the waterproofing, but was entirely
due to faulty design, as is evident from the figure, and the neglect
to specify a binder of an asphaltic nature or a coal-tar pitch of at
least 30 deg. Fahr. higher melting-point. That this precaution should
have been taken follows from the fact that the station has a super-
structure which is exposed to the elements and hence the concrete
may easily acquire a temperature above 100 deg. Fahr. in the sum-
mer time.
Another point worth mentioning is that the purpose of the water-
proofing membrane in this particular structure is such as hardly
requires more than three phes, and the way this should have been
appUed is shown at B, in Fig. 132, which is self-explanatory.
Waterproofing Reinforced Concrete Standpipes. In the design of
reinforced concrete standpipes, engineers have hitherto met with
little success in obtaining watertight tanks for several reasons:
1. Because of insufficient attention to proper grading and
proportioning of concrete aggregates.
2. Imperfect design of expansion joints (see Fig. 45 for a suc-
cessful type of expansion joint).
3. Laxity in supervision and workmanship during construction.
4. Insufficient attention to details.
Nearly all standpipes are so conditioned during their use that the
concrete, especially the lower portion of the standpipe, is subjected
to varying stresses consequent upon changing heads of water. During
this action the stresses in the reinforcement likewise vary, hindering
the silting up of minute cracks that may have formed and which after
a freezing season may become dangerously large.
Hence, it may be concluded that any structure subject to so
many different kinds of stresses as is a concrete standpipe is best
made waterproof by the application of a bituminous membrane of
from two to four plies of fabric or cotton drill applied on the inside,
and covered with a coat of mortar | to 1 inch thick. This method
obviates the need of extraordinary precautions in grading and super-
vision, and it will also be found that the cost is no greater and results
more certain than when using either the integral or self-densified
system of waterproofing. This method has been followed in several
instances with success.
Waterproofing Floor of Pneumatic Caisson. To aid the engineer
in his judgment and to avoid delay in the execution of the waterproof-
ing work in hand, he will do well to resort to some practical field
tests for the determination of the working properties of a material
or method not heretofore used or not used under extraordinary
conditions. A case in point is the following: Specification require-
ments for waterproofing the floor of a pneumatic caisson used in
connection with the construction of two tunnels under the East
River connecting the William and Clark Streets subway between
the boroughs of Manhattan and Brooklyn (see Fig. Ill) called for a
" soft pitch which will soften at 32 deg. Fahr. and melt at about
60 deg. Fahr. so that it can be spread without heating." Its use was
intended for waterproofing under compressed air where the fumes

of hot melted coal-tar pitch would be unbearable to the workmen and
give rise to fire risks. But such a low melting-point coal-tar pitch
is not a commonly used waterproofing material and must be made up
specially, hence delay and increased cost may result.
The compressed air chamber was under about 20 pounds pres-
sure, and had an air temperature of about 75 deg. Fahr. After
completion, the concrete floor and the waterproofing underneath
would have a temperature about 20 deg. below this, with the result
that the low melting-point pitch would exude from cracks or would
tend to flow toward any hollow or other depression in the concrete
and perhaps nullify the purpose of the waterproofing. To avoid
this condition and still use coal-tar pitch, for pitch was the only
material allowed under the specifications, a straight-run coal-tar
pitch having a melting-point of about 120 deg. Fahr. by the cube-
in-water method, was first tried; that is, it was heated to about
325 deg. Fahr. or over, poured in small buckets and lowered into
the caisson. But coal-tar pitch, when heated to a temperature
of about 325 deg. Fahr. as was done in this instance, fumes offensively.
A test, by the author, to determine the temperature at which fumes
commence to be given off by the molten pitch showed that hardly
any was given off until a temperature of about 225 deg. Fahr. was
reached. Hence all that was required was not to heat the coal-
tar pitch beyond this point and a regular, stock material could be
used. After a single trial it was used in this manner very success-
fully. However, in the case of another caisson under about 40 pounds
pressure per square inch, the soft grade of pitch called for in the speci-
fication was used (necessitated by the greater fire risk) and the work
well accomplished.
Waterproofing Steel Swimming Tank.* A swimming tank,
30 by 60 feet in plan, and from 4 feet to 8| feet deep, situated between
the 10th and 11th floors of the Union League Club House in Chicago,
was waterproofed by the application of a sheet-lead membrane and
a felt membrane against the lead. Before applying the sheet-lead
membrane the rivet heads on the inside of the girders forming the
sides of the tank were flattened to ^ inch. Over the entire area
IJ inches of cement inortar was put on with a cement gun. Upon
this mortar coat the sheet lead, weighing 4 pounds per square foot
(about TS inch thick), was placed and tacked to wooden strips set
m the mortar. All the joints were soldered. Then the felt membrane
was applied, being bonded with coal-tar pitch, and covered with 4
inches of cement mortar also put on with the cement gun. The entire
* Engineering Record, Vol. 75, No. 3, January 20, 1917, p. 107.

inside was then lined with ceramic tile i inch thick, set in cement
mortar.
The above scheme, suggested by the contractor, and which
proved very satisfactory, was substituted for the original specifica-
tion calling for membrane waterproofing with calking and welding
of joints to make the steel watertight.
Examples of Mastic Applications
Waterproofing Roadbed Over Mezzanine. Some of the track
floors over the station mezzanines on an elevated railroad in Brooklyn,
New York, consist of a framework of steel beams and girders with
concrete slabs in the open spaces, forming a series of bays (similar
to Figs. 128 and 129). These bays are waterproofed with a mastic
sheet approximately 2 inches in thickness placed directly on the
concrete. Each bay is drained by a pipe to the adjacent one until
the water reaches an end but central bay, from which it passes into
a copper gutter. The drains are 3-inch wrought-iron pipes, 12 inches
long, passing through the steel webs to which they are fastened by
means of ferrules and made to adhere to the mastic.
Before the mastic was applied to the concrete slabs, 2-inch strips
of the steel webs were mopped at the required elevation with asphalt
to secure a good bond between both. The mastic consisted of
approximately 12 per cent asphalt, 14 per cent sand, 22 per cent
grit, and 52 per cent limestone dust.
Though the mastic was well made and applied, and was in good
condition more than a year after application, it gave very poor
waterproofing results. This was directly traceable to the poor bond
between the steel webs and the mastic, being broken by the severe
vibration in the structure and especially the non-synchronous
vibration between the concrete slabs and the steel framework.
The Dual Subway of New York City. In waterproofing the new
subways in New York City two systems were used. The membrane
(described under examples of membrane applications) and the
brick-in-mastic envelope (described below). The latter method was
used in the manner noted in detail, in Table XXI and illustrated in
Fig. 132^.
The floor and side walls of the subway below ground or mean high
water, when passing through earth, also the roof of stations, were
waterproofed by the brick-in-mastic system. This consisted of
one or two courses of ordinary building brick embedded in mastic.
The mastic was composed of a minimum of one-third asphalt and
354
two-thirds sand and cement, or sand and limestone dust. It was

mixed hot on the work in round-bottom iron kettles of 50- and 100-
gallon capacities (see Fig. 77) .at a temperature not exceeding 375
deg. Fahr.
iWvTWP One or more "Layers o£ 1 Concrete 2 Layers of Briek in Asphalt iplyWP.
^"'^ ■ J Brick in Ai.phalt J^ I Xi—^ ^ L_ "
2 Concrete
^ Ply W.P.
Concrete
BETWEEN STATIONS
Fig. 132A.
In applying the brick-in-mastic to the floor of the subway, the
surface of the concrete bed, which was generally from 4 to 6 inches
thick, was covered with a single ply of waterproofing felt or fabric,
and its surface completely mopped. This served as a dry ply upon
which to place the brick-in-mastic envelope.
355
Two courses of brick-in-mastic were applied to the floor and

together had a minimum depth of 5 inches. The thickness of the
various brick-coverings of mastic was not less than i of an mch
(see Fig. 133).
On siile-wall construction, the vertical surface of the excavation
was first carefully faced with concrete. Forms were placed 8 niches
Fig. 1.33. — Showing Application of First and Second Layers of Brick-in-Mastic

and Method of Shdnig Bricks into Place. (Note JNIastic Covering Finished
Portion between the Two Posts.)
from this facing and the brick and mastic laid therein, as follows.
A ciuantity of mastic was poured into the space and bricks laid in
it on their largest bed and in a double row, leaving a mininuun of
^-inch joints around all faces. After cooling, the forms were removed
and the main concrete wall of the sulnvay was built against the mastic
wall. No leaks developed where the brick-in-mastic envelope was
used.
Examples of Integral Waterproofing Applications

Waterproofing Reinforced Concrete Reservoir.* In renovating
a 1,000,000-gallon reinforced concrete reservoir at New Ulm, Minn.,
watcrtightness was secured in the structure by exercising special
care during construction to grade the concrete aggregate. Pebbles,
varying in size from j to 2J inches screened from a gravel bank, were
used in the floor and walls, as experiments had shown that these
pebbles made a denser concrete than broken stone. To reduce the
permeability of the concrete to a minimum, however, 20 pounds of
hydrated hme was used to every barrel of cement. After the forms
were:removed, the walls were brushed and cleaned with steel brushes,
and two coats of 1 : 2 cement mortar, about | inch thick, water-
proofed by the addition of 10 per cent of finely powdered iron, were
applied. The floor was treated with a slush coat of 1 : 2 mortar
which after setting received a brush coating of waterproofed mortar.
After water was let in some leaking took place and cracks developed
which were finally remedied and the reservoir was rendered watertight.
Concrete Tank at Duxbxiry, Mass. A reinforced concrete tank
in Duxbury, Mass., j 40 feet inside diameter and 35 feet high was
made watertight by using a rich concrete with an addition of hydrated
lime. The bottom is a reinforced concrete slab built in two 12-inch
layers, the lower one of 1:2:4 concrete and the upper one of
1 : 1| : 3 mixture with the addition of 5 per cent hydrated lime.
The walls are of 1 : 1 : 2 concrete with 5 per cent of cement replaced
with hydrated lime, and the dome is of 1 : 2 : 4 concrete. In order
to prevent water from passing through the joints made by each day's
work, thin steel bands 4 inches in width were inserted so that one-
half of the width was embedded in the old work and one-half in the
new.
Examples of Self-densified Concrete Applications

Reinforced Concrete Filter Plant. In the construction of the
filter plant at Lancaster, Pa., in 1905, a pure-water basin and several
circular tanks were constructed of reinforced concrete. The pure-
water basin is 100 feet wide by 200 fe.et long and 14 feet deep, with
buttresses spaced 12 feet 6 inches center to center. The walls at
the bottom are 15 inches thick, and 12 inches thick at the top. Four
circular tanks are 50 feet in diameter and 10 feet high, and eight
* Engineering Record, December 17, 1910, Vol. 62, No. 25.
t Engineering News, Vol. 75, May 6, 1916.

tanks are 10 feet in diameter and 10 feet high. The walls are 10
inches thick at the bottom and 6 inches at the top. A wet mixture
of 1 part cement, 3 parts sand, and 5 parts stone was used. No
waterproofing material was used in the construction of the tanks, and
when tested, two of them were found to be watertight, the other two
had a few leaks where wires, which had been used to hold the forms
together, had pulled out when the forms were taken down. These
holes were stopped up and no further trouble was experienced. In
constructing the floor of the pure-water basin a thin layer of asphalt
was used, but no waterproofing material was used in the walls, and
both were found to be watertight.
Reinforced Concrete Watertank. A reinforced concrete water-
tank, 10 feet inside diameter and 43 feet high, designed and con-
structed by W. B. Fuller at Little Falls, N. J., has some remarkable
construction features. It is 15 inches thick at the bottom and
10 inches thick at the top. The tank was built in eight hours, and
is a perfect monohth, all concrete being dropped from the top,
or 43 feet at the beginning of the work. The concrete was mixed
very wet, the mixture being 1 part cement, 3 parts sand, and 7 parts
broken stone. No plastering or waterproofing of any kind was used,
but the tank was found to be absolutely watertight. The large
aggregate was, however, scientifically graded.
Examples of Grouting Applications
Waterproofing Pressure Tunnels. Some of the tunnels of the
Catskill Aqueduct of New York City * were made watertight by
grouting behind the tunnel lining. This grouting followed the con-
creting within a period of two to three months, when the concrete
had attained sufficient strength to resist high grouting pressures.
Air-stirring, grouting machines of the Canniff type, holding about
25 gallons, were generally employed for this work, though a few
mechanically stirred Cockburn machines of the same capacity were
tried. For low-pressure Work, by which the voids about the lining
were filled, air direct from the compressor plants was used; for the
high-pressure work the air pressure was raised by means of auxihary
high-pressure air compressors.
For filling the voids in the dry packing and the cavities and
shrinkage spaces left over the arch concrete, the grout was mixed
in the proportion of one cement to one sand, with an equal volume of
water, and forced in under pressure of 80 to 100 pounds or more
* Engineering News, Vol. 73, February 4, 1915.
36S WATERPROOFING ENGINEERING

per square inch, depending on the ground-water head. Neat cement
was employed in filling the drip pans and other thin cavities. See
Fig. 134 for details. No masonry cutoff walls were built to stop
the grout, except where dry packing was to be filled, and no attempt
was then made to make them tight at the crown of the arch. Work
was started at some favorable point where the grout would of itself
make a cutoff and carried steadily on, connecting to each pipe in
turn. The general practice was to commence grouting through the
pipes nearest the invert, and upward to the arch. On completion
of the low-pressure grouting, neat-cement grout, generally mixed
in the proportion of four to eight volumes of water to one of cement,
though sometimes containing as much as fifteen volumes of water
to one of cement, was forced into many of the pipes previously grouted
and into the deep-seated pipes, under pressures of 250 to 300 pounds
per square inch, to fill the small spaces and seams in the rock about
the fining. The cost of grouting the tunnels to watertightness ran
from $2.50 to $3 per lineal foot of tunnel, including the costs for plant,
materials and labor. The tunnel was made remarkably watertight
as a result of these operations.
Ashokan Dam Cutoff.* In making watertight the cutoff wall for
the Ashokan Dam on the Catskill Aqueduct, a row of 3-inch grouting
holes were drilled 20 feet below the bottom of the trench, reaching
the greatest depth at which the boring tests had indicated the
presence of seams. Similar grouting holes were drilled to about
the depth of the cutoff to insure the sealing of any seams that might
exist in the rock under the main body of the dam. Two-inch iron
pipes were ceiriented in the tops of the drill holes and carried up into
the masonry to permit grouting when the dam had reached suflScient
height to withstand the pressure of the grout. These grout pipes
were then grouted with neat-cement by the use of a Cockburn Bar-
row grout machine of 4 cubic feet capacity, operated under a pres-
sure of 25 to 80 pounds. The results were entirely satisfactory.
Rondout Pressure Tunnel. In constructing the Rondout Pres-
sure Tunnel of the Catskill Aqueduct, several wide shafts were sunk.
These shafts had to be waterproofed to facilitate operations; espe-
cially one shaft in which the seams were large and many. Twenty-
seven vertical holes were drilled, 14 to 20 feet deep and capped with
pipes and valves for the purpose of grouting these seams. A battery
of 4 Canniff tank-grouting machines were set up at the top with
2i-inch pipe in the shaft and a 2-inch hose connection at the bottom.
At first the grout leaked back into the shaft in considerable volume.
* " Catskill Water Supply of New York City," by Lazarus White, C. E.
359

Various methods were then tried to prevent this leakage — the use
of oats, bran, and ground horse manure, the latter finally clogging
the seams and stopping most of the leakage in the shaft. The
shallower holes took 2900 bags of cement and the 20-foot holfes only
60 bags. This grouting proved to be so successful that it was deter-
mined to grout some of the deeper seams known to be porous and
water-bearing.
Examples of Special Waterpeooping Applications
Harlem River Tunnels. The use of cast-iron, cast-steel, and
iron and steel plates for waterproofing is not common but none the
less quite practicable. Fig. 135 shows half-sections through the
steel lining used as waterproofing for the Harlem River Tunnel
tubes connecting the Lexington Avenue subway between Manhattan
and Bronx" boroughs, forming a part of the Dual Subway System in
New York City. The steel (Fig. 135A) was sunk in a prepared
channel in the river bed and surrounded with concrete within and
without. This created an excellent watertight tunnel.* The same
is quite true of the cast-iron and cast-steel tunnel linings used on
the Pennsylvania railroad tunnels under the Hudson River and the
New York Subway tunnels under the East River. See Fig. 136 for
details of the type of cast-steel tunnel segments used on the two
latter structures.
These segmental linings make an effective waterproofing, though
the joints are not absolutely watertight. The leakage, however,
is insignificant, as proven by the following fact. In the above-
named tunnels, a sump of some form is provided at the lowest point
of each tunnel or pair of tunnels and pumped out when necessary
by pumps regularly installed. This showed that the daily leakage
into the 5| miles of river tunnels of the Pennsylvania Railroad is
2300 gallons. The magnitude of this may be better appreciated by
stating that the entire amount of leakage for one day would be
removed in one or two minutes by a pump of the capacity ordinarily
used by contractors for foundations, f
Rubber Sheet used on Waterworks Reservoir, t A reservoir
built in Bellaire, Ohio, in 1905, was put into successful operation
* See paper by Howard B. Gates, " Harlem River Crossing of the Lexington
Avenue Subway." The Municipal Engineers Society's Journal, Vol!, 1, No. 6,
New York City, December, 1915.
t Alfred Noble, in Journal of the Franklin Institute;, Vol. 175, p. 383.
X Engineering Record, June 3, 1916.
361
HALF SECTION AT DIAPHRAGM

SHOWING STEEL DETAILS
Symmetrical
about this line -
^ Wy0<l^&^^M$î^&^^'^^^$^^^&^0^^^^^^Mî&^
/^j:'-'-.'^.-'iU:8"cbbc'rete':v''r;;*5'
HALF SECTION BETWEEN
DIAPHRAGMS SHOWING CONCRETE DETAILS
Fig. 135. — Harlem River Tunnel Tubes, as Built.
362
for the first time in eleven years after its construction. This was
made possible only after it was waterproofed by a unique method.
Unstable foundations had caused cracks, particularly in one corner
of the reservoir, which defied all the many attempts to make the
structure watertight until the following inexpensive method was used.
A strip of sheet rubber, stretching 30 feet long by 3 feet wide by
I inch thick, was placed in the corner of the basin covering the crack.
A box, built around this rubber-covering and filled with soft mud,
kept the sheet in place. Another large crack, in the bottom of the
Fig. 1354. — Steel Tubes for Harlem River Tunnel, Lexington Avenue Subway,
before Sinking.
basin, was also covered with a strip of rubber and held in place by a
cement mortar covering. The basin was then filled with water, and
it was found that, although the crack in the wall opened jt inch
still further, there was no leakage. This method was suggested and
carried into effect by Mr. F. .J. Lewis, a resident of Bellaire.
Timber Sheeting Waterproofing for Subaqueous Tunnels.*
Referring to Fig. 137, in which timber sheeting constitutes the
waterproofing for a subaqueous tunnel, the author believes that if
the form of tunnel construction indicated is at all practicable, the
* Proceedings of the ,\merican Society of Civil Engineers for November, 1914.
363
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proposed waterproofing method seems impracticable. To build a
subaquepus tunnel and to waterproof it with creosoted, tongued
and grooved yellow pine planking, pinned on the outside of the struc-
tural material is a unique conception, though never attempted, to
the author's knowledge. This form of waterproofing and its applica-
tion, Mr. D. D. McBean, the originator, believes will be possible by
the use of his patented " Subaqueous Working Chamber " for con-
structing the tunnel.
Basement Waterproofed with Sheet Lead Lining. The excava-
tion for the basement of the Proctor & Gamble Mfg. Co.'s building on
Staten Island, N. Y., was made in red clay. Due to the existence of
swampy ground on the site, considerable seepage had to be contended
against and prevented from percolating into the cellar. The floor
and walls were built of concrete, and were waterproofed by the
appUcation on the inside of 1-ply sheet lead weighing 3 pounds per
square foot. This sheet lead was also applied to the columns, the
strips being carefully soldered together so as to make a seamless pan
of the whole. On the floor the sheet lead was laid on a 1-inch sand
cushion, and on the wall, directly against the concrete. The entire
lead membrane was then protected with a 5-inch layer of concrete.
The results obtained by this method of waterproofing were quite
satisfactory.
Cement-clay Cover for Hudson and Manhattan Railroad Tunnel.
A waterproofing method, in which an impervious layer of cement
and clay was interposed between water-bearing ground and a concrete
substructure, was used in the recent addition to the Pavonia Avenue
station of the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad in Jersey City, N. J.
The work consisted in excavating, by tunneling methods and sub-
sequently lining with concrete, a station opening in a water-bearing
stratum 200 feet from the Hudson River bulkhead line and 50 feet
below mean sea lavel. It was imperative that the concrete lining
be watertight, but it had been the experience of the engineers in
building the original tunnel that it was impossible in working under
air pressure to use any apphed waterproofing mats on account of the
danger to workmen from fumes; expected expansion and contrac-
tion with consequent cracks forbade the use of any integral water-
proofing material.
It had been noted that all of the river tunnels which rest in
river clay were quite watertight, and it was believed that if a com-
plete coating of clay could be obtained exterior to the tunnel lining,
no more nearly perfect or complete waterproofing could be secured.
The difficulty with any clay application was that when wet and soft

the clay would change its form by squeezing. Therefore, experi-
ments were made with clay mixed with sufficient Portland cement
to hold its form when set.
Hudson River silt, which is a finely pulverized clay with a con-
siderably larger proportion of silica than ordinary clay, was dried
and mixed with equal proportions of Portland cement, applied through
the medium of a cement gun as a heavy coating on every portion of
exposed timbering and lagging in the tunnel. This produced a layer
of impervious plaster about 2 inches thick against which the con-
crete lining of the tunnel was placed. The method has proved suc-
cessful, the station structure being practically dry under an extreme
head of salt water.
Iron-lined Coal Pits.* In constructing concrete coal pits for
railway coahng stations of the elevator type it is essential that the
pit (for the elevator bucket) should be watertight. The pit is
usually considerably below the ground- water level and is subject to
pressure, and when once put in operation it is a matter of difficulty
and expense to get at it and make repairs.
A plan, which has been used with success, is to place within the
concrete a steel boot or tank with joints soldered in the field. A
6-inch thickness of concrete is placed first, and then the steel boot
is set in position and the sections soldered. When this has beon
made watertight it is lined with 6 inches of concrete. All attach-
ments, bolts ladders, etc., are set in this inner lining.
Fig. 138 shows such a pit having a boot 6 feet 11 inches by 11
feet 6 inches and a height of 11 feet, its top being above ground-
water level. It is made of No. 20 galvanized iron, and the expecta-
tion is that if the metal should rust in course of time it would still
form a waterproof diaphragm by combination with the cement.
The concrete is a 1 : 5 mix, made with gravel, and mixed moderately
wet. The use of a similar boot composed of burlap and asphaltic
composition has given fair success. To place a waterproof fining
outside of the concrete would involve greater excavation and addi-
tional form work.
Calking Tunnels of Pennsylvania Railroad, f In making water-
tight the East River Tunnels of the Pennsylvania Railroad, the joints
between the cast-steel segments composing the tunnel rings were at
first calked with a mixture of iron filings and salammoniac in the
proportions by weight of 400 to 1. The calking was done by hand.
* Engineering News, Vol. 76, October 5, 1916.
t " The Subways and Tunnels of New York," by G. H. Gilbert, L. I. Wight-
man and W, L. Saunders,
367
Later, lead wool, calked cold by pneumatic hammers, was substituted

with better results. This calking preceded the placing of a concrete
lining about 1 foot thick inside the iron rings. One-to-one grout
was then forced between the top of this inner concrete Uning and the
outer iron segments. Great care was exercised in this work and very-
good results were obtained.
Waterproofing of the North River Tunnels of the Pennsylvania
Railroad consisted in forming a rust joint (with a mixture of sal-
'i ,^% Ladder Irons

15"c .toe. -
-lo'e"
> , - IK J? loor .T:

Fig. 138. — Concrete Coal Pit Waterproofed with Sheet Steel Boot.
ammoniac and iron borings) between the plates of the metal lining
forming the tubes, and in taking out each bolt and placing around
the shank imder the washer at each end a grommet made of yarn
soaked in red lead. Before calking with the rust mixture the joints
were cleaned. The usual mixture for the joints was 2 pounds of
salammoniac, 1 pound of sulphur and 250 pounds of iron filings or
borings. Air hammers were used with advantage in calking this
mixture into the joints. The results were variable and not always
satisfactory.
CHAPTER XI
COST DATA ON MATERIALS, IMPLEMENTS, AND LABOR
Planning and Estimating

Importance of Accurate Estimates. Record costs do not always
agree with the estimates given for any particular work because anal-
ysis for systematizing labor operations preceding the imaking of such
estimates are too often insufhcient, or neglected altogether. This is
illustrated by the enormous variations in bids received from contrac-
tors for the same job. For example, the bids received for waterproof-
ing a section of the New York Dual Subway
in 1915 were as follows:

t
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
Maximum
Difference
(Per cent).
Fabric membrane, 1-ply

Fabric membrane, 3-ply
Fabric membrane, 6-pIy
Brick-in-mastic, cu. yd
Protective concrete, cu. yd
$0.50
1.00
2.00
25,00
7.00
$0.40
1.20
1.60
20.00
6.50
$0.45
1.80
'2.40
18.00
7.50
$0.35
.75
1.40
22.00
6.00
$0.30
.90
1.50
20.00
8.00
$0.41
1.10
1.83
16.00
7.25
66
140
71
56
33
On another section of the same subway, the following bids for

waterproofing work were received:
Fabric membrane, 1-ply . .

Fabric membrane, 3-ply . , .
Fabric membrane, 6-pIy . .
Brick-in-mastic, cu. yd . . .
Protective concrete, cu. yd
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
$0.30
$0.35
$0.40
$0.50
$0.60
.70
1.20
1.10
.90
.80
1.30
1.50
1.40
2.00
2.25
25.00
29.00
20,00
18.00
10.00
7.50
9.00
8.50
8.00
Maximum
Difference
(Per cent).
100
71
73
61
33
To account for such marked differences in estimate figures several

items enter into consideration; usually and mainly, these are the
result of a wrong estimate of labor cost. The methods of manage-
ment undoubtedly affect the cost to a very large extent, but this
hardly explains the difference of 100 and 140 per cent in the esti-
mated costs submitted by the different contractors. The variations
368
COST DATA ON MATERIALS, IMPLEMENTS, AND LABOR 369

are more probably due to the following four causes: (1) Inaccurate
estimate of volumes or cost of materials; (2) inaccurate estimates
of overhead costs and profits; (3) manipulation of estimate prices;
(4) inaccurate estimates of labor costs. Material costs usually are
figured without difficulty, and these, except during abnormal busi-
ness conditions, are reasonably constant. Hence, only mistakes are
chargeable here. The variation in overhead charges by two different
estimators may be large because many contractors do not properly
charge or divide their overhead items, but this difference on any one
job cannot account for more than 15 or 20 per cent. Manipulation
of estimate prices, that is, figuring high on one item and low on an-
other, unless done with great skill and foresight, proves a profitless
process so often that it is not generally resorted to. This would,
however, in some cases, account for about 50 per cent of the varia-
tion. Obviously, then, the big variations must be in the estimated
labor cost. And this indeed is the item on which money is usually
made or lost in contracting.
Accurate Estimates Dependent on Accurate Methods. Accurate
estimates by architects, engineers, and contractors should be made
a matter of careful study. An appreciable saving would always
result in the substitution of accurate methods for guesswork in esti-
mating. Mr. Sanford E. Thompson, Consulting Engineer,* makes
the following remarks in regard to the reduction of general construc-
tion costs, which are also appHcable to waterproofing costs.
" Accurate cost keeping is of value in following up construction
costs from day to day, in showing up waste labor and in providing
a mark for the attainment of superintendents and foremen. Unless
cost knowledge is in the form of small units, such comparisons cannot
be made satisfactorily.
" To get the full benefit of a knowledge of unit costs, and in fact
for this the knowledge must be even more thorough and include the
unit times of performing the various operations, it must be utilized
in the planning of the work in advance and in distributing materials
and jobs; in selecting materials and methods which will result in
lower labor costs; in adapting the construction plant to the special
conditions; and, carried to its ultimate end, in laying out jobs for
the workmen and giving them a reward for accomplishment.
" Such management as this involves the adoption of factory
methods in construction. Already the need of this is being recog-
nized, but only to a limited degree.
" Full economy in construction, however, will only be attained
* Engineering and Contracting, March 1, 1916, p. 221.

as the builder discards the haphazard rule-of-thumb method and con-
siders his job with a view to thorough analysis, planning functional
methods, and a complete study of details. By such methods as
these will the labor of construction be brought to a more scientific
basis and more nearly on a par with the material end of the work."
Labor and Materials
Waterproofing Labor, Contracters and Manufacturers Graded.
Among waterproofing concerns there are to be found' the following
classes: (i) Waterproofing manufacturers who manufacture and
assume responsibility for the quality and effectiveness of the water-
proofing material; (2) Manufacturing waterproof ers who manu-
facture and apply the waterproofing material under a guarantee;
(3) waterproofing contractors who buy the waterproofing material
ready made, supply the labor, and supervise and guarantee the
work; (4) waterproofing subcontractors who often are furnished
with the waterproofing materials, but always supply the labor, and
give personal supervision to the work.
Some of the concerns included under the above classes are not
sufficiently responsible or experienced, hence it is often advisable to
employ an experienced waterproofing inspector on the work, espe-
cially when the magnitude of the work warrants the expense. Where
this is not the case, experience has proven the advisability of con-
tracting for the waterproofing work with a reputable and highly
responsible waterproofing concern but always under a very specific
guarantee.
Many waterproofing concerns maintain laboratories and staffs
of engineers who co-operate with the contractor, or builder, in deter-
mining the proper system and materials for waterproofing a particu-
lar structure. The service is often given gratis. In consequence,
the advice, or information, is not always impartial, and it seems
advisable that the buyer, builder, architect, or engineer, should
investigate somewhat for himself. The result may not only be an
improved design but often a reduction in the cost of waterproofing
the structure.
The labor employed on waterproofing work is also divided into
several classes, as follows: (1) Foremen, who are men generally of
large experience in waterproofing work; (2) Waterproof ers, men who
do the actual waterproofing work, such as laying the brick and
mastic courses, sheet mastic, or applying bituminous membranes;
(3) helpers, men who help the waterproofers and incidentally learn
the trade; (4) Kettlemen, men who tend the kettles in which the
bitumen is heated or the mastic is made up; (5) laborers, men who

carry the bricks, wood, etc., to the waterproofers and kettlemen,
and perform all the unskilled labor required; (6) roofers, men who
mainly waterproof roofs of buildings; (7) roofers' helpers, men who
assist the roofers. In none of these divisions is any extraordinary
skill required. Indeed, in the appUcation of all waterproofing care
and judgment are mostly required.
It is not necessary to employ men of a particular trade to do water-
proofing of a particular kind, but it is very essential to employ men
with some experience in the particular branch of waterproofing.
For example, in waterproofing a structure by the application of a
brick-in-mastic envelope, it is not necessary to employ a bricklayer
for this purpose, because no special bond of brick, nor refinement of
line is required, as in building construction; but experience in hand-
ling mastic and properly laying up mastic courses is necessary for
good results. This, however, can often be done by the average
waterproofer after a short apprenticeship. Besides, the difference
in wages between bricklayers and waterproofers would materially
affect the contract price of a particular waterproofing job.
The general cost of waterproofing labor depends to a certain
extent upon the locality of the work, the nationality of the workmen,
but more particularly, of course, upon the character of the work
performed.
Cost Data Tables
The cost of most standard waterproofing materials, like other
building materials, fluctuates with the market. The cost of patented
or special waterproofing materials depends generally on the quantity
bought.
In buying waterproofing materials, it should be the aim of those
responsible, to buy materials that are either well-known or of proven
efiiciency because in the end they prove to be the cheapest. Some
concerns make a practice of renaming standard materials and selling
them at vastly inflated prices. It is no simple matter to guard against
this, but when large quantities of waterproofing materials are to be
bought, it will pay those concerned to look into the standard materials
on the market before buying any special ones. This has particular
reference to materials used in the surface coating and integral
systems of waterproofing, and joint-filling compounds.
In the following tables will be found the cost of waterproofing
materials, labor, and implements for the year 1914. These tables
are compiled with more than approximate exactness. Certain other
information is included which will be found helpful in estimating
and ordering materials. For the duration of the present (1918)
372
abnormal status of commerce, the cost and price figures given in

the tables should be doubled.
Table XXII gives the average wages, during 1914, of the differ-
ent classes of workers employed in the waterproofing industry and
their range includes eastern and western standards of wages. The
lower figures usually represent the western scale.
Table XXIII gives the cost and weight of waterproofing imple-
ments and tools and some of the manufacturers who specialize in
these. The variation and range in cost of each article is mainly
due to the difference in size of the articles..
Table XXIV gives the selling price at New York and weight of
the most important and most extensively used waterproofing
materials. The variation in prices is due to the fact that they in-
clude the cost of handling, trucking, etc., except the freight rate,
which is too variable.
Table XXV shows the cost of different types of waterproofing
applied. The profit to the waterproofer and roofer included in
most of these figures ranges between 15 and 30 per cent.
Table XXVI, " Cost of Tin for Flat and Standing Seam Roofing,"
enables the architect and roofer to calculate the cost of the roofing
material from the cheapest to the dearest made tin plate. These
prices depend on whether the base plate is iron or steel, and upon
the thickness of the coating thereon. The coating consists of an
alloy of tin and lead, and the weight of this coating, per box of 112
sheets, is the governing factor in the cost. This weight varies from
8 to 40 pounds. Those plates carrying less than 20 pounds are re-
garded as the cheaper grade, while those carrying more are in the
dearer grade. The weight of coating should be distinctly called
for in any tin roofing specification, and also stamped on the tin
sheets by the manufacturer.
TABLE XXII.-
-COST OF WATERPROOFING LABOR

(In 1914)
Clas9.
Wage Per
Eight-hour
Day.
Hemarks.
InsDector
$4.00 to 5.00
4. 25 to 5.00
3.50 to 4.50
2.00 to 2.50
1.75 to 2.25
1.50 to 2.00
3.50 to 4.50
2.25 to 2.50
Miinininal n.nd nrivfltfi insnpM.mTi .
Waterproofers
On construction work of New York
Rapid Transit Subways. Union
Waterproofers' helpers . . .
Labor.
Roofers
Roofers' helpers
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378
TABLE XXVI.— COST OF TIN FOR FLAT AND STANDING SEAM

ROOFING *
Tin Plates 14 by 20.
TiK Plates 20 by 28.
When Tin
Costs
(per Box.)
Flat Seam
(Cost
per Square).
Standing Seam
(Cost
per Square).
When Tin
Costs
(per Box).
Flat Seam
(Cost
per Square).
Standing Seam
(Cost
per Square).
$3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
8.00
9.00
10.00
11.00
12.00
$1.67
2.22
2.78
3.34
3.89
4.45
5.00
5.56
6.11
6.67
$1.85
2.47
3.09
3.71
4.32
4.94
5.56
6.18
6.80
7.41
$6.00
8.00
10.00
12.00
14.00
16.00
18.00
20.00
22.00
24.00
$1.67
2.10
2.62
3.15
3.67
4.20
4.72
6.25
6.77
6.30
$1.69
2.25
2.81
3.37
3.94
4.50
5.06
6.62
6.19
6.75
Price per 100 square feet at a given price per box of 112 sheets — Cost of, laying not
included.
CHAPTER XII
PRACTICAL TABLES
Explanation of Tables. Tables are very useful, and in technical
books indispensable, especially when they are all pertinent to the
subject. A conscientious effort has been made to keep the present
work free of the encumbrance of irrelevant tables. The few included
herein have been found indispensable. They are believed to be
accurate but not necessarily complete, though sufficient for all
practical purposes.
Table XXVII, " Thermometric Equivalents," converts the Fah-
renheit temperatm-e scale into the Centigrade scale and vice versa.
This is often necessary in the laboratory and in the field.
Table XXVIII gives the relative values of density and specific
gra^dty of hquids heavier than water.
Table XXIX, " Specific Gravity and Baum6 for Liquids Lighter
than Water," shows the relation of density, as recorded on the
Baum^ scale, to specific gravity of liquids lighter than water. Every
hquid lighter than water has a definite specific gravity at a certain
temperature, and in consequence a definite density which is usually
measured by the hydrometer and expressed on the Baume scale.
Some liquids, such as petroleum oils, when distilled at and to a cer-
tain temperature, give off volatile oils, which leave the residue denser
than the original; this denser composition is indicated by a corre-
spondingly higher reading on the Baurn^ scale. This reading may
be transformed, by means of the table, into an equivalent specific
gravity of that liquid for that temperature.
Table XXX, " Specific Gravity and Coefficient of Expansion of
Various Materials," is compiled from the most reliable sources.
Some of the values are not to be found in any book, having been
obtained from research laboratory tests. A knowledge of the rela-
tive expansion and contraction of mineral and organic solids and
Hquids is often necessary in waterproofing engineering.
Table XXXI, " Weight and Thickness of Burlap, Felt, and Cot-
ton Fabric Membranes with Coal-tar Pitch Binder," is based on water-
proofing membranes made only with coal-tar pitch binder. If
379
380
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I>t-WQ00000Ci000Q0CiCT>0iCi0iOOOOOOi-i^»-«î-ii-HC>)CvlNN0IC0C0MC0»O
t^X000iOi-<iMMTt(mcDr-00O>Oi-iNC0Tt<incDt>00aiOTHiNM'*i0e0t^W0JOh-
^-0lOW*l0(D000J'-lC0lO^•MONTlê0t*0lO•-'e0"5cDWOC^■*»O^-0i'-<M-*Ô
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'*i0C01>W000lOi-iMC0rJ<i0eDt-C00iOt-iNNe0'î0cDb-X0SO«-'N»"*"3®«D
^^wi-H,-H.-HTMW(NcqMoi«cq(N(NNcc(rceococococO(rccococo-*'*TtHTtiT)<Tf<^'<j<
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oooic3>0)OJa>oooooOr-tTH.-H.-<,-ic>i(Ncq<N<NC>ieococoeococo':tiTjH-î*
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t^t^t>.r-I>tÎ>t»I>MC0C0WWC0C0000D000i0S0iffl0J0J0J0S0iC3OOOOOOO
GOCOTjiOJ CO«D"*.-i OOtOM^CM X CO ^ C4 00 CO ■* N QOCO-<1<N 00«O"fl
«CDtJ((M COcO-^N QOcD"*iM
COcD'^d XCD'^N O0CD"*N OOCO-^tN
0»HCqeOT|fiOOI>COOJO'HNCOTt<iO»fStDI>«OJOrHD)COTH"5CDb-00(3iO<-iM«'<i*
_j_ ■-"-"-< "-I »-H --1 i-H i-t i-H rH rH cq M M N N (N N Cq N (N CO CO CO CO CO
N^cDMOm'^CDQOOW'*f^MOOOCD-*MOMcOTpNOOOcD'*cq
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CJJ rH 1-^ ,-( rH tH _|_ .-1 iH iH l-H iH iH (M 6) N N N CO
PRACTICAL TABLES
381
TABLE XXVIII
fin^ i-i pro f-/» —1
Specific Gravities at ^^ F. q-pf^z,C. Corresponding to Degrees Baum6 for
oU Llo .00 J
Liquids Heavier than Water
Calciilated from the formula, specific gravity -r7r7:F.=—— — =r ^^

' ^ & J' 60° 145-Deg. Baum6
;]
Tenths of Degbees Badmb.
Degrees
Baum6.
1
1.0000
1.0007
1.0014
1.0021
1.0028
1.0035
1.0042
1.0049
1.0055
1.0062
1.0069
1.0076
1.0083
1.0090
1.0097
1.0105
1.0112
1.0119
1,0126
1.0133
2
1.0140
1.0147
1.0154
1.0161
1.0168
1.0175
1.0183
1.0190
1.0197
1.0204
1.0211
1.0218
1.0226
1.0233
1.0240
1.0247
1.0255
1.0262
1.0269
1.0276
1.0284
1.0291
1.0298
1.0306
1.0313
1.0320
1.0328
1.0335
1.0342
1.0350
1.0357
1.0365
1.0372
1.0379
1.0387
1.0394
1.0402
1.0409
1.0417
1.0424
1.0432
1.0439
1.0447
1.0454
1.0462
1.0469
1.0477
1.0484
1.0492
1.0500
1.0507
1.0515
1.0522
1.0530
1.0538
1.0545
1.0553
1.0561
1.0569
1.0576
1.0584
1.0592
1.0599
1.0607
1.0615
1.0623
1.0630
1.0638
1.0646
1.0654
1.0662
1.0670
1.0677
1.0685
1.0693
1.0701
1.0709
1.0717
1.0725
1.0733
10
1.0741
1.0749
1.0757
1.0765
1.0773
1.0781
1.0789
1.0797
1.0805
1.0813
11
1.0821
1.0829
1.0837
1.0845
1.0853
1.0861
1.0870
1.0878
1.0886
1.0894
12
1.0902
1.0910
1.0919
1.0927
1.0935
1.0943
1.0952
1.0960
1.0968
1.0977
13
1.0985
1.0993
1 . 1002
1.1010
1.1018
1.1027
1.1035
1.1043
1.1052
1.1060
14
1 . 1069
1.1077
1.1086
1.1094
1.1103
1.1111
1.1120
1.1128
1.1137
1.1145
15
1.1154
1.1162
1.1171
1.1180
1.1188
1.1197
1 . 1206
1.1214
1 . 1223
1 . 1232
16
1.1240
1.1249
1.1258
1.1267
1.1271
1 . 1284
1.1293
1.1302
1.1310
1 . 1319
17
1 . 1328
1.1337
1.1346
1.1355
1.1364
1 . 1373
1.1381
1.1390
1 . 1399
1 . 1408
18
1.1417
1 . 1426
1.1435
1.1444
1 . 1453
1.1462
1.1472
1.1481
1.1490
1.1499
19
1.1508
1.1517
1 . 1526
1 . 1535
1.1545
1 . 1554
1.1563
1.1572
1 . 1581
1 . 1591
20
1.1600
1.1609
1.1619
1.1628
1 . 1637
1.1647
1.1656
1.1665
1.1675
1.1684
21
1 . 1694
1.1703
1.1712
1.1722
1.1731
1 . 1741
1 . 1750
1.1760
1.1769
1 . 1779
22
1.1789
1.1798
1 . 1808
1.1817
1.1827
1.1837
1.1846
1.1856
1.1866
1.1876
23
1.1885
1.1958
1 . 1905
1.1915
1.1924
1.1934
1 . 1944
1.1954
1.1964
1.1974
24
1.1983
1.1993
1.2003
1.2013
1.2023
1.2033
1.2043
1.2053
1.2063
1.2073
25
1.2083
1.2093
1.2104
1.2114
1.2124
1.2134
1.2144
1.2154
1.2164
1.2175
26
1.2185
1.2195
1.2205
1.2216
1.2226
1.2236
1.2247
1.2257
1.2267
1.2278
27
1.2288
1.2299
1.2309
1.2319
1.2330
1.2340
1.2351
1.2361
1.2372
1.2383
28
1.2393
1.2404
1.2414
1.2425
1.2436
1.2446
1.2457
1.2468
1.2478
1.2489
29
1.2500
1.2511
1.2522
1.2532
1.2543
1.2554
1.2565
1.2576
1.2587
1.2598
30
1.2609
1.2620
1.2631
1.2642
1.2653
1.2664
1.2675
1.2686
1.2697
1.2708
31
1.2719
1.2730
1.2742
1.2753
1.2764
1.2775
1.2787
1.2798
1.2809
1.2821
32
1.2832
1.2843
1.2855
1.2866
1.2877
1.2889
1.2900
1.2912
1.2923
1.2935
33
1.2946
1.2958
1.2970
1,2981
1.2993
1.3004
1.3016
1.3028
1.3040
1.3051
34
1.3063
1.3075
1.3087
1.3098
1.3110
1.3122
1.3134
1.3146
1.3158
1.3170
35
1.3182
1.3194
1.3206
1.3218
1.3230
1 3242
1.3254
1.3266
1.3278
1.3291
382
TABLE XXYIU.—Continued
fi(\o l~1 PI° K(\ ~l
Specific Gravities at ^tth F- , -„ -/. C- Corresponding to Degrees BaumS for
dU lis .56 J
Liquids Heavier than Water
Degrees
Bauni6.
Tenths of Degbees Baume.
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
63
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
.3303
.3426
,3551
.3679
.3810
.3942
.4078
.4216
.4356
.4500
.4646
.4796
.4948
.5104
.5263
.5426
.5591
.5761
.5934
.6111
.6292
.6477
.6667
.6860
.7059
.7262
,7470
,7683
,7901
,8125
,8354
8590
8831
9079
9333
3315
3438
3564
3692
3823
3956
4091
4230
4371
4516
4661
4811
4964
6120
6279
5442
5608
6778
6952
6129
6310
6496
6686
6880
7079
7282
7491
7706
7923
8148
8378
8614
8856
9104
3327
3451
3577
3705
3836
3969
4105
4244
4385
4529
4676
4826
4979
6136
5295
5458
5625
5796
5969
6147
6329
6516
6705
6900
7099
7303
7612
7726
7946
8170
8401
8638
8880
9129
.3339
.3463
.3590
.3718
.3849
.3983
.4119
.4258
.4399
.4544
.4691
.4841
.4995
.6162
.5312
.5475
.5642
.6812
.5987
.6165
.6347
6534
6724
.6919
7119
7324
7533
.7748
7968
.8193
8424
8662
8905
9155
3352
3476
3602
3731
3862
3996
4133
,4272
4414
4558
4706
4857
5010
5167
5328
5491
5659
5830
6004
6183
6366
6553
6744
6939
7139
7344
7554
7770
7990
8216
8448
8686
8930
9180
3364
,3488
3615
3744
3876
4010
,4146
4286
4428
4573
4721
4872
6026
6183
5344
5508
5676
5847
6022
6201
6384
6571
6763
6959
7160
7365
7576
7791
8012
8239
8471
8710
8954
9205
.3376
.3501
.3628
.3757
.3889
.4023
.4160
.4300
.4442
.4588
.4736
.4887
.5041
.5199
.5360
.5625
.5693
.5864
.6040
.6219
.6403
6590
6782
6979
7180
7386
7697
7813
8036
8262
8496
8734
8979
9231
3389
3514
3641
3770
3902
4031
4174
4314
4457
4602
4751
4902
5057
5215
6376
6641
5710
5882
6058
6237
6421
6609
6802
6999
7200
7407
7618
7835
8067
8286
8619
8758
9004
9256
3401
3526
3663
3783
,3916
,4050
4188
4328
4471
4617
4766
4918
5073
5231
5393
6558
5727
6889
6075
6256
6440
6628
6821
7019
7221
7428
7640
7857
8080
8308
8642
8782
9029
9282
,3414
.3639
.3666
.3796
.3929
.4064
.4202
.4342
.4486
.4632
.4781
.4933
.5088
.5247
.5409
.5575
.6744
.5917
.6093
6274
.6459
6648
.6841
7039
.7241
7449
7661
7879
8102
8331
8666
8807
9054
9308
PRACTICAL TABLES
383
TABLE XXIX
£*f\o n CO c^£i ~~\
Specific Gravities at -p-^ F. " C. Corresponding to Degrees Baumd for
bU LIS -So J
Liquids Lighter than Water
-1
Calculated from the formula, specific gravity -r;r=F. = — ^ = =r — ,

^ ^ -^60° 130+Deg. BaumeJ
Degrees
Tenths of Degrees Baume.
Baume.
1
10
1.0000
0.9993
0.9986
0.9979
0.9972
0.9964
0.9957
0.9960
0.9943
0.9936
11
.9929
.9922
.9915
.9908
.9901
.9894
.9887
.9880
.9873
.9866
12
.9859
.9852
.9845
.9838
.9831
.9825
.9818
.9811
.9804
.9797
13
.9790
.9783
.9777
.9770
.9763
.9766
.9749
.9743
.9736
.9729
14
.9722
.9715
.9709
.9702
.9695
.9689
.9682
.9676
.9669
.9662
15
.9655
.9649
.9642
.9635
.9629
.9622
.9616
.9609
.9602
.9596
16
.9589
.9582
.9576
.9669
.9563
.9556
.9550
.9543
.9537
.9530
17
.9524
.9517
.9511
.9604
.9498
.9492
.9485
.9479
.9472
.9466
18
.9459
.9463
.9447
.9440
.9434
.9428
.9421
.9415
.9409
.9402
19
.9396
.9390
.9383
.9377
.9371
.9366
.9368
.9352
.9346
.9340
20
.9333
.9327
.9321
.9316
.9309
.9302
.9296
.9290
.9284
.9278
21
.9272
.9265
.9269
.9263
.9247
.9241
.9235
.9229
.9223
.9217
22
.9211
.9204
.9198
.9192
.9186
.9180
.9174
.9168
.9162
.9156
23
.9150
.9144
.9138
.9132
.9126
.9121
.9115
.9109
.9103
.9097
24
.9091
.9085
.9079
.9073
.9067
.9061
.9056
.9050
.9044
.9038
25
.9032
.9026
.9021
.9016
.9009
.9003
.8997
.8992
.8986
.8980
26
.8974
.8969
.8963
.8957
.8951
.8946
.8960
.8934
.8929
.8923
27
.8917
.8912
.8906
.8900
.8896
.8889
.8883
.8878
.8872
.8866
28
.8861
.8855
.8850
.8844
.8838
.8833
.8827
.8822
.8816
.8811
29
.8805
.8799
.8794
.8788
.8783
.8777
.8772
.8766
.8761
.8766
30
.8760
.8746
.8739
• .8734
.8728
.8723
.8717
.8712
.8706
.8701
31
.8696
.8690
.8686
.8679
.8674
.8669
.8663
.8668
.8653
.8647
32
.8642
.8637
.8631
.8626
.8621
.8616
.8610
.8605
.8600
.8594
33
.8589
.8584
.8678
.8673
.8568
.8663
.8557
.8552
.8547
.8642
34
.8537
.8531
.8526
.8621
.8516
.8511
.8605
.8500
.8495
.8490
35
.8485
.8480
.8475
.8469
.8464
.8469
.8454
.8449
.8444
.8439
36
.8434
.8429
.8424
.8419
.8413
.8408
.8403
.8398
.8393
.8388
37
.8383
.8378
.8373
.8368
.8363
.8358
.8353
.8348
.8343
.8338
38
.8333
.8328
.8323
.8318
.8314
.8309
.8304
.8299
.8294
.8289
39
.8284
.8279
.8274
.8269
.8264
.8260
.8255
.8260
.8245
.8240
384
TABLE XXIX.— C.TOiOTMed

fin° m ^° ^(\ H
Specific Gravities at ^^-^ F. ;rF"5^^C. Corresponding to Degrees Baum^ for
60 L15. 56 J
Tenths of Degrees Battme.
Degrees
Baum§.
'
40
0,8235
0.8230
0.8226
0.8221
0.8216
0.8211
0.8206
0.8202
0.8197
0.8192
41
.8187
.8182
.8178
.8173
.8168
.8163
.8159
.8154
.8149
.8144
42
.8140
.8135
.8130
.8121
.8121
.8116
.8111
.8107
.8102
.8097
43
.8092
.8088
.8083
.8078
.8074
.8069
.8065
.8060
.8065
.8051
44
.8046
.8041
.8037
.8032
.8028
.8023
.8018
.8014
.8009
.8005
45
.8000
.7996
.7991
.7986
.7982
.7977
.7973
.7968
.7964
.7959
46
.7955
.7960
.7946
.7941
.7937
.7932
.7928
.7923
.7919
.7914
47
.7910
.7906
.7901
.7896
.7892
.7887
.7883
.7878
.7874
.7870
48
.7865
.7861
.7858
.7862
.7848
.7843
.7839
.7834
.7830
.7826
49
.7821
.7817
.7812
.7808
.7804
.7799
.7795
.7791
.7786
.7782
. 50
.7778
.7773
.7769
.7766
.7761
.7756
.7752
.7748
.7743
.7739
51
.7735
.7731
.7726
.7722
.7718
.7713
.7709
.7705
.7701
.7697
52
.7692
.7688
.7684
.7680
.7676
.7671
.7667
.7663
.7659
.7654
63
.7650
.7646
.7642
.7638
.7634
.7629
.7626
.7621
.7617
.7613
54
.7609
.7605
.7600
.7596
.7592
.7588
.7584
.7580
.7576
.7572
55
.7568
.7663
.7569
.7556
.7551
.7547
.7543
.7539
.7635
.7531
56
.7527
.7523
.7519
.7516
.7511
.7507
.7503
.7499
.7495
.7491
67
.'7487
.7483
.7479
.7475
.7471
.7467
.7463
.7469
.7455
.7461
58
.7447
.7443
.7439
.7435
.7431
.7427
.7423
.7419
.7416
.7411
59
.7407
.7403
.7400
.7393
.7392
.7388
.7384
.7380
.7376
.7372
60
.7368
.7365
.7361
.7367
.7353
.7349
.7346
.7341
.7338
.7334
61
.7330
.7326
.7322
.7318
.7316
.7311
.7307
.7303
.7299
.7296
62
.7292
.7288
.7284
.7280
.7277
.7273
.7269
.7265
.7261
.72i8
63
.7254
.7250
.7246
.7243
.7239
.7236
.7231
.7228
.7224
.7220
64
.7216
.7213
.7209
.7206
.7202
.7198
.7194
.7191
.7187
.7183
65
.7179
.7176
.7172
.7168
.7165
.7161
.7157
.7154
.7150
.7147
66
.7143
.7139
.7136
.7132
.7128
.7126
.7121
.7117
.7114
.7110
67
.7107
.7103
.7099
.7096
.7092
.7089
.7085
.7081
.7078
.7074
68
.7071
.7067
.7064
.7060
.7056
.7053
.7049
.7046
.7042
.7039
69
.7036
.7032
.7028
.7025
.7021
.7018
.7014
.7011
.7007
.7004
PRACTICAL TABLES
385
TABLE XXlX.—Conti7iued
*u^\jKjXiiyj
\JIXCIi\ Hj
-- 60° "•[
l5. 56 1

Tenths of Degrees Baume.
Degrees
Bauiii6.
5
6
70
0.7000
3.6997
3.6993
3.6990
3.6986
3.6983
3.6979
3.6976
3.6972
3.6969
71
.6965
.6962
.6958
.6955
.6951
.6948
.6944
.6941
.6938
.6934
72
.6931
.6927
.6924
.6920
.6917
.6914
.6910
.6907
.6903
.6900
73
.6897
.6893
.6890
.6886
.6883
.6880
.6876
.6873
.6869
.6866
74
.6863
.6859
.6856
.6853
.6849
.6846
.6843
.6839
.6836
.6833
75
.6829
.6826
.6823
.6819
.6816
.6813
.6809
.6806
.6803
.6799
76
.6796
.6793
.6790
.6786
.6783
.6780
.6776
.6773
.6770
.6767
77
.6763
.6760
.6757
.6753
.6750
.6747
.6744
.6740
.6737
.6734
78
.6731
.6728
.6724
.6721
.6718
.6715
.6711
.6708
.6705
.6702
79
.6699
.6695
.6692
.6689
.6686
.6683
.6679
.6676
.6673
.6670
80
.6667
.6663
.6660
.6657
.6654
.6651
.6648
.6645
.6641
.6638
81
.6635
.6632
.6629
.6626
.6623
.6619
.6616
.6613
.6610
.6607
82
.6604
.6601
.6598
.6594
.6591
.6588
.6585
.6582
.6579
.6576
83
.6573
.6570
.6567
.6564
.6560
.6557
.6554
.6551
.6548
.6545
84
.6542
.6539
.6536
.6533
.6530
.6527
.6524
.6521
.6518
.6515
85
.6512
.6509
.6506
.6503
.6500
.6497
.6494
.6490
.6487
.6484
86
.6482
.6479
.6476
.6473
.6470
.6467
.6464
.6461
.6458
.6455
87
.6452
.6449
.6446
.6443
.6440
.6437
.6434
.6431
.6428
.6425
88
.6422
.6419
.6416
.6413
.6410
.6407
.6404
.6401
.6399
.6396
89
.6393
.6390
.6387
.6384
.6381
.6378
.6375
.6372
.6369
.6367
90
.6364
.6361
.6358
.6355
.6352
.6349
.6346
.6343
.6341
.6338
91
.6335
.6332
.6329
.6326
.6323
.6321
.6318
.6315
.6312
.6309
92
.6306
.6303
.6301
.6298
.6295
.6292
.6289
.6286
.6284
.6281
93
.6278
.6275
.6272
.6270
.6267
.6264
.6261
.6258
.6256
.6253
94
.6250
.6247
.6244
.6242
.6239
.6236
.6233
.6231
.6228
.6225
95
.6222
.6219
.6217
.6214
.6211
.6208
.6206
.6203
.6200
.6197
96
.6195
.6192
.6189
.6186
.6184
.6181
.6178
.6176
.6173
.6170
97
.6167
.6165
.6162
.6159
.6157
.6154
.6151
.6148
.6146
.6143
98
.6140
.6138
.6135
.6132
.6130
.6127
.6124
.6122
.6119
.6116
99
.6114
.6111
.6108
.6106
.6103
.610C
.6098
.6095
.6092
.6090
100
.6087
asphalt binder is to be used instead the weight of the membrane
may be taken as 15 per cent less than the values given in the table.
The weights and thicknesses noted in columns 3, 4 and 5, are
average values of many specimens actually weighed and measured.
The rest of the items were calculated. The two thicknesses of binder
film, Ys iiich and ^-inch were assumed because yj-inch is the thick-
ness of a film of binder when carefully applied with a single mopping,
while the ^-inch film is obtained with a double mopping which is
sometimes called for on important work. Where the ^-inch thick-
ness of film is used only half the number of plies required for the
xt inch would be necessary under the same conditions of water
pressure, etc.
While jute burlap weighing 7, 8, 9, 10 and even 11 ounces is some-
times used, the TJ-ounce open-mesh variety is most extensively
used. No. 26 felt is a very commonly used grade, though anywhere
from No. 20 to No. 50 felts are used for membrane waterproofing.
The heavier-weight felts are usually used for roofing. The medium-
weight cotton fabrics are most extensively used for membrane water-
proofing. These weights range from 4 to 6 ounces per square yard.
For obtaining weights of complete membranes consisting of more
than 6 plies, the simplest way is to draw a curve on cross-section
paper for three or four values in which the number of plies are the
abscissae and the weights are the ordinates. It will be found that
the curves so drawn are straight lines and may be produced to give
the values sought.
Table XXXII, " Thickness of Waterproofing Materials for Dif-
ferent Water Pressures," shows the approximate mmiber of felt and
fabric phes, thicknesses of mortar and mastic layers and the number
of courses of various kinds of waterproofing materials (applicable
to the membrane or surface-coating types of waterproofing), required
under various heads of water. It is compiled from a careful study
of the general field practice in waterproofing underground structures.
The bituminous sheet mastic layers, the brick-in-mastic courses and
the different membranes, should be protected, or rather, encased
in masonry, both to support them and protect them from climatic
temperature changes. The surface-mortar coats, | inch thick or
less, must not be put on in several layers to make up there quired
thickness, but the thicker mortar coats may have a scratch coat,
and together with the " finish coat " should make up the requked
thickness. Both the thin and thick mortar coats must be applied
continuously over or on the structure until completed.
Table XXXIII, " Volumes and Weights of Ingredients used in
PRACTICAL TABLES
387
Brick-in- (Asphalt) Mastic Waterproofing," is based on present-

day practice of laying common bricks in a bitimiinous mastic to
form a thick waterproofing envelope about an underground structure.
It is further based on the use of asphalt only for making the mastic,
but coal-tar pitch can be used with practically equally good results.
The weight of asphalt was assumed to be 66 pounds per cubic foot.
The average weight of coal-tar pitch is 76 pounds per cubic foot.
The size of joints between bricks in the brick-in-mastic envelope
is of vital importance. Bricks laid close together, that is, without
joints, vitiate the function of the waterproofing envelope. It, is
obvious that the bricks do not constitute a waterproofing medium
TABLE XXX.— SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND COEFFICIENT OF EXPAN-
SION OF VARIOUS MATERIALS
Substance.
Alcohol (100%)
Asphalt, artificial (Eastern
petroleum), residuum at
21° Baum6
Asphalt, Bermudez Lake.
Asphalt, Mexican
Asphalt, Trinidad Lake
(crude)
Asphalt, Trinidad, liquid. . .
Beeswax
Castor oil
China wood oil
Caoutchouc (rubber) ....
Creosote oil
Fats
Gutta Percba
Ice
Linseed oil
Paraffin (hard)
Oils (vegetable)
Oils (mineral)
Petroleum, Mexican as-
phaltic (crude)
Pitch, coal tar
Pitch, oil tar
Rosin
Rubber (sheet)
Tallow
Turpentine
Water (4° C.)
Wax
Specific
Gravity
at 62° F,
(Aver.).
0.79
1.3
1.061
1.036'
1.21
0.96
0.955
0.96
0.944
0.94
1.07
0.935
0.99
0.92
0.927
0.908
0.925
0.915
0.878
1.298
1.218
1.1
1.5
0.94
0.860
1.000
0.965
Volu-
metric
Coeffici-
ent of
Expan-
sion Per
Deg. F.
(Aver.).
,00058
000507
,000352
, 000288*
,000352
000303
,000150
,666355'
.000332
0000408"
.000380'
.000568
000392
0002435
000258=
000454'
000086
Substance.
Asbestos
Brick (common) .
Brick masonry. . .
Cedar
Clay ''Dry lumps)
CoL ._ete (stone) .
Copper
Granite (New Hamp.).

Graphite
Gypsum
Hydrated lime
Iron (wrought)
Lead
Lime (slaked)
Limestone
Marble
Mortar (1:2)
Oak (white)
Pine (long leaf)
Plaster (white)
Portland cement (set) .
Rubble masonry
Sandstone : . . .
Slate
Steel
Terra Cotta
Tiles
Tin (rolled)
Zinc (rolled)
Specific
Gravity
at 62° F.
(Aver.) .
2.81
1.922
2.00
0.45
1.80
2.33
8.88
3.1
2.68
2.26
2.27
2.12
7.70
11.40
1.35
2.72
2.65
1.84
0.77
0.61
2.95
2.48
2.44
2.81
7.80
1.9
2.20
7.40
7.05
Lineal
Coeffici-
ent of
Expan-
sion
Per Deg.
F.
(Aver.) .
00000306
0000031
,0000068
.0000093
, 0000041
, 0000047
, 0000044
0000067
0000159
0000045
0000056
00000561
0000027
0000030
0000092
0000067
0000035
0000061
0000058
0000061
,0000117
000017
1 Specific gravity at 77 deg. Fahr.

2 Asphalt having penetration between 0.50 and 0.75 cm. at 77 deg. Fahr. (100 grams,
seconds). Coefficient between 77 and 300 deg. Fahr.
' Asphalt is for cold application. Coefficient between 77 and 100 deg. Fahr.
' Asphalt having penetration between 0. 65 and 0.83 cm. at 77 deg. Fahr.
5 Straight-run product having a melting-point of 137 deg. Fahr. by the cube-in-water
method. Coefficient between 60 and 180 deg. Fahr.
6 Melting point 160 deg. Fahr. by the cube-in-water method. Coefficient between 60
and 180 deg. Fahr.
I Between 50 deg. and 100 deg. Fahr.
'At H- 30 deg. F»hr., reducing ts .0000197 at .- 30 deg. Fahr.
388
O
o
w
H
o
M
o
H
O
O
Q
Q
I"
2^
«
O
02
12;
M
W
H
o
O
l-H
O "^
1* -< «
S «3
a X'
Total
Binder in
Membrane
(Lb.).
PerSq.Yd.
■ ■ -mOJCOMOOOOIMIMCDCOÔO
• • • l> O O CO Tti i-H t* CO w (N -^ t^

• ■ • .-H .-H .-1 .-1 IM .-H (M IM CO IM CO
4, .
H;-|s : "ls-|s-w;;|siss|s-Esis:iss|S"'-s|s
Weight of
Mem-
brane
(Lb.).
PerSq.Yd.
aix • t- r- oj o>(N N TtH -# i> t- o5 o5

(N C» -OJiOCOtÔOOIMlNCD-ÔCO
•l>^Mt>COTt<i-iO>OCOO<N
rH .-H ^ ,-1 (N (N CO (N CO CO ■*
s
a-
P
n
Total
Binder in
Membrane
(Lb.).
Per Sq.Yd.
• • • O a> CO CO 00 00 (N (N CO CD T-l 00
. . •OCOCDOr-I.COt^t^lNOOOCO
• • ■ l> d O CO TjH ,-( t^ CD >-l(M Tj< [^
■ ■ ■ 'i-Hi-Hi-Ht-((Ni-HCÎC<IC0(NCO
So
^t-^^ : «l?^HS-'-::K::e:2lsHss|sS««l^'"'-a"
Weight of
Mem-
brane
(Lb.).
PerSq.Yd.
1-100 • l> I> j-^ l-H CO CD -^ -^ »> t^ OS OS

ICO • i-H t^ b* T-( 00 to O O CD Oi (N 00
i-H ■ 00 i-H i-H t* CO -^ <N T-H CD Ttl ^ CO

tHi-It-i^(MCJCO<NCOCO"*i
1-3
« P
o
Total
Binder in
Membrane
(Lb.).
PerSq.Yd.
■ • - i-H i-H 00 00 lOlM C^ (N 05 OS CD CD

• ■ ■ rH i> CD O CN "^ 00 X CO --H Olio
• • ! i> o o CD '^ 1-H i> CD »H (rq Tfi b-

• ■ ■ l-H ,-( T-ii-H <N l-H (M (N CO (N CO
-I^HsHS:ls:2|>e"i-ssB^KH.sKSBs|:s|s^:::e
Weight of
Mem-
brane
(Lb.).
PerSq.Yd.
CqiOlCcDCDO5OSi-Hi-HC0COcDC<I0000
tHOSCO-«:JHOCO»>CO»JO<N(Ni-hcOOCD
i-H00(NCO0000tOC0CN0000COlO
i-HT-Hi-Hi-KNCNCOCHCOCO-^
^ a
: : HS?sHSHs--|SHs-|S"K-KHSHSHS
d
2
■ • •WC^lCOCO'^TfiiOlOCDCOt^t^
E
s
1-ply untreated
1-ply saturated
1-ply saturated and coated. . .
1-ply membrane (applied) . . .
2-ply membrane (applied) . . ..
3-ply membrane (applied) . . ".
5-pIy membrane (applied) . . .
S-ply membrane (applied) . . .
6-ply membrane (apolied) . . .
Sd
cS
a5
O
_43
Xi
S a
'^
&.H
%■%
o
o
0) 1=1
fn
•=5
a.
„,•?!
g^
03
i;
CT
.s-:;
^.
"^^
^5
ej
^1
■■■a
"mO
^s
" s
« S
aos
. = 1-
5 « °
■*-^ J
■n ff .
'■' "-S.Sja „
2sS •as
S*od -
■g-S-S ja 3
■*^ rt^-* II ^^
■S5g.S,.«
3 a,»."-So
■ssl-s-si
*-o4i 5"S"'
•9 q^ ".S-o
•oca -.s^
- ■5«Ho's"
J3-- " .— M'S|3
PRACTICAL TABLES
38S
in themselves, they merely furnish " body," depth and weight to

the envelope and economy in the waterproofing system. The bitu-
minous mastic alone is the waterproofing medium, hence the more
of it present — within economical limits, of course — the better. The
smallest joint should be not less than | inch and the largest need
not be more than J inch. Therefore the volume and weight of the
various ingredients have been calculated on this basis; also on the
empirical basis of a 20 per cent and 30 per cent reduction in volume
of mastic, as compared to volume of ingredients (see Chapter VII),
mixed in proportions of 2 : 1 : 1 and 1 : 1 : 1, respectively.
TABLE XXXII.— THICKNESS OF WATERPROOFING MATERIALS
REQUIRED FOR DIFFERENT WATER PRESSURES
Ntjube
a OF Plies,
Laybbs OB
COUBSES.
a
it
O
■S.2
6
•OX
s
gfc.
1
•o
a
a
1
5
S
a
S
o
O
c
.a d
m
1
* d
<
a
oil
<
■Is 2
«
Portland Ce-
ment Mortar
ON Outside of
SUBSTRXTCTDKE.
"S
&
IS
a
o ^
If
2 a
2
3
8
2
2
1
4
1
2
1
2
9
Ic
12
5
3
3
4
Ic
5
8
I.-)
fi
3
T
Ic
5
8
18
Id
3
4
21
7
5
Id
3
4
24
6
6
Id
27
2c
H
30
2c
33
9
8
li
2c
li
3fi
10
10
2d
■1 1
J-*
li
39
10
10
li
2d
14
li
42
10
9
9
10
11
2d
J-2
* Each third ply to be either jute or cotton fabric.

t Sheet mastic composed of 15 to 25 per cent of bitumen; sand, grit and cement or lime-
stone dust in equal proportions. • , , ^
t Mastic (for brick and mastic) composed of 35 to 45 per cent of bitumen, and equal parts
of sand and cement, or limestone dust.
(a) Open-mesh variety.
(6) Closed-mesh variety.
(c) Bricks laid on S X3} inch face, on horizontal and against vertical surfaces.
(rf) Bricks laid on 8 X2i inch face, on horizontal surfaces, but on the SJ-inch face agains
vertical surfaces. .
390
O
t— )
02
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r dj
s <^
•O £
gp?
telxS
CO,-
IC
5^11
.HTtlr-(T)Hir5CD10tOI>COtê<35DOOt00005-*05r)IOOOO»00
Q
n
o
a
l>O>-HOCOO-*T-(00C0(N(Nl>O>-ldblOW*Tt(Tt<lClC<l-*
OOCOOSTtH{NTt<Ot^C<liOOOiOt^»C»OOOCO(NCO»OT-iC<lCC>*-l
6«
■*O>«OKI'^00tO>-li-llNi-lc<Di-lCi3<NTtl.-lC0(NTj(i-i(Ni-ieO
«'°
g-3
03Q0051>iOC^t~l>'0000'-l-*OOOC»eOtOiOMO>00
-"3
(N >0 ro tXN lO CO CD 11 i-l(N 1-1 <N --1 C^> 1-1 T-l 1-1 <N i-i i-l
Q ■
=••8 "23
t>OI>OI>Ol>OlM(N<N(MC0Ot0O<NC<ICq(N00>O00l0
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PRACTICAL TABLES
391
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WATERPROOFmG ENGINEERING
Table XXXIV, "Pressure Exerted by Water Beneath Floors

and Against Walls," is based on the principles of hydrostatic pres-
sure, which are, (1) the pressure on the base of a vessel containing
water is equal to the height of water above the base, times its area;
(2) the average water pressure on the side of a vessel is equal to
one-half the height of the water in the vessel, times the area of the
vertical surface in contact with the water; (3) the pressure of water
is transmitted equally in all directions. The type of waterproofing
is often governed by the water pressure it will have to resist as judged
by the height of ground or mean high water level above the base of
the structure to be waterproofed. The table converts this height
into pounds pressure for each of the above three conditions.
TABLE XXXIV.— PRESSURE EXERTED BY WATER BENEATH
FLOORS AND AGAINST WALLS
HydrOBtatio ITpad —
Feet.
Pressure
per Square Inch —
Lbs.
Lifting Pressure
per Square Foot
(Under Floor)— Lbs.
Average Pressure
per Square Foot on Wall
Surface Affected.- Lbs.
0.5
0.21
31.2
15.6
1.0
0.43
, 62.5
31.2
2. J
0.86
125.0
62.5
3.0
1.30
187.5
93.7
4.0
1.73
250,0
125.0
5.0
2,17
312,5
156.2
6.0
2.60
375,0
187.5
8.0
3.47
500.0
250,0
10.0
4.34
625.0
312,5
12.0
5.21
750.0
375,0
15.0
6.51
937.5
468.7
20.0
8.68
1250.0
625.0
25.0
10,85
1562.5
781.2
30.0
13.02
1875.0
937.5
40.0
17,36
2500.0
1250.0
60.0
26.04
3750.0
1875.0
80.0
34.72
5000,0
2500.0
100.0
43.40
6250.0
3125.0
Table XXXV, " Approximate Weight and Thickness of Various

Sheet Metals for Roofings, Gutters and Flashings," gives the weight,
thickness and gauge number of various sheet metals commonly used
for gutters, flashings, and roofings. Sheet metal is usually designated
by the weight of a superficial foot, in pounds or ounces, or by some
standard gauge. All tin, iron and steel are figured on the U. S.
Standard gauge; copper is figured on the Brown & Sharpe gauge;
PRACTICAL TABLES
393
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PRACTICAL TABLES
395
zinc has a gauge of its own, while lead is usually figured at so many-
pounds to the square foot, such as 2-pound lead, 3-pound lead, etc.
Galvanized sheets have a gauge based on their weights, and not on
the thickness. Corrugated galvanized sheets usually figured on
the U. S. Standard gauge, are made in standard widths of corru-
gations, and in standard lengths, ranging from 5 to 10 feet, with
a maximum length of 12 feet.
Table XXXVI, "Weights of Roof Coverings," gives closely
approximate weights of various roof coverings and sheathings.
These figures are very useful for designing and estimating.
TABLE XXXVI.— WEIGHTS OF ROOF COVERINGS
Material.
Average Weight in
Lbs. per Sq. Ft
of Roof.
Ash wood sheathing, 1-in. thick

Asbestos shingles (laid French method)
Asbestos shingles (laid American method)
Chestnut wood sheathing, 1-in. thick
Copper, 16 oz., standing seam
Clay tiles (plain) lOi by 6i by | ins., 5i in. to the weather
Clay tiles (Spanish) 14 J by lOJ ins., 7i ins. to the weather
Felt and asphalt (3 plies) (without sheathing)
Felt, asphalt and gravel (6 plies) (without sheathing)
Glass, |-in. thick
Hemlock sheathing, 1-in. thick
Iron, corrugated. No. 16, B.W.G. (without sheathing)
Iron, galvanized, flat No. 16, B.W.G. (without sheathing) .
Maple sheathing, 1-in. thick . ■.
Oak sheathing, 1-in. thick
Sheet iron, rs-in- tliick
Sheet-lead, about j-in. thick
Slag roofing (four-ply)
Slate, i-in. thick
Slate, A-in. thick (double-lap)
Slate, i-in. thick (3 in. double-lap)
Spruce sheathing, 1-in. thick
Terne plate (tin), IC (without sheathing)
Terne plate (tin), IX (without sheathing)
Tiles, 2 in. to 4 in. thick (plain, with mortar)
White pine sheathing, 1-in. thick
Wood shingles, 6 by 18 ins., J to the weather
Yellow pine sheathing, 1-in. thick
Zinc No. 20, B.W.G
5.0
2.8
4.0
4.0
1.3
18.0
8.5
2.0
8.0-10.0
1.8
2.0
3.6
3.0
4.0
5.0
3.0
8.0
4.0
9.0
6.8
4.5
2.5
0.5
0.7
15.0
2.5
2.0
4.0
1.5
396
Table XXXVII, "Square Feet Covered by 1000 Wooden

Shingles," gives the covering capacity of a thousand wooden shingles
of various lengths and widths, according to fractions exposed to the
weather. The number of shingles per 100 square feet of roof surface
can be easily calculated therefrom. In doing so about 5 per cent
should be added for hip roofs and about 10 per cent for irregular
roofs with dormer windows. The number of nails required is usually
about three times the number of shingles.
Table XXXVIII, " Number of Slates and Pounds of Nails for
Roofing," gives the number of slate shingles and quantity of nails
required to cover 100 square feet of roof surface. These values are
also applicable to flat, baked-clay tiles.
Table XXXIX, " Size, Length, Gauge and Weight of Roofing
Nails," will prove helpful to the roofer. Nails shorter than J inch
are generally not used. Nails with large flat heads and barbed shanks
are best for all roofing purposes.
TABLE XXXVII.-
3QUARE FEET COVERED BY ONE THOUSAND

WOODEN SHINGLES
Le>
GTH IN Inches.
16
18
20
24
11 "
Width in Inches.
Width
in Inches.
Width
Inches.
Width in Inches.
4
5 6
77
98
119
3i
90
114
139
4 1
03
130
159
4i 1
16
146
179
5 1
29
162
199
129
62 199
51 ]
-12
178
219
142
]
78 219
6 ]
55
194
239
155
94 239
239
6i
168
^
!10 259
259
181
!26 279
279
226
279
329
7^
194
!42 299
299
242
299
353
207
!58 319
319
258
319
377
81
339
274
339
401
359
290
359
425
9i
.....
306
379
449
10
322
399
473
338
419
479
11
354
439
521
111
370
459
545
12
386
479
569
PRACTICAL TABLES
397
TABLE XXXVIII.— NUMBER OF SLATES AND POUNDS OF NAILS

REQUIRED FOR ROOFING *
(Per 100 Sq. Ft.)
Size of
Slates
(Inches).
No. of Inches
Exposed
When Laid.
No. per
Square
(100 Sq. Ft.).
Weight of
Galvanized Nails
per Square.
14X24
98
Lb. Oz. d.
1 6 4
12X24
115
1 10 4
12X22
9J
126
1 12 4
11X22
n
138
1 15 4
12X20
81
142
2 4
10X20
8J
170
2 6 4
12X18
7i
160
1 13 3
10X18
7i
192
2 3 3
9X18
7i
214
2 7 3
12X16
6i
185
2 2 3
10X16
61
222
2 8 3
9X16
6^
247
3 3
8X16
6i
277
3 2 3
10X14
5i
262
3 3
8X14
51
328
3 12 3
7X14
5i
374
4 4 3
8X12
400
4 9 3
7X12
458
5 3 3
6X12
4i
533
6 1 3
* American Civil Engineers' Pocket Book, p. 404 (2d Edition).

TABLE XXXIX.— SIZE, LENGTH, GAUGE AND WEIGHT OF ROOFING
NAILS*
Si
ATING
Nails.
Shingle
Nails.
Felt Roofing i\
L.VRGE Heai
Bahbed.
AILS,
RoOFiNO Nails,
B.^KBED.
tt
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d
ta
g
6
3
E3
1— 1
6
Ed
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6
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c
6
1
6
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ffi
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ij
1— (
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2d
12
411
3d
13
429
3
1
1
2
10
13
714
3i
101
225
id
12
274
8
7
16
10
7
8
12
469
4rf
1*
10^
187
5d
If
12
235
i^
10
12
411
,<«
If
10
142
12
204
10
11
■^8
13
365
2
9
103
7d
2i
11
139
10
11
11
251
8d
21
11
125
u
7
T6
10
If
10
233
9d
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11
114
If
1
2
7
16
10
li
10
176
lOd
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83
If
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151
103
*A
B man
ufactu
red b
i' Pitt
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Steel
Cp.
APPENDICES
APPENDIX I
EXPLANATION OF MECHANICAL ANALYSIS* FOR GRADING
CONCRETE AGGREGATES
Mechanical analysis consists in separating- the particles or grains
of a sample of any material, such as broken stone, gravel, sand or
cement, into the various sizes of which it is composed, so that the
material may be represented by a curve (see Figs. 139-140), each
of whose ordinates is the percentage of the weight of the total sample
which passes a sieve having holes of a diameter represented by the
distance of this ordinate from the origin in the diagram.
The objects of mechanical analysis curves as applied to concrete
aggregates are (1) to show graphically the sizes and relative sizes
of the particles; (2) to indicate what sized particles are needed to
make the aggregate more nearly perfect and so enable the engineer
to improve it by the addition or substitution of another material;
and (3) to afford means for determining best proportions of differ-
ent aggregates.
To determine the relative sizes of the particles or grains of which
a given sample of stone or sand is composed, the different sizes are
separated from each other by screening the material through succes-
sive sieves of increasing fineness. After sieving, the residue on each
sieve is carefully weighed, and beginning with that which has passed
the finest sieve, the weights are successively added, so that each
sum will represent the total weight of the particles which have passed
through a certain sieve. The sums thus obtained are expressed as
percentages of the total weight of the sample and plotted upon a
diagram with diameters of the particles as abscissae and percentages
as ordinates.
A convenient outfit for such a mechanical analysis as above
described, consists of a set of sieves, an apparatus for shaking the
sieves, and scales for weighing. A standard size of sieve is 8 inches
in diameter and 2J inches high. Sieves with openings exceeding
0.10 inch are preferably made of spun hard brass with circular
* Taylor and Thompson " Concrete, Plain and Reinforced," p. 193.
399
400
APPENDIX I
openings drilled to the exact dimensions required. Sieves with open-

ings of 0.10 inch and less are preferably of woven brass wire set into
a hard brass frame. Woven brass sieves are made for many purposes,
and are sold by numbers which are approximately the number of
meshes to the linear inch. As the actual diameter of the hole varies
with the gauge of wire used by different manufacturers, every set of
sieves must be separately calibrated.
The number and sizes of sieves to be used depends upon the im-
portance of the testing to be done. A convenient set of sieves for
ordinary laboratory practice is given below in Table XL.
TABLE XL.— SIZES OF SAND AND STONE SIEVES
Sand Sieves.
Stone Sieves, Diameter

of Hole (Inclies).
Commercial No.
Diameter
in Inches,
Hole.
Wire.
3 00
i in. round
2.50
No. 7
0.111
0.032
2.00
" 12
0.056
0,027
1.50
" 20
0.0335
0,0165
1.00
" 30
0,0198
0.0135
0,75
" 50
0,0120
0,0080
0.50
" 90
0.0059
0.0052
0.25
" 200
0,0029
0.0021
When many analyses are to be made, it is convenient to have a

printed cross-section form, with appropriate spaces for filling in the
number of the analysis, description of the material, location of the
work, and other facts relating to the material.
For those who are unfamiliar with mechanical analysis, a detailed
explanation of the method of locating the curve is here given. The
method can best be understood by referring to the diagrams of
typical materials which are also of practical interest as illustrating
the curves which may be expected in special cases.
Fig. 139 represents a typical mechanical analysis of crusher-run
micaceous quartz stone which has been run through a |-inch revolv-
ing screen so as to separate particles finer than j inch, that is, the
dust for use with sand.
For a sample of stone, which may be taken by the method of
quartering * 1000 grams is a convenient quantity for 8-inch diameter
* The method of quartering consists in taking shovelfuls of the material
from various parts of the pile, mixed together and spread in a circle. The circle
is quartered, as one would quarter a pie; two of the opposite quarters are shoveled
Grading concrete aggregates
401
sieves 21 inches in depth, and also permits of easy reduction from

weights to percentages. To obtain the analysis shown in Fig. 139,
the sample of stone is placed in the upper (coarsest) sieve of the nest
of stone sieves given in Table XL, and after 1000 * shakes the nest
is taken apart, and the quantity caught on each sieve is weighed,
beginning with the finest and placing each successive residue on
the scale pan with that already weighed. The results obtained in
the particular case under consideration are illustrated in Table
LXI, which shows the method of finding the percentages:
o o c!
=3.
'•*.
PARTICLES BELOW H INCt

SIEVED OUT FOR USE
AS SAND
ll
'
y
y
y
75
/'
/
1
^ 1
X
^
""^
1
^\
i>
50
,fN
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>
.«
^>
1
^)
y
25
c
'n
^
-'
1
/
^
I
^
-^
I
_
0.75 1.00 1.25

Diameters oE Stone in Indies
1.75
Fig.
139. — Typical Mechanical Analysis Curve of Crusher-run Micaceous

Quartz Stone.
The various percentages are plotted on the diagram and the curve
drawn through the points. The vertical distance from the bottom
of the diagram to the curve, that is, the ordinate at any point,
represents the percentage of the material which passed through a
single sieve having holes of the diameter represented by this particu-
lar ordinate. Since the percentage of material paesing any sieve
is always the complement of the percentage of grains coarser than
that sieve, the vertical distances from the top of the diagram down to
the curve represents the percentages which would be retained
away from the rest, thoroughly mixed, spread, and quartered as before. The
operation is repeated until the quantity is reduced to that required for the
sample.
* In practice to-day the custom prevails of shaking the material until no
more comes through as determined by successive weighings.
402
APPENDIX 1
upon each sieve if employed alone. For example, taking 1.25, 62
per cent, the distance from the bottom of the diagram, represents
the percentage of material finer than l^-inch diameter, and 38 per cent,
the distance down from the top of diagram, represents the percent-
age coarser than IJ inch.
TABLE XLI.— RESULTS OF SCREENING SAMPLES OF STONE OF
FIG. 140
Size Sieve.
Amount Finer than

Each Sieve.
Percentage Finer
than Each Sieve.
Inches
Grams
Per Cent
1.50
801
SO
1.00
457
46
0.67
222
22
0.45
99
10
0.30
27
0.20
19
0.15
0.10
Typical curves of a fine, a medium well graded, and a coarse sand

are shown in Fig. 140. For convenience in plotting, the horizontal
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o.iao
0.200
0.025 0.030 0.076 0.100 0.125

Diameters of Sand la Inches
Fig. 140. — Typical Mechanical Analyses Curves of Fine, Medium, Well-graded,
and Coarse Sands.
scale is ten times greater than that of Fig. 139, the diagram showing
diameters ranging from to 0.200 inch diameter.
The mechanical analysis of crusher dust is apt to vary between
the curves of fine sand and medium sand which are shown in Fig. 140.
APPENDIX II
CONCRETE IN SEA "WATER*
Regarding the chemical action of sea water on concrete and its
prevention, the following information and conclusions are presented
here because of their bearing on and corroboration of the subject
matter of Chapter I.f
Investigations concerning the effect of sea water on concrete
inmiersed for periods up to fifty years or more; of the relative merits
of standard Portland cement and Portland cement made with dif-
ferent proportions of its principal constituents, in resisting the dis-
integrating effect of sea water; of the effect of varying the propor-
tions of cement in the mortar and concrete; of differently graded
aggregates; of the addition of various finely ground materials to
the cement after burning; of the relative durability of concrete
cast in place as compared with concrete blocks allowed to harden
before placing in the sea; and of the effect of various materials added
to the concrete mixture to produce impermeability and consequent
increased durability, have been made in European countries and in
America.
Regarding the chemical action of sea water on cement, the fol-
lowing conclusions are presented:
Cement containing up to 2f per cent of sulphuric anhydride
(SO3) resists the action of sea water fully as well as cement with lower
sulphuric anhydride content.
While all the hydraulic cements now in use are Hable to decomposi-
tion in sea water, Portland cement is the one to be preferred in every
respect.
High iron Portland cement and puzzolan cement have failed to
show superiority over standard Portland cement in resisting the
disintegrating effect of sea water.
* American Railway Engineering Association, Vol. 15, March, 1914, p. 564.
t For a presentation of practical results of marine construction and valuable
conclusions drawn from observed effects of sea water on concrete aU over the
United States, see five articles by Rudolph J. Wig and Lewis R. Ferguson in
Engineering News-Record, commencing Vol. 79, No. 12, 1917.
403
404 APPENDIX II
Regarding the effect of varying the proportions of cement in the
mortar and concrete, in general, the richer mixtures have been found
to offer better resistance to the attack of sea water. Proportions
recommended for mortars are those with one part cement to one part
of sand up to one part cement to two parts sand. The bad condi-
tion of mortars leaner than the above after exposure in sea water,
stands out prominently.
In the use of reinforced concrete for maritime works, it is advis-
able to employ larger proportions of cement than are usual for similar
works in fresh water.
Concerning the addition of finely ground material to the cement
after burning, it has been found that the addition of ground puzzolan
or furnace slag to Portland cement increases the resistance of the
resulting mortar or concrete to the disintegrating effect of sea water.
Regarding the use of any material added to the concrete mix-
ture in small quantities in order to reduce permeability, no results
of practical working tests have demonstrated that the effect of any
material in reducing permeability is other than mechanical, i.e.,
to supply a deficiency in fine material in a poorly graded concrete
mixture.
Allowing the concrete to harden under favorable conditions before
exposure to the action of sea water greatly increases its resistance to
attack by the sea water and is recommended wherever possible.
When concrete is deposited under sea water, such precaution
should be observed as will prevent the washing of the cement from the
mixture.
Forms should be so tight as to prevent the entrance of sea water
after depositing the concrete, in order that a smooth dense surface
may be obtained.
The combined effect of freezing and of sea water is noted on
marine structures in northern latitudes between high and low tide
levels. Under these conditions the disintegrating effects are par-
ticularly severe.
Dense, properly hardened concrete is not affected by the action
of sea water. Where the concrete is porous, however, it is likely
to be damaged by frost action, especially between tides. There is no
evidence, however, that porous concrete is damaged by sea water
in latitudes where there is no frost.
The making of a dense, impermeable concrete by the use of a
well-graded aggregate, rich mixture, proper consistency, and good
workmanship, and allowing the concrete to harden under favorable
conditions before being exposed to the action of sea water, is generally
CONCRETE IN SEA WATER 405

Conceded to be an efficient means of satisfactorily insuring the pres-
ervation of concrete in maritime works.
Concrete Subjected to the Action of Water Containing Alkalies.
Investigations concerning the effect of ground waters which contain
alkalies on concrete have disclosed several instances of apparent
disintegration. The following points have been demonstrated in
regard to the resistance of concrete to these agencies :
Concrete in which poor aggregates and lean mixtures have been
used and in tvhich the material has been carelessly placed, when
coming in contact with alkali seepage may be affected thereby.
The aggregates should be composed of materials inert to alkalies
present in the water. A chemical examination of the sand from coun-
try known to contain alkaHne soils is recommended.
Water containing substances known to react with the elements;
of the cement should be kept from coming in contact with concrete
until the latter has thoroughly hardened.
Care should be taken to provide a smooth surface and sufficient
slope to the extrados of the arch of tunnel finings when the ground-
water level lies below the tunnel grade to facifitate the flow of seep-
age water to the sides. The back filhng over the arch should consist
of porous material such as coarse, crushed stone, for the same reason.
Side-drains should be used where necessary and connected with an
underdrain, which should be provided in all cases.
The measures to be used in making concrete which is to be exposed
to the action of these deteriorating agencies in order to prevent
disintegration are the same as recommended for sea water construc-
tion. Impermeability is the prime requisite, and the results of experi-
ments and practical tests indicate that concrete, carefully prepared,
is just as resistant, if not more so, than if mixed with foreign materials
or special preparations.
The following instructive conclusions on the effect of sea water
on concrete are from a paper by Mr. W. Walters Pagon, read before
the Engineers Club of Baltimore.* Though somewhat a repetition
of the previous paper, its greater detail warrants its addition
here.
In order to construct concrete that will have the greatest resistive
power against the action of sea water (and also probably of alkali
waters) it must possess the following characteristics:
The addition of puzzolan in some form is widely practiced in
Europe and appears to be theoretically correct. It has not been
tried in America, to the author's knowledge, but is worth an exhaus-
' " Concrete," Vol. 9, No. 4, October, 1916.
406 APPENDIX n
tive test. The amount should not be over one part nor less than
one-half part for each part of cement.
Waterproofing with substances that combine chemically with the
free Ume ought to be successful and is worth testing.
Between extreme high and low tides the concrete surface should
be faced continuously, without joints, with about 3 inches of 1 : 1^
or 1 : 2 mortar made with sand as specified below, well cured before
coming in contact with the sea water. Facing must be placed simul-
taneously with the backing.
The cement should be low in lime and alumina and contain as
little gypsum as possible.
Sand must be silicious', uniformly graded from fine to coarse,
with not less than 50 per cent nor more than 70 per cent passing
through a No. 20 sieve, and no more than 3 per cent passing a No.
100 sieve and must have no organic matter coating the grains'. It
must be free from roots and easily disintegrated grains, such as
feldspar, shells, limestone, mica, etc. It should be washed free
from clay, and should show a tensile strength for 1 : 3 specimens
not less than the following percentages of the strength of standard
Ottawa sand of the same consistency, using the brand of cement
that is to be used on the work:
. Percentage
■*■««• Strength.
1 day 85
7 days 95
28 days 100
Where concrete must be exposed to sea water without mortar
facing, gravel should not be used. Broken stone should be hard,
durable trap, granite or other dense, hard, insoluble stone. It
should not exceed f inch in size and should be free from crusher
dust, sand, dirt, organic matter or other foreign substances. The
mixture should be 1 : IJ : 3 or 1 : 2 : 4 or should be proportioned
for maximum density.
Pure fresh water should be used in sufficient quantity to permit
the materials to be well puddled and spaded, so that no later surface
treatment or patching will be required, but not sufficient to materially
retard the setting of the cement. Care must be exercised, however,
to prevent the formation of laitance or pockets of neat cement or
very rich mortar.
Forms should be tight to prevent leakage of cement, or, where
concrete must be submerged immediately, to prevent contact with
the sea water.
CONCRETE IN SEA WATER 407

Facing should be reinforced with steel well covered with mortar
and securely anchored to the backing.
No surface treatment should be given.
The work should be allowed to harden for two weeks, if possible,
before coming in contact with sea water. Two months is better.
Sea water work should never be done in cold weather, with tem-
perature below 40 deg. Fahr. (4.4 deg. Cent.).
Where possible, pre-cast, mortar-faced blocks cured in damp sand
for at least one month should be used. The mortar facing should
not only be on the outside of the block, but should extend on the faces
which form the bed joints and vertical joints. In this way the facing
will be continuous, back to such a point, that no water can get into
the rear of the block. The joints between the blocks should be
pointed with 1 : 1 mortar of coarse sand to eliminate saturation.
The most durable surface will be obtained if granite or other dense
stone be used as facing. This should not be less than 6 inches thick,
anchored back with wrought-iron clamps and pointed with 1 : 1
mortar of coarse sand and cement as noted above.
On mortar or concrete surfaces the growth of barnacles, moss,
etc., will frequently afford protection.
APPENDIX III
REPORT ON WATERPROOFING *
The following report of Committee D-8 of the American Society
for Testing Materials corroborates the author's information and
experience in general waterproofing preceding and since its publica-
tion.
The committee reports that while it has not been able to arrive
at sufficiently definite conclusions to enable it to formulate specifica-
tions for the making of concrete structures waterproof or for materials
to be used in such work, it has reached certain general conclusions
which may be of assistance to the constructo: in securing the desired
result of impermeable concrete.
Early in the investigation, the work was found to sub-divide
naturally into three branches, and the conclusions reached will be
grouped in order under these sub-divisions, which are:
1. The determination of causes of the permeability of concrete as
usually made from mixtures of Portland cement, sand and stone, or
other coarse aggregate, in proportions of from 1 cement, 2 sand and
4 stone, to 1 cement, 3 sand and 6 stone, and the best methods of
avoiding these causes.
2. The rendering of concrete more waterproof by adding to ordi-
nary mixtures of cement, sand and stone, other substances, which,
either by their void-filUng or repellent action, would tend to make
the concrete less permeable.
3. The treatment of exposed surfaces after the concrete or mortar
has be3n put in place and hardened more or less, either by penetra-
tive, void-fiUing or repellent liquids, making the concrete itself less
permeable or by extraneous protective coatings, preventing water
having access to the concrete.
Considering these several sub-divisions separately and in the order
named, the committee finds:
1. Causes of Permeability of Concrete. In the laboratory and
under test conditions using properly graded and sized coarse and fine
aggregates, in mixtures ranging from 1 cement, 2 sand and 4 stone,
to 1 cement, 3 sand and 6 stone, impermeable concrete can invariably
* Proceedings, American Society for Testing Materials, Vol. 13, 1913, p. 459.
408
REPORT ON WATERPROOFING 409

be produced. That even with sand of poor granulometric composi-
tion, with mixtures as rich as 1 cement, 2 sand and 4 stone, per-
meable concrete is seldom, if ever, found and is a rare occurrence with
mixtures of 1 cement, 3 sand and 6 stone. But the fact remains,
nevertheless, that the reverse obtains in actual construction, per-
meable concretes being encountered even with 1 cement, 2 sand and
4 stone mixtures and are of frequent occurrence where the quantity
of the aggregate is increased. This we attribute to:
(a) Defective workmanship, resulting from improper propor-
tioning, lack of thorough mixing, separation of the coarse aggregate
from the fine aggregate and cement in transporting and placing the
mixed concrete, lack of density through insufficient tamping or
spading, and improper bonding of work joints, etc.
(b) The use of imperfectly sized and graded aggregates:
(c) The use of excessive water, causing shrinkage cracks and for-
mation of laitance seams.
(d) The lack of proper provision to take care of expansion and
contraction, causing subsequent cracking.
Theoretically, none of these conditions should prevail on properly
designed and supervised work, and are avoided in the laboratory
and in the field, under test conditions, where speed of construction
and cost are negligible items, instead of being governing features
as they must be in actual construction. Properly graded sands and
coarse aggregares are rarely, if ever, found in nature in sufficient
quantities to be available for large construction, and the effect of
poorly graded aggregates in producing permeable concrete is aggre-
vated by poor and inefficient field work. Even if we could afford
the added expense of screening and remixing the aggregates so as to
secure proper granulometric composition to give the density required
and to make untreated concretes impermeable, it is seemingly a
commercial impossibifity on large construction to obtain workman-
ship even approximating that found in laboratory work. It there-
fore seems that we can secure impermeable concrete most economic-
ally by adopting some special waterproofing treatment.
2. Addition of Foreign Substances to Cement or During Mixture.
The committee finds that in consequence of the conditions outlined
above, the use of substances calculated to make the concrete more
impermeable, either incorporated in the cement or added to the con-
crete during mixing, has become general. This has resulted in the
development and placing on the market of numerous patented or
proprietary waterproofing compounds, the composition of which is
more or less of a trade secret.
410 APPENDIX III

While it has been impossible for the committee to test all of the
special waterproofing compounds being placed on the market, it has
investigated a sufficient number of these, as well as the use of certain
very finely divided, naturally occurring or readily obtainable com-
mercial mineral products, such as finely ground sand, colloidal clays,
hydrated lime, etc., to form a general idea of the value of the different
types. The committee finds:
(a) That the majority of patented and proprietary integral com-
pounds tested have little or no permanent effect on the permeability
of concrete and that some of these even have an injurious effect on
the strength of mortar and concrete in which they are incorporated;
(6) That the permanent effect of such integral waterproofing
additions, if dependent on the action of organic compounds, is very
doubtful;
(c) That in view of their possible effect, not only upon the early
strength, but also upon the durability of concrete after considerable
periods, no integral waterproofing material should be used unless
it has been subjected to long-time practical tests under proper observa-
tion to demonstrate its value, and unless its ingredients and the pro-
portion in which they are present are known;
(d) That in general, more desirable results are obtainable from
inert compounds acting mechanically than from active chemical
compounds whose efficiency depends on change of form through
chemical action after addition to the concrete;
(e) That void-filling substances are more to be relied upon than
those whose value depends on repellent action;
(/) That, assuming average quality in sizing of the aggregates
and reasonably good workmanship in the mixing and placing of the
concretes, the addition of from 10 to 20 per cent of very finely divided
void-fiUing mineral substances may be expected to result in the pro-
duction of concrete which under ordinary conditions of exposure
will be found impermeable, provided the work joints are properly
bonded, and cracks do not develop on drying or through change in
volume due to atmospheric changesj or by settlement.
3. External Treatments. While external treatment of concrete
would not be necessary if the concrete itself, either naturally or by
the addition of waterproofing material, was impermeable to water,
it has been found in practice that in large construction, no matter
how carefully the concrete itself has been made, cracks are apt to
develop, due to shrinkage in drying out, expansion and contraction
under change of temperature, moisture content and through settle-
ment.
REPORT ON WATERPROOFING 411

It is, therefore, often advisable on important construction to
anticipate and provide for the possible occurrence of such cracks by
external treatment with protective coatings. Such coating must be
sufficiently elastic and cohesive to prevent the cracks extending
through the coating itself. The application of merely penetrative
void-filling liquid washes will not prevent the passage of water due
to cracking of the concrete. The committee has, therefore, divided
surface treatments into two heads:
(a) Penetrative void-filling liquid washes.
(6) Protective coatings, including all surface applications intended
to prevent water coming in contact with the concrete.
While many penetrative washes are efficient in rendering concrete
waterproof for limited periods, their efficiency is apt to decrease with
time and it may be necessary to repeat such treatment. Some of
these washes may be objectionable, due to discoloring the surface to
which they are applied. The committee, therefore, believes that the
first effort should be made to secure a concrete that is impermeable
in itself and that penetrative void-filling washes should only be re-
sorted to as a corrective measure.
While protective extraneous bituminous or asphalt coatings are
unnecessary, so far as the major portion of the concrete surface is
concerned, pro dded the concrete — either in itself or through the addi-
tion of internal compounds — is made impermeable, they are valuable
as a protection where cracks develop in a structure. It is therefore
recommended that combination of the two methods — integral and
extraneous waterproofing — be adopted in especially difficult or im-
portant work.
Considering the use of bituminous or asphaltic coatings, the com-
mittee finds:
(a) That such protective coatings are often subject to more or
less deterioration with time, and may be attacked by injurious vapors
or deleterious substances in solution in the water coming in contact
with them.
(6) That the most effective method for applying such protec-
tion, is either the setting of a course of impervious brick, dipped in
bituminous material, into a solid bed of bituminous material, or the
application of a suSicient number of layers of satisfactory membra-
nous material cemented together with hot bitumen.
(c) That their durability and efiiciency are very largely dependent
on the care with which they are applied.
Such care refers particularly to proper cleaning and preparation
of the concrete to insure as dry a surface as possible before applica-
412 APPENDIX III

tion of the protective covering, the lapping of all joints of the mem-
branous layers, and their thorough coating with the protective mate-
rial. The use of this method of protection is further desirable because
proper bituminous coverings offer resistance to stray electrical cur-
rents.
So far, the committee has considered only concretes of the usual
proportions, namely, those ranging from 1 cement, 2 sand and 4 stone,
to 1 cement, 3 sand, and 6 stone. It has been suggested that im-
permeable concretes could be assured by using mixtures considerably
richer in cement. While such practice would probably result in an
immediate impermeable concrete, it is believed by many that the
advantage is only temporary, as richer concretes are more subject
to check cracking and are less constant in volume under changes of
conditions of temperature, moisture, etc. Therefore, the use of more
cement in mass concrete would cause increased cracking, unless
some means of controlling the expansion and contraction be dis-
covered. With reinforced concrete the objection is not so great, as
the tendency to cracking is more or less counteracted by the re-
inforcement.
It has also been suggested that the presence in the cement of a
larger percentage of very fine flour might result in the production of
a denser and more impermeable concrete, through the formation of a
larger amount of colloidal gels.
Neither of these suggestions have been especially investigated
by the committee. Both appeal to the committee, however, for the
reason that thej^ substitute active cementitious substances for the
largely inactive void-filling materials previously recommended, thus
increasing the strength of the concrete.
In conclusion, the committee would point out that no addition
of waterproofing compounds or substances can be relied upon to
completely counteract the effect of bad workmanship, and that the
production of impermeable concrete can only be hoped for where
there is determined insistance on good workmanship.
APPENDIX IV
GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN THE WATERPROOFING INDUSTRY
Acid Sludge. A waste mixture of sulphonated hydrocarbons resulting from
the treatment of bitumens with sulphuric acid.
Aggregate. The inert material, such as sand, gravel, shell, slag or broken
stone, or combinations thereof, with which the cementing material is mixed to
form a mortar or concrete.
Albertite. A soft jet black mineral (asphaltic hydrocarbon) derived from
petroleum by natural oxidation, obtained in Canada.
Alum. A white crystalline substance consisting of a hydrated double sul-
phate of aluminum and potassium. See Chapter V.
Anthracene. A waxy crystalline hydrocarbon found principally in coal tars.
Artificial Bitumens. Hydrocarbon residues produced by the partial or frac-
tional distillation of bitumen.
Artificial Gilsonite. A product obtained from the distillation of a mixture of
fish remains and wood and redistillation of the resulting oil.
Asbestine. A trade name for a certain grade of powdered asbestos used in
paints as a filler.
Asbestos.- A mineral of fibrous crystalline structure composed, chemically,
of silicates of lime and magnesia, and alumina. See Chapter V.
Asbestos Felt. Sheets made of asbestos shreds. See Chapter V.
Ash Water Glass. Same as water glass.
Asphalt. SoUd or semi-solid native bitumens, solid or semi-solid bitumens
obtained by refining petroleums, or solid or semi solid bitumens which are combi-
nations of the bitumens mentioned with petroleums or derivatives thereof, which
melt on the appUcation of heat, and which consist of a mixture of hydrocarbons
and their derivatives of complex structvue, largely cyclic and bridge compounds.
Asphalt Cement. A fluxed or unfluxed asphaltic material, especially prepared
as to quality and consistency.
Asphalt Mastic. A term frequently applied to refined asphalt, particularly
to that obtained from bituminous rocks. A mixture of fine mineral matter and
asphalt.
Asphalt Pavement. A pavement composed of a mixture of asphalt and sand
or powdered mineral dust or both.
Asphalt Putty. A mixture of a liquid and a solid asphalt (and fine mineral
matter, usually) or asphalt and coal-tar pitch, having a particular consistency.
Asphaltenes.* The components of the bitumen in petroleum, petroleum
products, malthas, asphalt cements, and solid native bitumens, which are soluble
in carbon disulphide, but insoluble in paraffin naphthas.
Asphaltic. Similar to, or essentially composed of, asphalt.
* Adopted by the American Reporters on Communication N'o. 10 at the third International
Road Congress.
413
414 APPENDIX IV
Asphaltic Coal. Solid forms of asphalt (originally derived from petroleum)
which, through loss of their oil content, by oxidation, resemble glance coal.
Asphaltic Concrete. Broken stone bound together with asphaltic cement.
Asphaltic Limestone. Limestone or limestone sands naturally impregnated
with asphalt or maltha, and known as " asphalt " in Europe.
Asphaltic Oils. Asphaltic petroleums.
Asphaltic Petroleums. Petroleums containing an asphaltic base.
Asphaltic Sandstone. Sandstone naturally impregnated with asphalt or
maltha and known as " asphalt " in Europe.
Asphaltite. Same as asphaltic coal.
Asphaltum. The Latin form of the English word asphalt.
Bakelite. A hard amber-like substance manufactured from the coal-tar
derivatives phenol and formaldehyde. See Chapter V.
Bank-run Gravel. The normal product of a gravel bank.
Barret Specification Felt. Trade name for a proprietary tar-treated roofing '
felt.
Baume Gravity. An arbitrary scale of specific gravity or density of liquids,
usually expressed as deg. Baumd, or " B. on a hydrometer. See Chapter XII.
Benzene. Benzol (CbHb). See Chapter V.
Benzine. A light and volatile fraction of petroleum. See Chapter V.
Benzol. A light, volatile, colorless coal-tar distillate of the formula CoHn.
See Chapter V.
Bermudez Asphalt. A very pure semi-solid native asphalt from Bermudez.
Binder. The bituminous cementing material employed in the membrane
system of waterproofing.
Bitumen. A natural hydrocarbon mixture of mineral occurrence, widely
diffused in various forms which grade by imperceptible degrees from a light gas to
a sohd; commercially the term includes only the heavy liquid and solid asphalts.
Frequently coal-tar pitch is so referred to.
Bituminous. A term applied to materials containing bitumen.
Bituminous Cement. A bituminous material suitable for use as a binder
having cementing qualities which are dependent mainly on its bituminous char-
acter.
Bituminous Emulsion. A mixture of a, bituminous oil and water made
miscible through the action of a saponifying agent or alkaline soap.
Bituminous Paints. Mixtures of liquid paraffin and asphalt or coal-tar;
mixtures of bitumen with some drying oil. See Chapter V.
Bituminous Putty. A mixture of bituminous materials and whiting or other
mineral, of a putty-like consistency.
Bituminous Rock. Same as rock asphalt.
Blown Asphalt. Asphalt through which air has been blown during the
process of refining.
Blown Oils. Blown petroleum.
Blown Petroleum.* Semi-solid or solid products produced primarily by the
action of air upon originally fluid native bitumens which are heated during the
blowing process.
Building Paper. A paper, usually a heavy grade and strong, sized with rosin
to make it water resisting and used to sheath buildings to exclude drafts.
*Adopted by the American Reporters on Communication No. 10 at the third International
Road Congress.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN Vv'ATERPROOFING 415

BuUt-up Roofs. Roofing consisting of several plies of treated felt cemented
with asphalt or coal-tar pitch. See Chapter III.
Btirlap. A woven fabric made of jute. See Chapter V.
Byerlite. Common and trade-name of a blown asphaltic petroleum dis-
tinguished from ordinary blown petroleums principally by the use of oxygen in-
stead of air in the blowing process.
CaSaU Process. A proprietary process for applying paraffin to exterior
masonry surfaces.
Calcium Compounds. Salts of metal calcium or lime. See Chapter V.
Caoutchouc. A hydrocarbon with the approximate formula of CioHis and
possessing properties similar to India rubber.
Carbenes.* The components of the bitumen in petroleums, petroleum
products, malthas, asphalt cements, and solid native bitumens, which are soluble
in carbon disulphide, but insoluble in carbon tetrachloride.
Carbon Bisulphide. The volatile and extremely inflammable compound of
carbon and sulphur (CS2).
Carbon Disulphide. Same as carbon bisulphide.
Carbon Tetrachloride. A volatile noninilammable compound of carbon and
chlorine (CCl,).
Carborundum. An artificial abrasive material resulting from the binning,
in an electric fiu-nace, of a mixture of sand, coke, sawdust and salt.
Casein. An albumin found in milk. See Chapter V.
Cement. An adhesive substance used for uniting particles of materials to
each other. Ordinarily applied, only to calcined '' cement rock," or to arti-
ficially prepared, calcined, and ground mixtures of limestone and silicious mate-
rials. Sometimes used to designate bituminous binder used in waterproofing.
Cement Floor. A name commonly applied to concrete floors with or without
a mortar top.
Cerasin. Ozocerite.
Cerite. Ozocerite.
China Clay. Kaolin.
Chinawood Oil. Oil pressed from the seeds of the wood-oil tree of China
and Japan. See Chapter V.
Choctaw. Name of min ing locality (in Oklahoma) of grahamite; some-
times, but incorrectly used for grahamite.
Clay. Finely divided earth, generally silicious and aluminous, which wiU
pass a 200-mesh sieve.
Coal Tar. The mixture of hydrocarbon distillates, mostly unsaturated ring
compounds, produced in the destructive distillation of coal. See Chapter V.
Coal-tar Pitch. The residue (of a viscous consistency) resulting from the
distillation of coal-tar. See Chapter V.
Coat. (1) The total result of one or more surface apphcations. (2) To
apply a coat.
Coke-oven Tar. Coal tar produced in by-product coke ovens in the manu-
facture of coke from bituminous coal. See Chapter V.
Colloidal Material. A gelatinous substance, resembling glue or jelly, and
consisting of microscopically fine particles of matter.
Colophony. Rosin.
* Adopted by the American Reporters on Communication No. 10 at the third International
Road Congress.
416 APPENDIX IV
Compressed Asphalt. A European (particularly French) term for rock asphalt
pavement.
Concrete Floor Hardener. A powdered metal or mineral usually troweled on,
or a liquid chemical reagent usually brushed on, the surface of a concrete floor
lo harden same.
Concrete Primer. A thin liquid compound applied as a first coat to a con-
crete surface preparatory to being coated with a more viscous compound.
Consistency.* The degree of solidity or fluidity of bituminous materials.
Corundum. A crystalline mineral abrasive mined in the United States and
ground for use.
Cotton Drill. A woven cotton fabric. See Chapter V.
Cracked Oil. Petroleum residuum which have been overheated in the proc-
ess of manufacture.
Cracking. The process of breaking down hydrocarbon molecules by the
application of heat.
Crude Asphalt. Unrefined asphalt.
Crude Oil. Unrefined oil.
Crude Tar. Unrefined coal tar.
Cut-back Products. Petroleum, or tar-residuums, which have been fluxed
each with its own or similar distillate, to a desired consistency.
Dampproofing. The process of treating masonry internally or externally,
to prevent dampness or moisture from penetrating the masonry.
Dead Oils. Heavy oils with a density greater than water distilled from tars.
Dehydrated Tars. Crude tar from which all water has been removed.
Destructive Distillation. The distillation of organic compounds at suf-
ficiently high temperatures so that their identity is destroyed.
Dipping Compound. Bituminous compound used for coating pipes and iron
tunnel segments to preserve them against rust.
Drainage. Provision for the disposition of water in or about a structure.
Dust. Earth or other matter in fine, dry particles, so attenuated that they
can be raised and carried by air currents. The product of the crusher passing
through a fine sieve.
Eastern Petroleum. Petroleum found in the eastern part of the United States,
principally Pennsylvania.
Elaterlte. A soft elastic variety of asphalt, resembling rubber, Also an
appropriated name of a proprietary waterproofing compound. See Chapter V.
Emulsion. A combination of water and oily material made miscible through
the action of a saponying agent.
Expansion Joint. A separation of the mass of a structure, usually in the
form of a joint filled with elastic material, which provides the means for slight
movement in the structure.
Fabric. A cotton cloth or burlap treated with asphalt or coal-tar pitch. '
Felt. A soft form of paper sheet composed chiefly of pulp and rags and
saturated with coal-tar pitch or asphalt. See Chapter V.
Filler. (1) Relatively fine material used to fill the voids in concrete aggre-
gate. (2) Material used to fill the voids in expansion joints.
Fixed Carbon.* The organic matter of the residual coke obtained upon
burning hydrocarbon products in a covered vessel in the absence of free oxygen.
Flashing. A piece of metal or other waterproof material used to keep water
* Adopted by the Am. Soc. for Testing Materials,
GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN WATERPROOFING 417

from penetrating the joints between a wall or projection, and the roof or other
flat part of the structure. See Chapter III.
Floating. Smoothing, with a trowel, the surface of mortar or concrete.
Flux.* Bitumens, generally liquid, used in combination with harder bitu-
mens for the pui-pose of softening the latter.
Free Carbon. In tars, organic matter which is insoluble in carbon bisul-
phide. See Chapter VII.
Fuller's Earth. A fine-grained earthy material of cretaceous formation and
resembling clay in appearance.
Furring Compound. A compound used to bond plaster to masonry.
Gaging Water. Water (in measured quantities) used in mixing mortar or
concrete to a required consistency.
Gas Black. Soot from natural gas.
Gas-drip. A condensate from illuminating gas, present to a greater or less
degree in all gas mains and tanks and an effective solvent of most bituminous
materials.
Gas-house Coal Tar. Coal-tar produced in gas-house retorts in the manu-
facture of illuminating gas from bituminous coal.
Gasoline. A very volatile distillate of petroleum. See Chapter V.
German Wax. A manufactured wax or blend of beeswax and other waxes.
Gilsonite. Glance pitch; a pure hard lustrous asphalt found principally in
Utah, U. S. A. See Chapter V.
Glance Pitch. A very pure solid asphalt or gum asphalt.
Grahamite. A pure, solid lusterless asphalt. See Chapter V.
Graphite. A soft dark-colored form of carbon with considerable luster. See
Chapter V.
Gravel. Small stones or pebbles, usually found in natural deposits more or
less intermixed with sand, clay, etc., but in which mixture the particles which
will not pass a 10-mesh sieve predominate.
Grit. Stone chips, slag chips, small pebbles or rounded rock particles graded
or ranging in size between J and f inch.
Ground Water. That part of rain, haU, or snow, that has percolated through
and accumulated in the ground as water chiefly in consequence of an underlying
impervious strata.
Ground-water Level. The upper surface of ground water. See Chapter I.
Grout. A mixture of cement and water or cement sand and water of thinner
consistency than mortar. See Chapter V.
Grouting. The process of injecting grout or mortar to fill small holes and
seams in and around subsiirface structures. See Chapter II.
Gum. Varnish gum; loosely applied to asphalt.
Gum Resins. Resins exuding from cuts in pines.
Gumlac. Shellac.
Gunite. Trade name for the mortar made and "shot" from the cement
gun. See Chapter II.
Gutta-percha. A substance consisting of a dried milky juice in many respects
similar to caoutchouc, but not elastic; extracted from certam trees in the iropios.
Gypsum. Erroiieously referred to as plaster of Paris but actually a hydrated
calcium sulphate (CaSOi, 2H2O).
* Adopted by the American Reporters on Communication No. 10 at the third International
Hoad Congress.
418 APPENDIX IV
High Carbon Tars. Tars containing a high percentage of free carbon (between
15 and 25 per cent).
Hot Stuff. Washing soda (carbonate of lime) when used to quicken the set-
ting time of mortar. Colloquially, also hot molten asphalt, or coal-tar pitch, or
mastic made from these.
Hydrated Lime. A finely divided white powder, made of ordinary lime to
which has been added just sufficient water to insure complete slaking, and
leaving the product dry. See Chapter V.
Hydrocarbons. Chemical compounds composed of the elements hydrogen
and carbon.
Hydrolithic. Proprietary trade name applied to the integral system of
waterproofing.
Hydrolytic. Name commonly applied to materials used in integral water-
proofing which tend to prevent the percolation of water through the treated
masonry.
Hydrex Compound. Trade name for a proprietary asphalt.
Imitatite. A black, hard variety of bitumen.
Impsomite. A solid bitumen resembling gilsonite, found in Oklahoma, U.S.A.
Integral Compound. A material incorporated in mortar or concrete, previous
to or during mixing, to waterproof same. See Chapter II.
Integral System. The process of incorporating waterproofing materials in
mass mortar or concrete. See Chapter II.
Iron (Powdered). Cast iron or pig iron in powder form.
Isinglass. The dried swimming bladders of several varieties of fish from
which gelatine is extracted.
Joint Filler. Any compound used for filling joints between moving parts
of steel or masonry (structures) subject to expansion, contraction and vibration.
See Chapter IV.
Kaolin. A fine clay the purity of which gives it a white color.
Lake Pitch. A plastic porous, and about 50 per cent impure asphalt from
the asphalt " lake " in the island of Trinidad.
Land Pitch. A surface deposit of solid Trinidad Lake asphalt which is
tougher and more tenacious than the " lake " asphalt.
Land Plaster. Powdered gjrpsum; also, but incorrectly, used to designate
plaster of Paris.
Lap Cement. A liquid bituminous compound used for cementing the laps
of ready roofing.
Larutan Compound. Trade name of a proprietary asphalt.
Larutan System. Application of a waterproofing membrane in the form of
small squares of asphalt-treated cotton fabric. See Chapter II.
Layer. A course or coat made in one application.
Lime. A white substance resulting from the burning of limestone. See
Chapter V.
Linseed Oil. Oil obtained from the seed of flax by pressing. See Chapter V.
Lithocarbon. A commercial name for an asphaltic limestone found in
Uvalde, Texas, U. S. A.
Low Carbon Tars. Tars containing a low percentage of free carbon (between
5 and 15 per cent).
Maltha. A natural or artificial asphalt containing sufficient lighter compounds
to be liquid.

Malthene. Those portions of asphalt and similar materials soluble in both
carbon bisulphide and petrolic ether and not readily volatile at a temperature of
163 deg. Cent.
Manjak. A pure, black, lustrous bitumen from Barbadoes, probably related
to grahamite.
Mastic. A mixture of fine mineral matter and asphalt or coal-tar pitch,
applicable in a heated condition. See Chapter V.
Mastic Rock. Rock asphalt.
Membrane. In waterproofing, a thin layer or layers of bituminous material
with or without- fabric reinforcement, placed on or about a structure.
Membrane System. The system of applying an elastic, membranous water-
proofing material. See Chapter II.
Metal Primer. A first coat of paint or preserving compound applied to iron
or steel.
Mineral Naphtha. A volatile petroleum distillate heavier than gasoline.
Mineral Oil. Petroleum.
Mineral Pitch. A popular name for asphalt.
Mineral Rubber. A bitumen of rubbery consistency.
Mineral Tar. A Uquid bitumen, of a viscid, tarry nature.
Mineral Wax. A common term for ozocerite.
Minwaz. A proprietary asphalt.
Mortar. A mixture of sand, cement, or hme (or both) and water mixed to
a paste consistency.
Naphtha. A volatile petroleum hydrocarbon distillate heavier than
gasoline.
Naphthalene. A white solid crystalline hydrocarbon, occurring principally
in coal tar, of the chemical formula CioHs.
Native Bitumens. Bitumens occurring in nature, and for waterproofing
purposes, generally as liquids, viscous hquids or solids.
Native Paraffin. Ozocerite.
Natural Cement. A fine cementing powder made by burning and grinding a
cement rock at a somewhat lower heat than Portland cement. See Chapter V.
Neponsit Felt. Trade name for a proprietary roofing felt.
Neutral Oil. Neutral mineral oil.
Oil Asphalts. Artificial oil pitches or asphaltic cements produced as a resid-
uum from asphaltic petroleum.
Oil Pitches. More or less hard oil asphalts.
Oil-gas Tars. Complex hydrocarbon liquids produced by cracking oil vapors
at high temperatures in the manufacture of oil gas or carburetted water gas.
OU-tar Pitch. A viscous residuum of any desired consistency from the
distillation of oil tars. See Chapter V. ,., , ^
Ozocerite. A yellow or brown hydrocarbon, greasy, waxhke substance
occurring in the form of smaU veins in tertiary rock in Galacia, Austria and
Utah, U. S, A.
Ozokerite. Same as Ozocerite. ,., u
Paraffin. Commonlv, the same as paraffine; a hard, white, wax-like sub-
stance, chemicaUy of the higher hydrocarbons. See Chapter V.
Paraffins. A term covering a number of greasy crystaUme hydrocarbons of
the paraffin series.
Paraffin Naphtha. Naphtha from paraffin petroleum.
420 APPENDIX IV
ParafSn Oil. A heavy liquid fraction of the manufacture of paraffin from
petroleum. See Chapter V.
Paraffin Petroleum. Petroleum, the base of which is principally of the paraffin
series of hydrocarbons.
Paraffin Scale. Solid paraffins in asphalt. See Chapter V.
Petrolene. Those portions of asphalt and similar materials which are
soluble both in carbon bisulphide and petrolic ether, and which are volatile at
163 deg. Cent, and below.
Petroleums. Native mineral oils or fluid native bitumens of variable com-
position.
Petrolic Ether. A volatile naphtha lighter than gasoline, obtained from
petroleum.
Pine Oil. A heavy distillate of rosin.
Pine Tar. Gum of the pine tree from an incision or by distillation of the wood;
common rosin.
Pipe Coating. A bituminous compound applied hot or cold to iron or steel
pipes for preservation purposes.
Pitch. A sticky resin from pine tar. Semi-solid or solid residues from the
distillation of bitumen; usually applied to residue obtained from tar. Short, for
coal-tar pitch.
Pitch (Hard). Pitch showing a penetration of not more than ten.
Pitch (Soft). Pitch showing a penetration of more than ten.
Pitch (Straight-run).* A pitch run in the initial process of distillation, to
the consistency desired without subsequent fluxing.
Plaster Bond. Name of various bituminous compounds used for bonding
plaster to masonry walls, and which also serve as dampproofing mediums.
Plaster of Paris. A hydraulic cement; a chalky powder resulting from the
calcination of pure gypsum (a hydrated calcium stdphate) at a temperature
between 250 and 400 deg. Fahr. losing' thereby three-quarters of its water of
combination.
Plastic Roofing. A plastic (when warm) roofing compound applied with a
trowel, composed of some fine or fibrous inert substance mixed with tar or other
bitumen.
Plastic Slate. A mixture of coal tar and powdered slate.
Portland Cement. A fine cementing powder made by carefully burning and
grinding a cement rock or an artificial mixture of limestone and clay. See Chap-
ter V.
Primer. A first coat applied to masonry preparatory to receiving the suc-
cessive coats of material for waterproofing or dampproofing purposes.
Puzzolan Cement. A very fine cementing powder made by mechanically
mixing and powdering slaked lime and volcanic ash or slag.
Pyrobitumens. Mineral organic substances forming bitumens upon being
subjected to destructive distillation.
Pyrogenetic. That which originates from the action of heat.
Quasi-colloidal Bodies. Like, or nearly colloidal, particles.
Quasi-soap. Like, or as if it were, soap.
Red Rope Paper. A red variety of building paper partly composed of rope
waste.
Reduced Oils. Reduced petroleums.
* Proposed by the Committee on Standard Tests for Road Materials (Committee D-4)
of the' American Society for Testing Materials.

Reduced Petroleums. Residual oils from crude petroleum after removal of
Water and some volatile oils, but with the base chemically unaltered.
Refined Asphalt. Bitumen after it has been freed wholly or in part from
its impurities.
Refined Tar. A tar freed from water by evaporation or distillation which
is continued until the residue is of desired consistency or a product produced by
fluxing tar residium with tar distillate.
Residual Oils. Residual petroleums.
Residual Petroleum. Viscous residue from the distillation of crude petroleum
with all the burning oils removed.
Residual Tars. Tar pitch or viscous residue from the distillation of crude
tar with all the light oils removed.
Resin. A dried and hardened pitch from pine and similar trees. See Chap-
ter V.
Rock Asphalt. A solid asphalt obtained from a naturally impregnated
limestone or sandstone, also the naturally impregnated stone.
Roofing Cement. A plastic mixture of paint skins, coal tar, pine tar and
soya oil commonly used to seal flashing joints.
Roofing Gravel. Approximately |-inch gravel.
Roofing Slag. Slag crushed to the size ranging between J and J-inch.
Rosin. Pine pitch with the chemical formula CwHooOi. See Chapter V.
Salammoniac. Ammonium chloride; a white crystalline soluble substance
(NH4CI). See Chapter V.
Sand. Finely divided rock detritus the particles of which will pass a 10-mesh
and be retained on a 200-mesh screen.
Sand Cement. A very fine cementing powder made by grinding together
a mechanical mixture of Portland cement and pure, clean sand.
Semi-asphaltic Oils. Semi-asphaltic petroleum.
Semi-asphaltic Petroleum. Petroleum of a semi-asphaltic base.
Sheet Mastic. Bituminous mastic in the form of a sheet used for paving
and waterproofing purposes. See Chapter II.
' " Short." A term applied to materials possessing httle ductility.
Soap. A metallic salt of fatty acid. See Chapter V.
Soda Ash. Washing soda (cai'bonate of Mme) of the chemical formula
(NaaCOs, IOH2O).
Soluble Glass. Water glass.
Stearate. A salt of stearic acid. See Chapter V.
Stearic Acid. A derivative product of the more solid fats of the animal
kingdom. (CH3(CH,)i6COOH). See Chapter V.
Stearin. The chief ingredient of suet and tallow. See Chapter V.
Stearin Pitch. A black, elastic, non-brittle, animal by-product obtained froni
stearic acid in the manufacture of candles. See Chapter V.
Subway Asphalt. Common name for a particular quality of asphalt used m
waterproofing the New York Subways. See Chapter VIII.
Subway Pitch. Common name for a straight-run coal-tar pitch used m
waterproofing subways in New York City. See Chapter VIII .
Suet. The hard and semi-fusible fat about the kidneys and loms of animals.
See Chapter V. , ,. , . t t a
Surface Coating. Any compound applied to a masonry surface for damp-
proofing or waterproofing purposes.
422 APPENDIX IV
Sylvester Process. The process of applying alternate coats of soap and alum
solutions for waterproofing and dampproofing purposes. See Chapter II.
Tar Pitches. Semi-solid or solid residual tars.
Tar. Bitumen which yields pitch upon fractional distillation and which is
produced as a distillate by the destructive distillation of bitumens, pyrobitumens,
or organic material. See Chapter V.
Texene. A trade name for a turpentine substitute.
Torpedo Gravel. A coarse hard grit.
Trinidad Asphalt. A solid or semi-solid asphalt, brown to black in color,
porous and about 50 per cent impure, obtained from the island of Trinidad.
Turrellite. A black, hard variety of bitumen.
Vintaite. Gilsonite.
Varnish Gum. Any resinous substance excluding rosin. A term used to
designate, but incorrectly so, asphalt and coal tar when used in proprietary water-
proofing compounds.
Viscosity. The measure of the resistance to flow of a bituminous material,
usually stated as the time of flow of a given quantity of the material through a
given orifice.
Volatile. AppUed to those fractions of bituminous materials which will
evaporate at climatic temperatures.
Water Absorbent. A property of a floor-hardening or waterproofing material
which makes it readily miscible with water.
Water Glass. Sodium silicate (Na.SiiOg) or alkaline silicates soluble in
water.
Water Repellent. A property of a waterproofing material which hinders
or prevents its miscibility with water.
Water Table. Loosely applied to ground -water level.
Waterproofing. The process of treating masonry to exclude or prevent the
percolation of moisture or water through it.
Water-gas Tar. A liquid hydrocarbon produced by cracking oil vapors in
the manufacture of carburetted water-gas. See Chapter V.
Wurtzelite. A black, hard variety of bitumen.
APPENDIX V
REFERENCES
The following reference literature is arranged only approximately according
to the caption topics. Most of this literature was consulted in the preparation of
this book, acknowledgments being made in foot-notes. The author is gratified
to note the increased interest manifested in waterproofing engineering since the
commencement of this book, four years ago, and the broader viewpoint assumed
by writers of modem literature on the art of waterproofing.
Asphalt and Tar.
Richardson's Modern Asphalt Pavement.
Bituminous Road and Paving Materials, by Hubbard.
The Art of Roadmaking, by Harwood Frost.
Effect of Illuminating Gas on Asphalt Pavements, Eng. News, Mar. 4, lOl.*-,
Vol. 73, No. 9, p. 441.
Waterproofing, by Boorman, Proceedings National Association of Cement
Users, 1909.
Coke-oven Tars of the United States. OflBce of Public Roads, Circular No.
97, U. S. Dept. Agriculture, 1912.
Concrete in General.
Concrete, Plain and Reinforced, by Taylor and Thompson.
Concrete, Plain and Reinforced, by Homer A. Reid.
Reinforced Concrete, by Buel and Hill.
Cairn's " Cement and Concrete."
Reinforced Concrete, by Marsh.
Oil-mixed Portland Cement Concrete, Bulletin No. 230, Office of PubUc
Roads, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1915.
Concrete in Sea Water.
The effect of SO3 in Portland Cement. Proceedings of Association of German
Portland Cement Manufacturers, 1911.
" Action of Sea Water on Hydraulic Binding Media," by Lombard and
Deforge, International Association for Testing Materials Proceedings, 1912.
" Action of Sea Water on Reinforced Concrete," by de Blocq van Kuffeler,
International Association for Testing Materials Proceedings, 1912.
" The Different Iron and Slag Cements," Engineering News, September 7,
1911, Vol. 66, No. 10, Editorial.
" Ferrite Cement and Ferro Portland Cement," by E. C. Eckel, Engineering
News, Aug. 3, 1911, Vol. 66, No. 5.
" The State of Preservation of Test Blocks," by W. Czarnowski. Inter-
national Association for Testing Materials, 1912.
423
424 APPENDIX V
" Cement in Sea Water," by A. Poulson. International Association for Test-
ing Materials, 1909.
" Official German Recognition of the Harmless Nature of a Slag Addition to
Portland Cement Clinker." Engineering News, September 7, 1911.
" Experiments on the Decomposition of Mortars by Sulphate Waters," by
G. A. Bied. International Association for Testing Materials, 1909.
" Some Observations on the Disintegration of Cinder Concrete," by George
Borrowman. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, June, 1912.
" Disintegration of Fresh Cement Floor Surfaces," by Alfred H. White,
American Society for Testing Materials, Vol. 9.
Relative Effects of Frost and Sulphate of Soda Effloresence Tests on Build-
ing Stones. Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 33,
1895.
Action of the Salts in Alkali Water and Sea Water on Cements. U S. Bureau
of Standards, Bulletin No. 12, Nov., 1912.
Action of Sea-water on Mortar. Cement Age, March, 1907.
Destruction of Cement Mortar and Concrete by Alkali at Great Falls, Mont.
Eng. Cont., June 24, 1908.
Durability of Stucco and Plaster Construction. U. S. Bureau of Standards
Bulletin No. 70, Jan., 1917.
What is the Trouble with Concrete in Sea Water? Engineering News-Record,
Vol. 79, No. 12, page 532.
Dampproofing.
The prevention of Dampness in Houses, by A. F. Keim.
Electrolysis.
Electrolysis in Concrete; Tech. Paper No. 18, Bureau of Standards, U. S.
Dept. of Commerce, 1913.
Surface Insulation of Pipes as a Means of Preventing Electrolysis. Tech.
Paper No. 15, Bureau of Standards, U. S. Dept. of Commerce, 1914.
Special Studies in Electrolysis Mitigation, Tech. Paper No. 32, Bureau of
Standards, U. S. Dept. of Commerce 19
Engineering Structures.
Waterproofing — An Engineering Problem, by Myron H. Lewis. Proc.
Engrs. Club of Phiia., Vol. 25, page 339, Oct., 1908.
Waterproofing, Progress Report of Special Committee on Concrete and Rein-
forced Concrete. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. 66, page 444, March, 1910.
Waterproofing Cement Mortars and Concretes, by H. Wiederhold. Proc.
Natl. Assoc. Cement Users, Vol. 3, page 228, 1907.
Waterproofing Cement Mortars and Concretes, by Edward W. De Knight.
Proc. Natl. Assoc. Cement Users, Vol. 3, page 238, 1907.
Waterproofing Concrete and Masonry, by Edward W. De Knight, Eng. News,
Vol. 57, page 187, Feb. 14, 1907.
Waterproofing Cement Structures, by James L. Davis, Proc. Natl. Assoc.
Cement Users, Vol. 4, page 323, 1908.
Waterproofing of Concrete Structures, pages 344-74. Hand-book for Cement
and Concrete Users, by Lewis and Chandler.
Making Concrete Waterproof, by Prof. I. O. Baker, Eng. News, Vol. 62, page
390, Oct. 7, 1909.
REFERENCES 42S
Waterproofing of Engineering Structures, by W. H. Pinley, Journal Western
Society of Engineers, June, 1912.
The Waterproofing of Solid Steel Floor R.R. Bridges, Am. Society Civil Engrs.,
Vol. 40, No. 10, Dec, 1914.
Report of Committee VIII on Masonry, Proceedings Am. Railway Engineer-
ing Association, Vol. 15, page 569, March, 1914.
Review of Various Experiences in Waterproofing. " Concrete," April, 1916.
" Engineering Geology," by Heinrich Reis and Thomas L. Watson.
The Manufacture of Coke in the United States. U. S. Geologic Survey
Bulletin, Dept. of Interior, 1913.
Formulas and Recipes.
Henley's 20th Century Book of Formulas and Recipes.
" Paint Making and Color Grinding," by Charles S. Uebele.
General Literature on Waterproofing.
" Masonry Construction," by Ira O. Baker.
" Building Construction,'' by Prof. Henry Adams.
Merriman's " Civil Engineer's Pocketbook."
Subways and Tunnels of New York, by Gilbert, Wightman and Saunders.
Panama Canal Waterproofing, Engineering News, Vol. 73, No. 5, page 215,
Feb. 4, 1915.
Treatise on Arches, by SchefHer.
Impermeable Water Tanks, Eng. News, Mar. 18, 1914, Vol. 71.
Grouting.
" Lining Rondout Pressure Tunnel," New York, Engineering Record, Dec.
30, 1911, page 772.
Grouting Big Savage Tunnel, Using Air, Eng. Rec, page 728, Dec. 23, 1911.
OUve Bridge Dam, New York, Eng. Rec, page 385, April 8, 1911.
Rondout Pressure Tunnel, New York, Eng. Rec, page 315, Sept, 17, 1910.
Grouting Arches, Hamburg, Germany, Eng. Rec, page 258, Sept. 3, 1910.
French Methods and Machines, Eng. Rec, page 495, Oct. 30, 1909.
Foundations in England, Eng. Rec, page 474, April 4, 1908.
Stopping Leaks, Cincinnati Water Works, Eng. Rec, page 224, Mar. 4, 1905.
" Grouting a Water-bearing Rock Seam on CatskiU Aqueduct," Eng. News,
Vol. 67, No. 6, page 278, Feb. 8, 1912.
Test of Watertightness of Concrete Tunnel Lining under High Head, Eng.
News, Vol. 66, No. 24, page 710, Dec. 14, 1911.
Mixing and Conveying Concrete by Compressed Air, Eng. News, Vol. 66, No.
6, page 173, Aug. 10, 1911.
Rondout Pressure Tunnel, New York, Eng, News, Vol. 65, No. 22, page 654,
June 1, 1911.
Lining and Grouting a French Railway Tunnel in Water-bearing Material,
Eng. News, Vol. 62, page 580, Nov. 25, 1909.
Pumping of Cement Grout into Masonry on the MetropoUtan Railway, Paris,
Eng. News, Vol. 62, page 581, Nov. 26, 1909.
Grouting a Leaky Tunnel on the Paris, Lyons and Mediterranean Railway,
Eng. News, Vol. 66, No. 15, page 374, Oct. 11, 1906,
" Catskill Aqueduct," by Lazarus White.
426 APPENDIX V
Inspection.
Inspection of Waterproofing for Concrete Work, by Jerome Cochran, Engr.
and Contr^ Vol. 37, pages 370 arid 404, April 5 and 10, 1912.
Joints.
Effect of Oil on Cement Mortar, Eng. News, July 4, 1907, Vol. 58, No. 1.
Efficiency of Cement Joints in Joining Old Concrete to New, Eng. News,
Dec. 12, 1907, Vol. 58, No. 24.
Strength of Concrete Joints, Proceedings of Erigineer's Society of Western
Penn., Dec, 1908.
Lime, Hydrated Lime and Clay.
" Hydrated Lime," by E. W. Lazell, Ph. D. (1915).
The Colloid Matter of Clay and its Measurement. Bulletin No. 388, U. S.
Geol. Survey, Dspt. of Interior, 1909.
Lime: Its Properties and Uses; Circular No. 30, Bureau of Standards,
U. S. Dept. of Commerce, 1911.
Metal Sheetings.
" Harlem River Crossing of the Lexington Ave. Subway." New York Muni-
cipal Eng. Journal, Vol. 1, No. 6, Dec, 1915.
Methods of Waterproofing.
Methods of Waterproofing Concrete, by Richard H. Gaines, Eng. News,
V61. 58, No. 13, page 344, Sept. 26, 1907.
Current Methods of Waterproofing Concrete-covered Bridge Floors, Eng.
Rec, Vol. 58, page 488, Oct. 31, 1908.
Waterproofing the New York Subways, Railway Review, Vol. 58, No. 11,
March, 1916.
Subaqueous Highway, Tunnels, American Society C. E., Vol. 4, No. 9, Nov.,
1914.
Roofing.
Inspector's Pocket Book, by A. T. Byrne.
Building Mechanics' Ready Reference, by H. G. Richey.
Sand and Cement.
Standard Sand for Cement Work, Eng. Rec, July 20, 1907.
Sands: Their Relation to Mortar and Concrete, Cement Age, July, 1908.
A Sand Specification and its Specific AppHcation, Proc of the Amer. Soc
for Testing Materials, Vol. 10, 1910.
The Cement Industry in the United States, U. S. Geol. Survey, Dept. of
Interior, Bulletin for 1910.
Brown's " Hand Book for Cement Users."
Specifications.
Specifications Covering Methods of Waterproofing Engineering Structures
by Joseph N. O'Brien, Eng. Contr., Vol. 34, page 26, July 13, 1910.
Specifications for Obtaining Dampproof and Waterproof Substructures, Eng.
Contr., Vol. 34, page 239, 1910.
Specifications and Instructions for Waterproofing Metal and Masonry
Structures, by W. H. Finley, Eng. Contr., Vol. 30, page 289, Nov. 4, 1908.
Specifications for Waterproofing Concrete Work, by W. H. Pinley, Proc,
Natl, Assoc Cement Users, Vol. 1, page 35, 1905.
REFERENCES 427
Specifications for Waterproofing Concrete Bridges — Chicago and North-
western Railway, Proc. Natl. Assoc. Cement Users, Vol. 1, 1905.
Specifications for Waterproofing Bridges in the District of Columbia, Proc.
Natl. Assoc. Cement Users, \'ol. 5, page 146, 1909.
Specifications for Waterproofing a Pumping Chamber in Ground under
External Head of Water, Proc. Natl. Assoc. Cement Users, Vol. 5, 1909.
Specifications for Waterproofing New York Rapid Transit Subway, Proc,
Natl. Assoc. Cement Users, \'ol. 1909, page 237.
Specifications for Waterproofing Solid Steel-floor R.R. Bridges, Eng. Cont.,
Sept., 1915.
Tests.
Methods for Testing Coal tar, etc., by S. R. Church, Journal of Industrial
and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 5, No. 3, 1913.
Specific Gravity, Its Determination, etc., by J. M. Weiss, Journal of Industrial
and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 7, No. 1, 1915.
The Permeability of Concrete under High Water Pressure, Eng. News,
Vol. 47, No. 26, page 517, June, 1902.
Paraffin Test as Applied to Bituminous Road Compounds, Eng. News, July 8,
1911, Vol. 65, page 680.
Methods for the Examination of Bituminous Road Materials, Bulletin No.
314, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1915.
Permeability Tests on Gravel Concrete, Eng. Rec, Sept. 26, 1914.
Permeability Tests of Concrete, Eng. Rec, Jan. 21, 1911.
Test of Concrete for Impermeabihty, Eng. Rec, May 28, 1910.
Impermeability Tests on Concrete, Eng. News, Nov. 7, 1912.
Investigation of Impermeable Concrete, Eng. Contr., Feb. 26, 1908.
Progress Report on Materials for Road Construction and on Standards for
Their Tests and Use. Amer. Soc. C. E., Vol. 40, No. 10, Dec, 1914.
The Testing of Materials. Circular No. 45, U. S. Bureau of Standards,
Dept. of Commerce, 1913.
Some Practical and Technical Tests on Waterproofing Materials, N. Y.
Municipal Engineers' Journal, Sept., 1917.
Waterproofing Fabrics.
Manufacture, Test and Use of Waterproofing Fabric, Eng. News, Vol. 72,
Sept. 24, 1914.
The Waterproofing of Fabrics by Mierzinski.
Linen, Jute and Hemp Industries; Special Agents Series No. 74, U. S. Dept.
of Commerce, 1913.
Waterproofing Instructions.
Instructions for Waterproofing Concrete Surfaces, by W. J. Douglas, Eng.
News, Vol. 56, No. 25, page 645, Dec. 20, 1906.
Directions for the Apphcation of Waterproof Cement Coatings, Eng. News,
Vol. 57, Jan., 1907, page 247.
Suggestions for Waterproofing Subways, Public Service Record, Vol. 3,
No. 7, July, 1916 (PubUcation of Public Service Commission for 1st District,
Stateof New York).
Popular Handbook for Cement and Concrete Users, by M. H. Lewis, C. E,
Waterproofing Materials.
Materials of Construction, by Thurston.
INDEX
Absorption, Defined, 7
— of Concrete, 4, 229, 230
Raw Fabrics, 256, 257
Felts, 256, 257
Stone, 4
Treated Felts, 256, 257
Fabrics, 256, 257
Abutments, Protection of, 31
Acid Treatment, 21
— Sludge Defined, 413
Acids, Effect of, 29
— in Ground Water, 3
Actinolite, Use of. 111
Adhesion between Laps, 46
Adhesives, 320
Aggregate for Mastic, 63
— Defined, 413
— Scientific Proportioning, 77
Air Compressor, Use of, 87
— Pockets, 23, 47
— Temperature, 28
Akeley, Mr. C. F., 19
Albertite Defined, 413
Alcohol, Specific Gravity, 387
Alkalies, Effect of, 29
Alkaline, 3
Alum, 26, 145, 147, 374
— Defined, 413
— Nature of, 147
— Solution, 28
— Use of, 197
Alumina, 9
Aluminum Sulphate, 28
— Stearate, 66
Am. Ry. Engrs. Assn., 117, 129
— Soc. T. M. Report, 408
Anthracene Defined, 413
Arbitrary Selection, 78
Arches, 32
Architect's Duty, 25
Armor Coat, 58
Asbestine Defined, 413
Asbestos, 23, 31, 374
— Covered Roofing, 121
— Covered Sheet Iron, 120, 146
— Defined, 413
— Felt, Application of, 111
Defined, 153, 413
Saturated, 146
Use of, 45, 153
— Fibre, Use of, 63
— Filler, Effect of, 238, 240
— Nature of, 153
— Shingles, Application of, 11, 101,
102, 103
Manufacture of, 102
— Shredded, 32
— Specific Gravity, 387
— Use of, 56, 153
Ash Water Glass Defined, 413
Asphalt, 32, 145, 146, 147, 374
— Blown, Use of, 141
— Cement Defined, 413
— Characteristics of, 51
— CoeflScient of Expansion, 387
— Containing Pitch, 240
— Consistency of, 49
— Cutter, 178, 179
— Defined, 413
— Ductility of, 240
— Effect of Overheating, 49
— Heating Kettle, 175, 174
of, 49
— Joint Filler, 142
— Mastic Defined, 413
— Nature of, 154
— Odor of, 49
— Pavement Defined, 413
— Preference for, 52
430
INDEX
Asphalt, Produced, 51
— Publications on, 423
— Putty Defined, 413
— Quality of, 51
— Smoother, 177
— Use of, 17,31,32, 154
— Versus Coal-tar Pitch, 51
Asphaltenes Defined, 413
Asphaltic Coal, 414
— Concrete, 414
— Defined, 413
— Limestone Defined, 414
— Oils Defined, 414
— Petroleum Defined, 414
— Sandstone Defined, 414
Asphaltite Defined, 414
Asphaltum Defined, 414
B
Backfill, 13, 39, 40
Bacterial Decomposition, 8
Bakelite, 146, 147, 414 ,
— Use of, 154
Bank-run Gravel, 78, 414
Barrels, Cost of, 373
Barret Specification Felt, 414
Basement Waterproofed, 365
Bats, Use of, 56
Battens, Use of, 114
Baum^ Table, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385
— Gravity, 414
Beeswax Specific Gravity, 387
— Coefficient of Expansion, 287
Benzene Defined, 414
Benzine, 145, 147
— Cost of, 374
— Defined, 414
— Use of, 155
Benzol, Cost of, 374
— Defined, 414
— Use of, 155
Bergen Hill Tunnels, 335, 336
Bermudez Asphalt Defined, 414
Binder, 32, 414
Bitumen, Artificial Defined, 413
— Defined, 414
— for Mastic, 62
— Ready Roofing, 112
— Transportation, 50
Bituminous Binder, 34
— Blanket, 31
— Cement Defined, 414
— Coat Applied, 24
— Compound, Use of, 16, 29, 46, 146
— Defined, 414
— Emulsion Defined, 414
— Enamels, 29
— Fillers, 142
— Mastic, 29, 52
— Paint, 18, 29, 142, 147, 155, 414
— Paste, 29, 31
— Putty Defined, 414
— Rock Defined, 414
Bleeders, Use of, 58
Blistering, 20, 26
Block Tin, Use of, 108
Blow Holes, 34
Blown Asphalt, Use of, 143, 414
— Oil Defined, 414
— Petroleum Defined, 414
Board Sheathing, 308
Bond, Effect of Surface, 249
Bonding Fabrics, 47
— Day's Work, 70
Boston Tunnels, 337, 338
Brick, Absorption of, 4
— Applied, 56
— Bond, 249
— Compression of, 249, 250
— Cost of, 374
— Courses, 57
— Function of, 56
— Heating Methods, 65, 66, 183, 373
— in Mastic, 52, 53, 54, 56, 57, 63, 146,
355
— Parapet, 118
— Protective Medium, 37
— Quality of, 61, 63
— Roof Domes, 92
— Sewers, 20
— Soot Covered, 65
— Specific Gravity, 4, 387
— Walls, 58
Bridge Floors, 67
— Waterproofed, 53
Bronze Plate Roofs, 92
Brooklyn Railroad Viaducts, 34
Broom, Cost of, 373
Bubbles in Mastic, 62
INDEX
431
Buckets, Use of, 50

Building Foundations, 32
— Paper Defined, 414
Built-up Roofs, 92, 108, 308, 310, 415
Membrane, 31, 45
Bulge in Mastic, 61
Burlap, Use of, 47, 155, 375
— Defined, 415
— Membrane, Weight of, 388
Butt Joints, 43
Byerlite Defined, 415
Caffall Process Defined, 415

Caisson Cross-section, 292
Calcium Compounds, 9, 66, 75, 147,
148, 415
— Minerals, 146, 147
— Oxide, 8
— Sulphate, 8
Calking Joints, 144
— Tunnels, 366
Caoutchouc, Specific Gravity, 387
— Defined, 415
Capillary Passageways, 7, 19, 47
Carbenes Defined, 415
Carbolineum, 93
Carbon Bisulphide, Defined, 415
— Disulphide, Defined, 415
— Tetrachloride, Defined, 415
Carborundum, 231, 415
Casein, Defined, 415
— Use of, 148
Cast-iron Tunnel Segments, 363
— Use of, 146, 147, 156
Cast Steel, 146
Castor Oil, Specific Gravity, 387
Catskill Aqueduct, 87, 359
Caustic Potash, 145, 147, 148, 374
Cedar, Specific Gravity, 387
Cells in Concrete, 7
Cement, 145, 375, 415
— Additions to, 409
— Benzine Resisting, 318
— Coating, 147
— Effect of Alkali, 405, 407
Fineness, 76, 77
Water, 403, 407
Wetting, 77
Cement, Excess, 77
— Floor Defined, 415
— for Mastic, 318
— Grouting, 85
— Gun Operation, 19, 20, 184, 185,
186, 373
— Hydration of, 77
— Mortar, Use of, 156, 16
— Petroleum Resisting, 318
— Quick-setting, 85
— Tiles, 97
Cerasin Defined, 415
Cerite Defined, 415
Charcoal, 29
Cheese, Use of, 144
Chemical Acting Materials, 146, 147
Chimneys, Flashing for, 117
China Clay, 72, 415
— Wood Oil, Defined, 415
■ — Specific Gravity, 387
— — — Use of, 31, 143, 148
Chipping of Surface, 21
Chloride of Lime, 74
Choctow Defined, 415
Cinder, Concrete Absorption, 4
Cisterns, 24
Civilization, Measure of, 2
Clay, 66, 75, 415
— Oil-joint Filler, 142
— PubUcations on, 426
— Tiles, 95, 96
— Use of, 26, 71, 72, 91, 156
Clay-cement Waterproofing, 365
Cleats, Use of, 108
Climate, Consideration of, 31
Clinker, 72
Coal Tar Defined, 415
— Pit Waterproofed, 366
Coal-tar Pitch, 32, 146, 147, 374
— • — Characteristics of, 49, 51
Defined, 415
Joint, Filler, 142
Overheating, 49
Produced, 51
Versus Asphalt, 51
Products, 31, 75
432
INDEX
Coal-tar Pitch, Use of, 31, 49, 157, 164

Coat Defined, 415
Coating Continuous, 30
'— on Felts, 252, 253
Fabrics, 252,253
Coatings, Application of, 21
— Applied by Brush, 19
Machine, 19
Trowel, 19
— Continuity of, 19
CoeflBcient of Expansion, 12, 124, 125
of Materials, 387
Coke Oven Tar Defined, 415
Coking of Bitumen, 49
Colloidal Clay, 71, 146, 147
— Matter, 75, 415
Colophony Defined, 415
Column Bases Waterproofed, 11
Composite Roofing, 120, 122
Composition Roofing, 92, 108
Compounds, Effect of Earth, 29
^jBackfiU, 29
Compressed Asphalt Defined, 416
Compression of Brick, 249
Mastic, 249
Membrane, 260
Mortar, 249
Concrete, 374
— Absorption of, 3, 4
— Additions to, 409
— Age, 2
— Atomizer, 89, 90
— Average Weight of, 4
— Consistencies, 78
— Cutoffs for, 137
— Effect of Alkali, 405, 407
— Floor Hardener, 319, 416
— Hand Mixed, 77
— in Sea Water, 403, 406, 407
— Machine Mixed, 77
— Parapet, 118
— Pipe Joints, 137, 138
Reinforcement, 82
— Porosity of, 7, 77
— Primer Defined, 416
— Protective Coat, 37
— Railroad Details, 343
— Reinforcement, 125
Concrete Roof Slab, 310

— Roofs, 123
• — Safeguarded, 9
— Standpipe, 331
— Tampers, 181, 182
— Tank Waterproofed, 356
— Tile, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 229, 230
— Time of Mixing, 99
— Universal Material, 3
Conglomerate, Absorption of, 4
Consistency Defined, 415
Construction Joints, 14, 38, 128
Efflorescence, 14
— Shaft, 83
Contractors, Graded, 370
Copal Gum, 72
Coping, 117
Copper Bulb Joint, 134
— Cutoffs, 134
— Sheeting, 105, 108
— V-Joints, 131
Cord Wood, 373
Cores, 48
— Fabric RoU, 182
— Felt Roll, 182
— Illustrated, 183
Corrosion, 2
— of Metallic Powders, 27
Corrugated Roofing, 121
— Sheet Iron, 120, 393
Corundum Defined, 415
Cost Data, 371, 372
— Low First, 145
— of Materials, 374
Implements, 373
Labor, 372
Tin, 378
Waterproofing Applied, 376, 377
Cotton, Drill, Use of, 34, 46, 48, 157,
375, 416
— Fabric, 45, 46, 47
— Membrane, 388
— Roofing, 111, 120
Cove Finish, 53
Cracked Oil Defined, 416
Cracking, 20, 416
Cracks, Prevention of, 125
INDEX
433
Cracks, Cause of, 67

Creosote, 93
— Oil, Application of, 31
Crude Tar De liicd, 416
— Asphalt Defined, 416
— Oil Defined, 416
Crumbling Palisades, 8
Cube in Air Method, 198
Water Method, 198
Curing, 26
Cut-back Pitch, 111
Products Defined, 416
Cutoff, Use of, 134
— Wall, 17, 83, 85
Cutters, 178, 373
Cypress Shingles, 92
D
Dam, Ashokan, Cutoff, 358
— Waterproofed, 325
Dampproof, 13, 16
Dampproofing Compounds, 29, 314
— Defined, 416
— Pubhcations, 424
— Walls, 16, 316
Davit Attachment, 174
Day's Work Joint, 128
Plane, 68
Dead Oil Defined, 416
Dehydrated Tars, Defined, 416
Dense Concrete, 77, 78, 80
Density, 3
— Effect of, 67
— Factors, 76
Depressions in Surface, 33
Design Details, 81
Destructive Distillation Defined, 416
Development of Waterproofing, 1
Dike Form Joint, 339
Dipper, 167, 177, 373
Dipping Compound, 416
Disintegrating Effect, 2, 8, 26
Drain Pipes, 6
Drainage, 5, 6, 134
— Defined, 416
— System, 33, 349
Drop Point Apparatus, 207, 208
Dry Spots, 34
— Ply, 33, 54, 58
— Surface, 26, 33
Drying, 26
— Oven, 214
Dual Subways in N. Y. C, 54
Ductility of Asphalt, 240
— Relation to Temperature, 246
Dust Defined, 416
Dwellings, Concrete, 2
E
Earth Excavation, 58
East View Tunnels, 331
Eastern Petroleum Defined, 416
EfHorescence, 6, 12, 14
Egyptians Practice Waterproofing, 1
Elastic Membrane, 31, 45
Elaterite, Use of, 145, 147, 157
— Defined, 416
Electric Oven, 213, 373
— Resistance, 10
Electricity, Effect of, 9
Electrolysis, 4, 9, 10
— Publications, 424
Emulsion Defined, 416
Enamels, 145
Engineering and Contracting, 8, 369
Engineering News, 325, 328, 334, 337
Engineering News-Record, 85, 322
Engineering Record, 337, 352
Equipment for Grouting, 86
Estimates, 368, 369
Evaporating Oven, 214
Examples of Membrane AppUcation, 331
Grouting, 357
Integral Application, 356
Mastic Application, 353
Self-densification, 356
Special Waterproofing, 360
Excavating Foundations, 29
Excess Cement, 26, 70
Expansion Joint, Basic Types, 129
Cutoff, 136
Defined, 416
Design of, 126
Drain Pipe, 138
Effect of, 12
Fillers, 129
Function of, 124
Illustrated, 130
Properties of, 124, 128
Reinforced, 135
434
INDEX
Expansion Joint, Sliding, 138, 139

Spacing of, 126
Waterproofed, 135
Expansive Force of Freezing Water, 7
" Concrete, 7
Exterior Applications, 29
External Cutoffs, 134, 139
-- Treatments, 410, 411, 412
Exudation of Lime Salts, 15
W
Fabrics, 34, 48, 146, 374, 416
— Membrane, 52
Fats, Specific Gravity, 387
Fattening Materials, 146
Feldspar, 66, 71
Felt Joint Protection, 132
Felts, 32, 34, 46, 47, 48, 146, 158
— Cost of, 374
— Defined, 416
— Flashing, 119
— Membrane, 31, 52, 388
— Roofing, 92, 108, 109
— Weight of, 379
Ferrules, Use of, 349
Filleis, Analysis of, 72, 73
— Defined, 416
— Use of, 62, 66, 72
Film, Continuous, 30
Finial Tiles, 98, 99
Finishing Coat Applied, 22
Fire in Kettles, 50
— Wall Flashing, 16
Fireproof Liquids, 93
Fireproofing, 16
Fish-oil, Use of, 72, 75
Fissured Rock Solidified, 83
Fixed Carbon Defined, 416
Flashing, 116, 117, 118, 416
Flat Roof, 92, 110
— Seam Roofing, 106, 108
Floating Defined, 417
— Mortar Surface, 20
Floats, 182, 183
Flood Water, 5
Floor Joint Filler, 144
— Hardener, 27, 231, 232, 233
— Treatments, 319
— Waterproofing, 53
Flow Point Apparatus, 209
Flux Defined, 417

Foreign Substances, Addition of, 67, 409
Foreman of Waterproofers, 372
Forms for Post Holes, 56
Armor Coat, 59
— Bracing, 60
— Filling, 59, 61
— Setting up, 59
Formulas, Special, 313
Foundation of Pyramids, 1
— Walls, 29
Frea's Electric Oven, 213
Free Carbon, 214, 215, 216
Defined, 417
Freezing Effect of Water, 2, 7
Fuel Material, 29, 50
Fullers' Earth, 80, 417
Functional Roofing, 92, 120, 123
Fundamental Waterproofing Require-
ments, 33
Fumes, 49
Furring Compounds, 417
G
Gable Roofs, 92
Gas Black, 417
— Drip, 36, 417
— House Coal-tar, 417
— Main, Effect of Leaks, 36
— Oven, 214
Gaskets, Use of, 129
Gasoline, 31, 57, 147, 158, 374, 417
— Torch, 33, 178
Gauging Water, 417
Gelatinous Compound, 75, 146
General Electric Method, 198, 205, 206
German Wax Defined, 417
Gilsonite, Defined, 413, 417
— Use of, 143, 147, 159. 374
Glance Pitch Defined, 417
Glass Roofing, 120, 122
Glossary of Terms, 413
Gooch Crucible, 193
Government Pubhcations, 313
Grading, Laws of, 67, 80
Grahamite, Defined, 417
— Use of, 147, 159
Granite, Absorption, 4
INDEX
435
Granite, Specific Gravity, 4, 387

Granolithic Finish, 20, 24
Graphite, Defined, 417
— Use of, 146, 147, 159, 375
Gravel Concrete, 78
Absorption, 4
— Defined, 417
— Heater, 175, 181
— Roof Covering, 109-
— Specific Gravity, 4, 147, 375
— Use of, 159
Grit Defined, 417
Ground Water, Depth of, 2, 5, 52
Defined, 417
Effect on Concrete, 5
Fabric, 255
Grout, 82, 145, 147, 417
Grouting Machine, 186, 187, 373
— Materials, 146
— Process, 17, 82, 84, 87, 88, 359, 417
Gum Defined, 417
Gumlac Defined, 417
Gunite Defined, 417
Gutta Percha, SpeeifiG Gravity, 387
Defined, 417
Gutters, 118, 120
Gypsum, Specific Gravity, 387
— Defined, 417
Hail, 5
Hair Cheeks, 26
Hard Soap, 28
Harlem River Tunnels, 360, 361
Harris, Mr. Robert L., 83
Headers, 61
Heat, Effect on Pitch, 236
Linseed Oil, 236
Heating Kettles, 50, 170, 171, 173
— Pan, 178, 180
High Carbon Tars, 418
Horizontal Joints, 128
Hot Stuff Defined, 128
Hudson-Manhattan Tunnels, 330, 365
Hydrated Lime, 66, 67, 146, 147, 375,
426
Composition, 71, 418
_ — Proportion, 70
Hydrated Lime, Specific Gravity, 7, 83

Use of, 69, 148
— Magnesia, 9
Hydration of Mortar, 20
Hydrocarbons, 23, 145, 418
Hydrochloric acid, 72
Hydrogen Sulphide, 8
Hydrolitic Defined, 418
Hydrolithic Defined, 418
Hydrostatic Head, 5, 36
Hydrex Compound, 418
Hygienic Effect of Waterproofing, 13
Ice, Specific Gravity, 387

Ideal Mix, 80
Imitatite Defined, 418
Immutability Test, 260
Impervious Roofing, 93, 94, 118
— Coatings, 19
Imperviousness Essential, 81
Implements, Sundry, 166, 176
Impsomite Defined, 418
Inert FUlers, 23, 70, 71
Inspection of Waterproofing, 372, 426
Integral Liquids, 15, 25, 28, 74, 75,
418
— System, Materials for, 69, 146
Purpose of, 17, 66, 67, 68, 418
Interior Applications, 29
Internal Cutoffs, 134, 137
Iron Borings, Use of, 143
— Cutoffs, 134
— Oxide, 27
— Powdered, Use of, 146, 147, 149,
375, 418
— Sheeting Tliickness, 394
Isinglass Defined, 418
Joining Membranes, 34
Joint BafHe, 131
— Barrier, 133
— Fillers, 140, 141, 142, 426
Chemical Acting, 143
Defined, 418
— Rolls, 129, 131
Joints, Effect of, 42, 43
— for Bridges, 133
436
INDEX
Joints, Effect of, Abutments, 133

— in Brick Masonry, 126
Concrete, 62
Forms, 61
Membrane, 34
Jute Fabric, Use of, 46, 47, 48, 111, 160
K
Kalinite, 147
Kaolin Defined, 418
Kauri Gum, 72
Kerosene, 29
Kettlemen, 372
Kettles, 50, 54, 179, 373
Knot Hole Fillers, 144
Care of, 114
Knowledge of Materials, 2
Kraemer & Sarnow Method, 198
Labor, 27, 146, 370, 372

Lake Pitch Defined, 418
Land Pitch Defined, 418
— Plaster Defined, 418
Lap, Cement, 418
— Sealed, 46
— Width of, 34
Larutan System, 418
Layer, Defined, 418
— Type of Membrane, 41
Leaching, Effect of, 141
Lead Cutoffs, 134
— Sheet, Use of, 92, 365
— Sheet Thickness of, 393, 394
— Specific Gravity, 387, 393, 394
— Wool, Use of, 144, 375
Leaks, Occurrence of, 110
Lean Mixtures, 20
— Mortars, 25
Lime, 19, 75, 145, 149,, 375, 418
— Stearate, 66
— Washes, 61
Limestone, Absorption, 4
— Dust, 62, 375
Linseed Oil, 93, 145, 147, 375, 418
and Pitch, 236, 237, 238
Specific Gravity, 387
Linseed Oil, Paints, 18

Use of, 31, 149, 143
Literature on Waterproofing, 1, 426
Lithocarbon Defined, 418
Long Island Ila,ilroad Subway, 332
Low Carbon Tars, 418
Lubricant Action, 69
Lubricants, Function of, 67
Lubricating Oil, 36
Lye, Concentrated, 28
M
Mabery-Sieplein Method, 198, 202, 203
Machinery, 166
Magnesium Chloride, 9
— Oxide, 8
— Sulphate, 3, 8, 9
Maltha Defined, 418
Malthene Defined, 419
Manhattan-Bronx Subway, 333
Manhattan Railroad Viaducts, 341
Manhole, 20
Marble, Absorption, 4
Martin's Creek Viaduct, 339
Masonry, Specific Gravity, 387
— Sohdified, 83
— Treatments, 314
Mastic Bond, 249
— Defined, 419
— Heating Kettle, 64, 175
— Joint Filler, 142
— Materials, 53, 62, 168
— Mixing Kettles, 64, 65, 166, 167, 168,
169, 170, 373
— Properties, 242, 247
— Roof Flashing, 142
— Sheet, 52, 53, 54, 56
— Stirrers, 177
— System of Waterproofing, 17, 52
— Trowel, 183
— Use of, 57, 63, 64, 145, 147, 16)
— Volume, 62, 248, 390, 391
— Wall, 61
— Weight, 390, 391
Mat, Expansion Joint, 139
Materials for Calking, 143
Grouting, 85
Manjak Defined, 419
Meandering Cracks, 127
INDEX
437
Mechanical Actmg Materials, 146, 147

153
— Analysis, 80, 399
Melting Point Methods, 197, 235, 236
Membrane, Application of, 32, 40, 42,
47
— Continuity, 33, 34, 40, 41
— Defined, 419
— Materials, 146
— Mats, 34, 42
— Protection of, 34, 35, 36, 37
— Sheet Lead, 37
— System of Waterproofing, 17, 31,
419
Mesh Joint, 34
Metal Flashing, 101, 107, 117
— Linings, 31, 33
— Primer Defined, 419
— Shingles, 120
Metallic Compounds, 23
Metals, 146, 426
Mineral Aggregate, 62, 146
— Fillers, 32
— Matter, 143
— Naphtha, 419
— Oil, 419
— Pitch, 419
— Rubber, 419
— Surfacing, 100
— Tar, 419
— Wax, 419
Minwax Defined, 419
Missouri Clay, 71
Mixing Methods, 5, 81
Mixtures of Soap and Alum, 23
Modulus of Elasticity, 12, 125
Moisture Absorption, 15
Monolithic Construction, 125
Mops, 176, 373
Mortar, 23, 25, 26, 82
— Defined, 419
— Joints, 126, 127
— Porosity of, 27, 77
— Protective Coat, 18, 37, 38
— Tiles, 95
— Trowel, 183
Muriatic Acid Applied, 21
Mushy Concrete, 78
N
Nailheads Covered, 101
Nailing Base, 94
Nails, Use of, 93, 101, 397
Naphtha, Coal-tar, 23
— Defined, 419
— Use of, 31, 145, 147, 161
Naphthaline Defined, 419
Natural Asphalt, 146
— Cement, 72, 146, 147, 149, 419
Native Bitumen, 419
— Paraffin, 419
Neat Cement, 82, 145, 146, 147, 150
Necessity of Waterproofing, 1
Neponsit Felt Defined, 419
Neutral Oil Defined, 419
New York Board of Water Supply, 86
Clay, 71
Dual Subways, 334, 353
Municipal Railway Corp, 343
Testing Laboratory Method, 198,
201
O
Oak, Specific Gravity, 387
Oil Asphalts Defined, 419
— Compounds, 66
— Effect of, 36
— Emulsion, 74
— Gas Tar Defined, 419
— Tester, 192
Oil-tar Pitch, 146, 147, 161, 375, 419
Old Laps, 34
Oleate Potassium, 66
— Sodium, 66
Oxidation of Reinforcement, 9
Ozokerite Defined, 419
Ozocerite Defined, 419
Paddle Mixing Machine, 86

Pails Pouring, 167, 177, 178, 373
Painting, 18
Paints, 145
Paint-spraying Machine, 19
Paper Burlap, Use of, 162
— Rosin-sized, 108
— Saturated, 146
— Use of, 32, 162
438
INDEX
Parabola, Sand Curve, 81

Paraffin Defined, 419
Paraffine Defined, 419
— Naphtha, 419
— Oil, Use of, 163, 419
— Solution, 72
— Use of, 23, 28, 29, 145, 147, 162, 375
Parapet Walls, 116
Patented Cements, 23, 146
— Compounds, 145, 146
Peeling of Stucco, 20, 26
Pellet Method, 204
Penetrometer, 196
Penetration and Temperature, 244,
245
Pennsylvania Railroad Tunnels, 335
Percolation Defined, 7
Permeability Defined, 7
— Effect of, 67
— Test, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 226,
227, 228
Persulphate of Iron, 93
Petrolene Defined, 420
Petroleum Defined, 420
— Grease, 143
— Oil, 23, 146
Petrolic Ether, 420
Pig Iron, Use of, 23, 143
Pine Oil, 420
Pine, Specific Gravity, 387
— Tar, 31, 142,420
Pitch, Asphalt Mixture, 111, 238, 239
— Defined, 420
— Linseed Oil Mixture, 236, 237, 238,
239
— of Roofs, 104, 105
— Quality of, 49, 51, 52, 146
Pipe, Coating, 420
— Grouting Process, 86
— Mineral Heating, 181
Plane of Weak Bond, 127, 142
Planning and Estimating, 368
Plaster Bond, 420
— of Paris, 33, 58, 111,420
Plastering, 16, 18
Plastic Clav. 133
Plastic Roofing, 420

— Slate, 142, 420
Plasticity of Bitumen, 32
Plate Steel, 147
Pliea, Adhesion Between, 34
Pointing Mortar, 126
Porosity, 3, 7, 78
Portable Kettles, 50
Portland Cement, Use of, 24, 71, 73,
74, 146, 147, 150, 420
Post Holes Treated, 43, 44, 57
Potash, 26
Pouring Pail, 167, 177, 178, 373
Powdered Metals, 27
Powders Finely Ground, 66
Practical Tables, 379
— Tests, 26, 188, 229
Precast Joint Filler, 128
Preparation of Surface, 57, 58
Prepared Roofing, 112
— Shingles, 100, 101, 113
Preserving Concrete Tanks, 317
— Liquids, 93
— Processes, 18
Pressure Tunnels, 357
Priming Coat, 30, 420
Proportioning by Eye, 64
— Effect of, 67
— Soap and Alum, 28
Proprietary Compounds, 18, 72, 146
Protective Concrete, 32, 36, 37, 56, 78,
349
Q
Quaking Consistency, 27
Quasi, Colloidal Bodies Defined, 420
— Soap Bodies Defined, 420
Quick Lime, 67
R
Rag Pelt, 32
Railroad, Concrete Roadbed, 346, 347
— Drainage, 6
— Mezzanines, 344, 345, 347
— Viaduct Waterproofed, 337
— — Joint Filler, 346
Rain, 5
Ready Roofing, 112, 114
Recipes, Practical, 313, 425
Red Rope Paper, 420
INDEX
439
Reduced Oils, 420

— Petroleum, 421
Redwood Shingles, 92
Refined Asphalt, 421
— Tar, 421
Reinforced Filter Plant, 356
— Reservoir, 356 ■
— Standpipe, 351
— Water Tank, 357
Reinforcement Oxidation, 9
Report on Waterproofing, 408
Reservoirs, 13, 32, 329
— Gate House, 325
Residual Oil, 421
— Petroleum, 421
— Tar, 421
Resin, 151, 421
Resinates, 67
Retaining Walls, 20, 31, 32, 325
Rich Mortar, 25
Richardson Method, 198, 204
Ridge Roll, 104
Roadbeds Waterproofed, 353
Rock Asphalt, 421, 52
— Excavation, 58
Roman Waterproofing, 1
Rondout Tunnels, 358
Roof Drainage, 118
— Gutters, 119
— Joints, 106
— Simplest, 91
Roofers, 372
— Kettles, 172, 173
Roofing, 91, 110, 319, 426
— Cement, 319, 421
— Cost of, 91
— German, 96
— Gravel, 110,421
— Modem, 92
— Mops, 176
— Nails. 397
— Paper, 319
— Selection, 91
— Slag, 109,110,421
— Spanish, 96
Roofs in Tropics, 92
Rosin, 145, 147, 421
Rubber, Specific Gravity, 387
Rust Joint, 144
Salamander, 33, 65, 181, 373

Sal ammoniac, 146, 147, 151, 421
Sanborn, Mr. James F., 89
Sand, 25, 50, 02, 71, SO, So, 147, 375,
421, 426
— Cement, 24, 85, 147, 151, 421
— Drying, 179, 180
— Heating, 181
— Wall, 58, 60
Sandstone, Specific Gravity, 4, 387
Saturant in Felts, 252, 253
Fabrics, 252, 253
Sawdust, 375
Scientific Proportioning, 3, 78
Scratch Coat, 22
Screenings, 402
Scuttle, 373
Sea Wall Coatings, 24
— Water, Effect on Concrete, 4, 8
Seasoning Concrete
Secret Compounds, 145, 146, 165
Seepage, 12
Self-densified Concrete, 17, 68, 76
Materials, 146
Semi Asphaltic Oils, 421
■ Petroleum, 421
Service Tests, 26, 323
Sewage, Effect on Concrete, 8
Sewer Leakage, 36
Shale Tiles, 95
Sheathing, 146
— Boards, 92, 100, 114
— Paper, 109
Sheet Copper, 94, 97, 146
— Iron, 123, 146
— Lead, 37, 45, 94, 104, 105, 132, 146
— Mastic, 38, 52, 53, 146, 421
— Metal, 147, 393
— Pihng, 58
— Tin, 146
Shingle Roof, 92
Shingles, 92, 93, 101, 104, 396
— Methods of Applying, 102, 103, 104
Short, Defined, 421
Shovel, 373
Sieves, 400
Sihcates, 66
SUt, Effect of, 125
Slack Barrels, 373
440
INDEX
Slag Cement Mortar, 24

— Roofing, 94, 109, 308, aiO
Slate, Powdered, 31, 63, 111
— Shingles, 93
Slates, 4, 387, 397
Slip, Tongue Joint, 127, 128
Slush Coat, 22
Smith Ductility Machine, 211, 212
Smoother, 46, 177, 178, 373
Snow, 5
Soap, 28, 66, 74, 145, 147, 151, 375, 421
— and Alum, Action of, 28
Soda Ash Defined, 421
Sodium Chloride, 9
— Fluoride, 93
— Silicate, 93
— Sulphate, 83
Softening Point, 207, 208
Soils Solidified, 83
Solvent, Effect of, 28, 29
Soluble Glass, 421
Spading, 3
Spalls, Use of, 56
Special Cements, 146
— Membrane, 45
Specific Gravity of Concrete, 4
of Materials, 4, 387
Coal-tar Pitch, 197
Petroleum, 197
and Baum^, 381, 382, 383, 384,
385
— Resistance of Concrete, 10
of Mortar, 10
Specifications, 426
— Asphalt, 267, 268, 269
— Bridge, 298, 299, 300, 301, 302
— Caisson, 291
— Coal-tar Pitch, 269, 270
— Concrete, 273, 305
— Creosote Oil, 270
— Dampproofing, 273
— Fabric, 263, 265, 266
— Felt, 264
— Floor, 303, 304
— Foundation, 278
— Hydrated Lime, 271, 272
— Integral System, 274
— Masonry, 273
— Mastic Pitchi 270
— Material, 263
Specifications, Railroad Structures,

293, 294, 295, 296, 297
— Requisites, 262
— Roof, 206, 207, 209, 306, 311, 312
— Stucco, 277
— Substructure, 279
— Subway, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285,,
286
— Surface Coating, 275, £76
— Tunnels, 280, 287, 288, 2S9, 290
— Waterproofing, 273
— Writing, 263
Spruce Shingles, 92
Staggered Type Membrane, 41
Standard Methods for Bridges, 294
Standing Seam Roofing, 106, 108
Staves, as Fuel, 50
Steam as Fire Extinguisher, 50
— Insulation, 45
Steam-pressure Placing Machine, 89
Stearates, 28, 67, 72, 75, 143, 146, 147,
152, 153, 421
Steel Plate, Use of, 163, 146, 367, 387,
394
Stirrers, 177, 373
Stone Aggregate, 78, 80, 163
— Average Weight, 4
— Duplication of, 3
— Preserving Composition, 316
— Screenings, 86,147, 374
— Slab Roof, 92
Storing, Effect of, 48
Structural Bodyguaikl, 2
Structures, Bane of, 3
Stucco, 25
Subaqueous Tunnels, 362
Subsurface Structures, 350
Subway Asphalt, 421
— Pitch, 421
Subways, 7, 32, 47, 48, 55, 354
Suet, 145, 147, 153, 421
Sulphuric Acid, 8
— Anhydride, 8
Supervision, Effect of, 3, 45, 76, 77, 81
Surface Coating Compounds, 23, 25,
30, 72
System, 9, 17, 18, 19, 26, 145, 315,
323, 421
— Preparation, 33, 58
INDEX
441
Swimming Pool, 20, 25, 352

Switch Pits, 36
Sylvester Process, 17, 28, 421
Tables, Explanation of, 379, 386

Tallow, Specific Gravity, 387
Tamper, 373
Tank Treatments, 24, 317
Tar and Gravel Heater, 175, 174
— Use of, 141, 145, 147, 164, 422, 423
Technical Tests, 188
Temperature, Effect of, 2, 4, 11, 125,
241, 251
Tensometer, 210
— Mold for, 211
Teme Plate, 105
Terra Gotta, 37, 58, 387
Terrazzo Floor, 231
Tests, Asphalt, 189
— Determination, 190, 191, 192, 194,
195, 198
— Drop Point, 205
— Ductility, 209
— Flash Point, 191
— Flow Point, 208
— Identification, 212, 213, 217, 218 I
— Practical, 219, 229, 231, 234
— Waterproofing, 188, 189
Texene, 422
Thatch Roof, 91
Thawing, Effect of, 2
Thermometric Eqtiivalents, 380
Thompson, Sanford E., 69
Tiles, 52, 99, 146, 387
— Shingles, 95
Timber, Use of, 22, 50
Tin, 384, 393, 394
— Cutoffs, 134
— Drain, 33
— Flashing, 94
— Plate, 105, 106, 108
— Roofing, 92, 105, 108
Tongue and Groove Joints, 133
Tools, Applicabihty of, 166
Torch, 57, 178, 373
Torpedo Gravel, 422
Trap, Specific Gravity, 4
Treated Materials, 147

Trial Mixtures, 80
Trinidad Asphalt, 143, 422
Trough, 58
Trowels, 182, 373
Tunnels, Grouted, 83
— Penn. Raikoad, 20, "29, 31, 32, 33,
39, 326, 327
Turpentine, 375, 387
Trnx-eUite, 422
U
Ultimate Tensile Strength, 12, 125
Uneven Settlement, 2, 4, 13
United States Bureau of Standards, 8,
27, 68, 69, 71, 74
Capital Terrace, 340
V
Varnish Gum, 422
Vibration, Effect of, 13, «7
Vintaite Defined, 422
Viscosity, 422
Viscous Prm Ing Coat, 30
Vitrified TiJ^s, 6, 45
Voids, Determination of, 7, 78
— Filling Materials, 3, 146
VolatUe Defined, 422
— Oil, 49
Volumetric Sjmthesis, 80
— Tests, 80
W
Walls, 58
Water, 147
— Absorbent, 422
— Diverted, 84
— Effect on Fabrics, 254
• — Ejecting Grout Machine, 87
■ — Evaporation, 77
— Gas Tar, 164, 422
— Glass, 75, 422
— Repellent, 3, 67, 422
— Pressure, 18, 63, 392
— Specific Gravity, 38T
— Storage Works, 323
— Table, 5, 422
— Universal Solvent, 1
— Use of, 22, 50, 99, 164
— Works Reservoir, 328, 360
442
INDEX
Waterproofers, Graded, 370, 372

Waterproofing, Adaptability, 82, 422
— Applied, 323
— Art of, 1
— Cements, 320, 321
— Compounds, 313, 314, 321, 322
— Economy, 16
— Fabrics, 426
— Failures, 124
— Implements, 166
— Materials, 145, 389, 426
— Mortar, 314
— Paste, 72
• — Progress, 17
— Projections, 43
— Roof Coverings, 395
— Specifications, 262
— Steampipes, 43
— Systems, 17
Watertight Roofs, 91
Wax, 387
Weak Bond Plane, 133
Weather and Waterproofing, 86
Weep Holes), 6
Weight of Implements, 373

— — Materials, 374
Wet Surface, 66
Wheel Barrow, 181, 373
Wood Cores, 373
— Flour, 375
— Shmgles, 92
— Spreader, 183
Wooden Tanks, 318
— Floor, 319
Wool Felt, 32
Workmanship, 77, 81
WurtzeUte, 422
Yoke, Pail Carrying, 179

Z
Zinc Borate Paint, 93
— Chloride, 93
— Cutoffs, 134
— Roofing, 106
— Sheeting, 105
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SOUGHT WITH THE INCOME Ol' THE

Cornell University Library

Waterproofing engineering for engineers,

3 1924 015 370 400

The original of tiiis book is in

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31 92401 5370400

Waterproofing engineering is not taught in any college, and

Specification Requisites 262

NEED AND FUNCTION OF WATERPROOFING 3

NEED AND FUNCTION OF WATERPROOFING 5

NEED AND FUNCTION OF WATERPROOFING 9

In general, complete protection from electrolytic effects is not

NEED AND FUNCTION OF WATERPROOFING

Effect of Temperature Changes on Concrete

Fig. 1. — Methods of Waterproofing around Coluton Bases and Footings to

the surface of the concrete is one of the means employed to combat

NEED AND FUNCTION OF WATERPROOFING 13

NEED AND FUNCTION OF WATERPROOFING 15

Pjq 3 — Evidence of Exudation of Lime Salts through Wall Unprotected by-

engineer encounters the least difficulties. The invention of the

Fig. 4. — ^Applying Plaster Coat Over Bituminous Dampproofing Coat.

Methods of Appl3ring Surface Coatings. There are three com-

Fig. 5. — Ideal Penetration of Surface Coating.

before any important waterproofing work can be prosecuted success-

the surfaces will be facilitated and a much better bond secured by a

The United States Army engineers recommend the use of sand-

Fig. 7.— Applying Bituminous Coat with Brush to Arch of Culvert.

Fig. 8. — Swimming Pool Waterproofed with Waterproof Mortar Coat.

Hence it resolves itself to a question of how to make stucco

The impermeability of plain cement mortar is well shown in

Cubic Millimeters of Water Passed per Minute per

* Average value of three test pieces tested for six hours.

Membrane System of Waterproofing

DURING PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION

WALL ALREADY IN PLACE

Protection of Membrane. The third fundamental requirement

emphasizes the need for making the membrane adhere to the

•1- -;-.■^«'^. ■■-■"■

Then again, in protecting waterproofing membranes or surface

Fig. 11.— Application of Waterproofing Membrane with InsuflBcient Protective

way on a very important work. The improved methods of pro-

least height possible, as depicted in Fig. 13. Also, in depositing

SHOWING WRONG METHODS OF IMPROVED METHODS OF

Brick in Asphalt Maatio

Making Membrane Mats. Where it is impossible to build up

Single 3-Plj' Mat before Laying

&gt;K l' &gt; l ^ 1' &gt;l

t-;^--'-'^-- •■■■■■■' ■;■■■ -. ■- -^Concrete SurfaoS:

Fig. 15. — Method of Making Membrane Mats.

and to itself when lapped to form the membrane, hence it is imprac-

Fig. 17. — Applying Treated Cutton Fabric.

Bpw '^9^^%^ 0,8 7,0,5

coat of concrete, the form for it should be made rigiil so as to avoid

Fig. 20.— Building of Two-course Brick-in-mas(ic \\'all, Showing Form, Form

SYSTEMS OF WATERPROOFING " 65

effects of hydrated lime in concrete, arrived at the figures in Table

The percentage of lime is in terms of weight of cement. The

The chemical composition of some inert powder fillers are given

TABLE v.— ANALYSIS OF INERT FILLERS

Sulphuric anhydride (SOO -

'^ -* ^ 1-1 0&gt; &lt;N

1&gt; O O CO t-^ I&gt; (N •

>K l' > l ^ 1' >l

'^ -* ^ 1-1 0> <N

1> O O CO t-^ I> (N •

O l> cq rf C<1 1-1

^'"''-^V ^->» ^ ^Jolnt Filler