Natural Gas Liquids Recovery PDF

POL
Petroleum Open Learning
Natural Gas
Liquids Recovery
Part of the
Petroleum Processing Technology Series
OPITO
THE OIL & GAS ACADEMY
POL
Petroleum Open Learning
Natural Gas
Liquids Recovery
Part of the
Petroleum Processing Technology Series
OPITO
THE OIL & GAS ACADEMY
Petroleum Open Learn-
Designed, Produced and Published by OPITO Ltd., Petroleum Open Learning, Minerva House, Bruntland Road, Portlethen, Aberdeen AB12 4QL
Printed by Astute Print & Design, 44-46 Brechin Road, Forfar, Angus DD8 3JX www.astute.uk.com
OPITO 1993 (rev.2002)
ISBN 1 872041 85 X
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval or information storage system, transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical,
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Natural Gas Liquids Recovery

(Part of the Petroleum Processing Technology Series)
Contents
Page
BOOK1
*
Training Targets
Introduction
Section 1
Chemistry Fundamentals
Hydrocarbons and Chemical Bonding
The Physical Properties of Hydrocarbons
Boiling Point of Alkanes
Dew Point Curve
Vapour Pressure
Mulit-Component Mixtures
Absorption
- The Theory of NGL Recovery
Section 2
- NGL Recovery Using Compression & Cooling
A Typical Compression and Cooling System
23
Visual Cues

training targets for you to

achieve by the end of the unit
test yourself questions

to see how much you
understand
check yourself answers to

let you see if you have been
thinking along the right lines
activities for you to apply

your new knowledge
summaries for you to recap

on the major steps in your
progress
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Contents (cont'd)
*
Section 3 - NGL Recovery by Refrigeration
32
Visual Cues

training targets for you to

achieve by the end of the unit
test yourself questions

to see how much you
understand
check yourself answers to

let you see if you have been
thinking along the right lines
activities for you to apply

your new knowledge
summaries for you to recap

on the major steps in your
progress
Mechanical Refrigeration
A Typical Mechanical Refrigeration NGL Recovery System
Auto Refrigeration
Section 4
Page
- NGL Recovery Using Absorption Process
47
A Typical Absorption System

Gas Flow
Absorption Oil Flow
Check Yourself - Answers
57
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Training Targets
When you have completed this unit on Natural Gas Liquids Recovery, you will be able to :
State the reasons for recovering natural gas liquids

Explain in simple terms the behaviour of hydrocarbons with respect to changes in energy level
Define the terms bubble point, dew point and vapour pressure
Describe the construction and operation of equipment used in a typical compression and cooling NGL recovery plant
Explain the operation of a refrigeration process
Differentiate between mechanical refrigeration and auto refrigeration
Explain what is meant by the Joules Thompson effect
Describe two types of NGL recovery plant which use refrigeration systems
List the equipment used in an NGL recovery plant using the absorption process
Outline the flow through an absorption system used to recover NGLs
Tick the box when you have met each target.
Oil and Gas Separation

Natural
Liquids Recovery
Systems

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Introduction
Natural Gas is produced from petroleum
reservoirs as associated gas ( associated with
an oil accumulation) or non-associated gas (
produced independently of oil). This natural gas is
a complex mixture of hydrocarbons which, in the
main, belong to a family of hydrocarbons called
the alkane or paraffin series. We will talk about
this hydrocarbon family in more detail in Section
1.
The first ten members of this alkane series are
listed below.
Methane
Ethane
Propane
Butane
Pentane
Hexane
Heptane
Octane
Nonane
Decane
At normal temperatures and pressures the first
four members of the series exist as gases. The
other components are liquid at these conditions.
A natural gas stream is capable of being partially or

totally liquefied, using various types of processing
equipment. We will look at why we might want to
do this in a moment.
Total liquefaction of natural gas is only possible
using processing techniques involving extremely
low temperatures. These are called cryogenic
techniques. The processes are normally carried
out in large, shore-based installations, similar to
oil refineries. The liquid produced is referred to as
liquefied natural gas ( LNG)
Partial liquefaction can be achieved with less
complicated processes than those required for
total liquefaction. These processes are often
incorporated into the facilities on an oil and
gas production platform. In these systems, the
components of the natural gas stream are liquefied
with the exception of the methane and most of the
ethane. The resulting liquid is called natural gas
liquid ( NGL )
Whilst I am quoting abbreviations regarding gas
liquids, it is worth while mentioning another one
which you will come across. This is the expression
LPG which means liquefied petroleum gas. LPG,
which consists of liquefied propane and/or butane,
is extensively used for domestic heating and
cooking.
Finally you should be aware of the expression

condensate. This is a hydrocarbon mixture which
exists as a gas in the reservoir but condenses to a
liquid as the pressure and temperature is reduced
when the gas is produced.
In the Petroleum Processing Technology series
of units, we are concerned with the processing
of oil and gas in the oilfield or on the production
platform. Therefore, in this unit, we will concentrate
on the recovery of natural gas liquids or NGLs.
But why bother recovering the liquids? There are a
number of reasons for this, and I think we should
look at them in some detail before starting the unit.
If the associated gas is being re-injected after
separation, valuable components are being
lost. There is a strong case for recovering as
much as possible from the gas stream before
re-injection, and the NGLs are the easiest
fraction to recover. For example, from a total
of 25 million cu ft of gas produced daily,5
000 bbl of liquid might be recovered with a
potential value somewhere in the region of
$100,000.
.
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Gas being marketed has to meet certain

specifications regarding water content,
calorific value (heating capability),
composition etc. Processes designed to
remove water vapour and recover the gas
liquids, will ensure that the sales contract
specifications are met.
Gas is usually transported via a pipeline to
the sales point. If the heavier liquefiable
components are not removed they could
condense in the pipeline as free liquids. This
would result in loss of pipeline efficiency.
The liquid accumulation would necessitate
frequent pipeline cleaning or pigging.
So you can see that it makes sense in most cases
to recover the gas liquids and in this unit we will
look at how this is done.
Liquefaction of gas, whether it be partial or total,
always involves control of pressure and
temperature.
In addition, the composition of the gas and
recovered liquid streams may be controlled to
ensure the correct type and amounts of liquid are
obtained.
Composition can be controlled by using an adsorption or absorption process.

In an adsorption process the components are
deposited on the surface of a solid material then
regenerated off.
In an absorption process the gas is contacted with
liquid. The heavier components of the gas stream
are absorbed into the liquid. These can then be
recovered from the liquid and the absorbing liquid
used again.
The unit is divided into four sections:
Section 1 will concentrate on the theory of
NGL recovery.
In Section 2 we will be looking at NGL
recovery by compression and cooling.
Section 3 will cover NGL recovery by
refrigeration.
Finally in Section 4 we will be looking at NGL
recovery by absorption techniques.
Pressure is controlled directly. Temperature is

controlled by adding or removing heat.
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Section 1 - The Theory of NGL Recovery

In this section we are going to start by looking
at the chemical and physical properties of
hydrocarbons. This will enable us to see how the
recovery processes work. We will do this in a
rather simple way so dont get concerned about
the science involved. Lets start by having a look
at some basic fundamentals of chemistry.
Chemistry Fundamentals
All substances are matter. This can be
described as anything which occupies space and
can be seen and felt etc. Chemistry is the science
which investigates the composition and structure
of substances and the changes which substances
may undergo.
ELEMENT
CHEMICAL SYMBOL
Aluminium
AI
Carbon
Hydrogen
Table 1 : Elements with English names
ELEMENT LATIN NAME
CHEMICAL
SYMBOL
Copper
Cuprum
Cu
Iron
Ferrum
Fe
Silver
Argentum
Ag
Pure substances can be elements or compounds.

These are basic terms used extensively in
chemistry and we must understand these before
we carry on.
Table 2 : Elements with symbols from Latin names
Elements are the building blocks of all matter.

They are substances which cannot be broken
down into simpler substances. There are about 90
naturally occurring elements, including things like
Hydrogen, Oxygen and Carbon.
Compounds are pure substances which consist

of two or more elements which are chemically
combined to form a new substance.
Instead of using the full name to describe an

element, symbols are used. These are usually the
first one or more letters of the full name, either
English or foreign ( usually Latin). I have listed
some common examples of each in the following
tables.
The compound may not bear any resemblance to

the elements from which it is made. For instance
water is a compound which is normally a liquid. It
is made from the chemical linking of the elements
hydrogen and oxygen which are normally gases.
Another term with which you should be famiiar at

this point is mixture.
Mixtures are not pure substances in theselves.
They are made up from two or more pure
substances which are not chemically combined.
These pure substances may be elements or
compounds which retain their own properties when
forming the mixture.
A combination of iron filings and sand is a
mixture. They could be separated from each
other quite easily. A magnet would attract
the iron but not the sand. Both the iron and
sand are pure substance elements. As a
combination they are a mixture but they retain
their own properties. ( I.e. iron is magnetic,
sand is not ).
Each element is made up from even simpler
building blocks, called atoms.
These are the smallest particles that can be
identified as an element.
An atom is also the smallest particle of an element
that can combine chemically with another atom.
When atoms combine chemically, they form
molecules.
These are the smallest particles of a
combination of atoms which can exist and still
retain the characteristics of the combination.
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Atoms of a single element can combine to form molecules

of that element. For instance the gas oxygen is a pure
substance. It is composed solely of atoms of the element
oxygen combined into molecules.
Water on the other hand is also a pure substance. It is a
compound composed of atoms of oxygen and hydrogen
combined to form water molecules.
A word of warning at this point. I said earlier that chemical
symbols are used to describe elements. This same symbol
is also used to describe one atom of the element. Therefore
the symbol C can mean the element carbon or one atom
of carbon. This is important when we are looking at the way
atoms combine to form molecules.
We will be looking at the way this happens later. Before we
move on however, have a go at the following Test Yourself
Question on elements and compounds.
The following list of substances are either elements or compounds.

Indicate which.
nitrogen - (N)
...............................................................
sodium chloride - (NaCl)
...............................................................
water - (H2O)
...............................................................
helium - (He)
...............................................................
sulphuric acid - (H2SO4)
...............................................................
carbon - (C)
...............................................................
iron - (Fe)
...............................................................
You will find the correct answers in Check Yourself 1.1 on Page 57.
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In this unit we are concerned with the recovery of

natural gas liquids. But what is natural gas? In the
introduction I defined it as a complex mixture of
hydrocarbons.
Of course, each arm of the carbon atom need not

necessarily grasp the arm of a hydrogen atom.
Two atoms of carbon could hold hands leaving
the remaining six carbon atom arms grasping
hydrogen arms. This could be represented as
shown in Figure 1.3.
Hydrocarbons are compounds of the elements

hydrogen and carbon. These elements have the
chemical symbols, H for hydrogen and C for carbon.
We can now look at the formation of these
compounds.
Hydrocarbons and Chemical

Bonding
When atoms combine to form molecules they do so in
a special way called chemical bonding. The easiest
way to visualise this bonding is to imagine each atom
to be a ball having a number of arms. For chemical
bonding to occur, each arm of an atom must grasp
the arm of another atom leaving no arm free. The
actual number of arms on an atom will depend on the
specific element.
Methane
Figure 1.1 : Methane Molecule

The simple molecule shown in Figure 1.1 is the
hydrocarbon molecule methane. A simple method
of representing the structure of methane is shown
in Figure 1.2
Figure 1.3 : Ethane Molecule
For instance, carbon has four arms whilst hydrogen

has only one. So, for hydrogen and carbon atoms to
combine into a simple hydrocarbon molecule, each
of the four arms of the carbon atom must grasp the
single arm of each of four hydrogen atoms. This is
shown pictorially in Figure 1.1.
This is the hydrocarbon molecule ethane.

Using small drawings to represent molecules is
somewhat clumsy. So chemists have developed a
system of shorthand, in which a chemical formula
is used to describe the number and type of atoms
which make up a molecule.
Figure 1.2 : Methane Molecule
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In the alkane series, which starts with metane,

each subsequent member has one extra cabon
atom and two extra hydrogen atoms.
For instance ethane, which has two carbon atoms

and six hydrogen atoms, can be written:
C 2H 6
Note that when there is only one atom of a
particular element in the molecule, the subscript
1 is left off. The chemical formula for methane
therefore is
CH4
As I pointed out in the Introduction, methane and
ethane are the first two members of a family of
hydrocarbons called the alkanes. In such a family
each of the members are related by a general
formula. The general formula for the alkane family
is:
Test Yourself 1.2

Using the general formula for alkanes,
determine the chemical formula for octane
which has eight carbon atoms and nonane
which has nine.
CnH(2n+2)
In the formula, n represents the number of carbon
atoms in the molecule. The greater the number of
carbon atoms, the larger and, therefore heavier,
the molecule.
You will find the correct answers in Check

Yourself 1.2 on Page 57.
So a hydrocarbon molecule of the alkane family

which has 4 carbon atoms would have the
chemical formula
C4H(2x4)+2 i.e. C4H10

This is the fourth member of the alkane family
-Butane.
Scientists do not use the word family to describe a

related group of compounds such as the alkanes.
They call them an homologous series.
This is from the Greek homos meaning same,
and logos meaning speech. In other words
related or similar.
In the Introduction, I listed the first ten members of

the series:
Methane
Ethane
Propane
Butane
Pentane
Hexane
Heptane
Octane
Nonane
Decane
You will also remember from the Introduction

that, at normal temperatures and pressures, the
first four members of the series exist as gases.
The heavier components are liquid under these
conditions.
Although I have just said that pentane and the
heavier components are liquids at normal
temperatures and pressures, a natural gas stream
may contain some of these components in very
small quantities. This constituent of the gas stream
is usually referred to as pentanes plus (pentanes
+ ) or C5+
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A typical gas stream leaving a separator in a

production facility could have the following analysis.
Component
Methane
(C1)
Ethane
(C2)
Propane
(C3)
Butane
(C4)
Pentanes + (C5+)
mol %
83.9%
11.6%
3.3%
1.0%
0.2%
These components are often referred to by

abbreviating the chemical formula as indicated.
i.e. Butane C 4H10 is referred to as C4.
Mol % stands for molar percentage. It is just
one way of expressing the proportion of each
substance in a mixture of several substances. It is
used extensively in chemical calculations but we
dont need to go any further into this at this point.
In addition to the alkane series, other
hydrocarbons can be produced from a petroleum
reservoir. Components of the cycloparaffln series
or the aromatic series can form a small proportion
of the reservoir fluids.
You can see then that the gas stream is a mixture
of hydrocarbons in varying proportions. This is of
course how I defined natural gas.
However, other chemicals may also be present in

the natural gas stream. Compounds of oxygen,
nitrogen and sulphur, together with water vapour,
can occur in greater or lesser amounts. These
substances can cause problems in the production
and processing of natural gas. However for
the present we will ignore these impurities and
concentrate on the hydrocarbons of the alkane
series.
Each of the components of the hydrocarbon
mixture has its own unique physical properties. I
think it would be worthwhile having a look at these
now.
The Physical Properties of

Hydrocarbons
I said earlier that all substances are referred to as
matter. Matter is all around us, from the air that
you breathe to the food that you eat and the liquids
that you drink.
Matter can exist in three different physical states.
They are:
Solid - which has a definite shape and
volume.
Liquid - which has a definite volume
but no specific shape.
Gas - which has neither definite shape
nor volume.
Im quite sure that you are fully aware of the state

of everyday matter. For instance at normal room
temperature and pressure a steel bar is in the solid
state, water is liquid and the air you are breathing
is a gas.
You will note, however, that I said at normal
temperature and pressure. If the temperature and /
or the pressure is changed, the state of the matter
may change.
We would actually be adding or removing energy
from the matter by changing its temperature or
pressure. It is the energy possessed by the matter
which determines what state it is in.
A very familiar example of changing the state of
a substance is that of adding or removing energy
from water.
Water is a pure substance which is a compound
of hydrogen and oxygen i.e. H2O. At atmospheric
pressure and room temperature water is a liquid.
If however we raise the temperature of the water
by adding energy in the form of heat to the water,
it will eventually boil and turn to steam - a gas or
vapour.
Similarly, if we were to remove heat energy, the
water would eventually freeze and turn to ice - a
solid.
This process of changing the state of water is
easily represented on a simple graph and I have
included one on the next page.
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As we continue to add heat you will notice that the

temperature stops increasing and remains constant
until point C is reached. The heat energy added
between points B and C is called latent heat, and
is used to convert solid ice to liquid water. When
all the ice has turned to water, a further addition of
heat energy causes the temperature to start rising
again until point D is reached. Once again the heat
added between C and D is sensible heat. At point
D the first bubble of steam appears, as the water
starts to boil. The liquid has started to change to a
vapour or gas. Between point D and point E, the
temperature again remains constant as further
latent heat converts liquid water to steam. When
all the water has turned to steam, a further addition
of sensible heat causes the temperature to climb
again towards point F.
Figure 1.4 : Changing State of Water
In Figure 1.4 the vertical axis of the graph is the temperature of the water and the horizontal axis is the heat input.
Note that I have not indicated any units for either temperature or heat input. You should also note that the whole process takes place at a constant pressure, i.e. atmospheric pressure.
Take a look at the graph and try to visualise what is happening in this representation.
At the starting point A, the water is in its solid state of ice. As we add heat energy the temperature of the ice would
start to rise and would continueto rise until point B is reached. The heatwhich is added during this time is called sensible heat. At point B the ice would start to melt.
Of course this process would work in reverse. If

we started at point F where all the water is steam
and began to remove heat energy we would
follow the graph back to point A, passing through
temperatures corresponding with the boiling point
and freezing point of water.
We have talked so far about the three states of
matter. You will often find these states referred
to as the three phases of matter: the solid, liquid
and vapour (gas) phases. I will continue to use the
terms vapour and gas to mean the same thing.
Before leaving this exampleof changing the state,
or phase, of matter have a go at Test Yourself 1.3.
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Test Yourself 1.3

If the substance in Figure 1.4 is water at
atmospheric pressure, what would be the
temperature at points B, C, D and E.

So both pressure and temperature have an affect

on the way a substance changes its phase. In
other words its phase behaviour. This being
so, it is useful to prepare diagrams to illustrate
this effect. These diagrams are called phase
diagrams.
The simplest type of phase diagram is one which
shows the behaviour of a pure substance. That is,
a substance where all the molecules are identical,
such as pure water or pure ethane. The diagram
is in the form of a graph with the vertical axis
representing pressure and the horizontal axis
representing temperature.
Figure 1.5 : Pure Substance Phase Diagram
You will remember that, in the example shown in

Figure 1.4, the phase changes were achieved by
changing the amount of heat energy in the system,
at constant pressure (that is, at a constant level
of pressure energy). We can, however, affect
phase behaviour by changing the level of pressure
energy, as an alternative to changing the level
of heat energy. For example, the boiling point of
water is 100C (212F) at atmospheric pressure.
However, if the pressure was decreased, for
example by conducting the experiment on top of
a mountain, the boiling temperature would also
decrease.
You can see in the figure that there are three

regions. A solid region, a liquid region and a
gaseous region. The lines separating these regions
are called lines of equilibrium or saturation. For
example, along the line B D the substance could
be all solid, all liquid or a mixture of both. Similarly,
along line A B the substance could exist as a solid,
a gas or a mixture of both. The point B is called
the triple point. At this point all three phases could
exist together. It is difficult to imagine ice, water
and steam existing together, and ot course this
condition is very seldom seen.
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If changing conditions of temperature and pressure took a substance across line B D, the phase
change would be from a solid to a liquid. Across
line B C there would be a phase change from liquid
to gas.
However if changing condltions of temperature and
pressure took a substance through line A B, the
phase change would be from a solid directly into
a vapour. No liquid would be formed. A common
substance which does this is solid carbon dioxide,
or dry ice. It sublimes from a solid to a fog like
vapour and is often used on stage to give the mist
effect you see at pop concerts.
Test Yourself 1.4

If the phase diagram in Figure 1.5 is for water, explain what would happen
as conditions change along the line from Y to X.
Look at the figure again and try to imagine what is

happening as conditions of temperature and
pressure change. Then have a go at Test Yourself
1.4.
How many phase changes would there be?
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Of course we are not really interested in the solid phase when we are discussing Natural Gas Liquids Recovery. So
the most important line as far as we are concerned is the line B C, the line which separates the liquid and vapour
regions. Along this line the substance would exist as a liquid, a vapour, or a mixture of the two. This line is known
by a number of names. It is called the bubble point curve, the dew point curve or the vapour pressure line. We
will have a look at the meaning of these terms shortly.
Take a look at the following figure which shows the line B C from a phase diagram for a pure hydrocarbon of the
alkane series.
Once again I have not included any actual

values of temperature or pressure so we are not
specifying which alkane it is.
In the region to the left of the line B C the
substance is all liquid, whilst to the right it is all
gas.
The point C is called the critical point of the
substance. At this point the properties of the liquid
phase and the vapour phase become identical.
The actual temperature and pressure at this point
for a particular substance are called the critical
temperature and the critical pressure.
For a pure substance the critical temperature is
the temperature above which a vapour cannot be
liquefied no matter how much pressure is applied.
Similarly the critical pressure is the minimum
pressure necessary to liquefy a vapour at its critical
temperature. Dont worry about these terms. I have
included them for interest only and we will not be
looking at them in any detail.
Fig 1.6 : Pure Hydrocarbon Phase Diagram
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Boiling Point of Alkanes

If we increased the temperature of the alkane
along the line X Y the following would happen.
When the temperature (T) corresponding to point
Z is reached, the first bubble of gas would appear
and the liquid will start to boil. You can probably
see now why the line BC is called the bubble
point curve. The actual temperature at this point is
the boiling point
of this alkane at the pressure (P) which also
corresponds to point Z. Note that I said the boiling
point at a specific pressure. If we crossed the line
B C at a different position the liquid would start to
boil at a different pressure and temperature.
The boiling point is one of the physical properties
of hydrocarbons. But to compare one with another
we must use the same pressure. The commonly
used standard is atmospheric pressure. So, the
boiling point of our alkane Is the temperature at
which the liquid bolls at atmospheric pressure.
These boiling points vary quite considerably and I
have listed the first 8 members of the alkane series
in the following table.
ALKANE
BOILING POINT

AT ATMOSPHERIC

PRESSURE
Methane
-162C
-259F
Ethane
-89C
-128F
Propane
-42C
-43.7F
Butane
-0.5C
Pentane
36C
Hexane
69C
Heptane
99C
209F
Octane
126C
258F
31.1F
97F
156F
Table 3: Boiling Points of Alkanes

You will notice from the table that the boiling point
increases as the alkanes. get heavier. In other
words the more carbon atoms, the higher the boiling point.
Vapour Pressure
Closely related to boiling point is the property of
vapour pressure. It is the pressure which would
be exerted by a liquid in a closed container if there
is a vapour space above the liquid level. That may
seem rather complicated, so let me try to explain it.
When a liquid is contained in a closed vessel,
some of the liquid molecules will leave the liquid
and enter the vapour space. This is evaporation.
These molecules strike the sides of the container
causing the pressure in the container to rise. Some
of the molecules in the vapour space will strike the
surface of the liquid and re-enter the liquid. This is
the opposite of evaporation, i.e. condensation.
As long as more molecules are leaving the liquid
than entering it the pressure in the vessel will
continue to rise. Figure 1.7 shows this situation in
a simple way.
Dew Point Curve

Now go back to Figure 1.6. If we were to start at
point Y and reduce the temperature the opposite
would happen. When we reached the bubble point
curve the gas would start to condense.
At this point the first dew drop of liquid would appear. You can now see why this line B C is also
called the dew point curve.
Figure 1.7 : Vapour pressure Rising

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At a certain temperature however, a state of

equilibrium is reached between liquid and vapour.
This occurs when exactly the same number
of molecules are leaving the liquid as are reentering it. At this temperature the pressure in
the vessel would remain constant. This pressure
is the vapour pressure of the liquid at that
temperature.
This is shown again pictorially in Figure 1.8.
Figure 1.8 : Phase Equillibrium
If the liquid in the vessel is propane at a

temperature of 38C (100F), the pressure would
be 12 bar (175 psi). If, however, heat was added
to the vessel, the temperature would increase.
More molecules wouId start to leave the liquid and
the equilibrium would be lost. The pressure in the
vessel would rise once more. The pressure would
increase until equilibrium was again established
at a new temperature. Figure 1.9 shows this
happening.
So the vapour pressure is dependent on
temperature. In order then that the vapour
pressures of different hydrocarbons may be
compared, they must be quoted at a standard
temperature. This temperature is 38C or (100F).
Figure 1.9 : Vapour Pressure Rise - Heat Induced
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ALKANE

VAPOUR PRESSURE
AT 38C
100F
Methane
344.8 bar
5 000 psi
Ethane
5.4 bar
780 psi
Propane
12 bar
175 psi
Butane
2.5 bar
36.9 psi
Pentane
0.06 bar
0.9 psi
Table 4 : Vapour Pressure of Alkanes

You can probably see now why the line B C in
Figures 1.5 and 1.6 can also be called the vapour
pressure line.
So by reducing the temperature, increasing the

pressure or a combination of the two, any of our
hydrocarbons can be liquefied. Some are more
difficull than others, of course. It is relatively simple
to liquefy butane at atmospheric pressure. We just
have to cool it below -0.5C (31.1F). However liquefying methane is much more difficult. At atmospheric pressure, the temperature here would have
to be reduced below minus -162C (-259F), a very
low temperature indeed.
Multi-Component Mixtures
The phase behaviour we have been looking at
so far has been for a pure substance (or a single
component). The trouble with the gas leaving a
separator is that it is a mixture of hydrocarbons. In
other words a multi-component mixture. Each
of these components has a different boiling point.
We can no longer represent the behaviour of this
mixture with a single vapour pressure line. So, the
phase diagram now becomes a phase envelope.
The dew point curve and bubble point curve are
now different lines.
pressure
In the following table I have listed the vapour pressures of the first five alkanes.
Look at Figure 1.10. It is a phase diagram for a

multi-component mixture of hydrocarbons with a
fixed composition.
In the diagram the line A C is the bubble point
curve and line B C is the dew point curve. At
conditions to the left of the bubble point curve we
would have a mixture which is all liquid. To the
right of the dew point curve we would have all gas.
Within the envelope we would have a mixture of
gas and liquid.
The dotted lines within the envelope are lines
of quality. Each one represents a constant
percentage of liquid. At point X, we have a mixture
composed of 50% liquid and 50% gas.
Lets see what happens if we remove heat at
constant pressure from a mixture whose phase
diagram is represented by Figure 1.10. Follow this
along the line Z V.
temperature
Figure 1.10 : Hydrocarbon Phase Envelope
If the hydrocarbon mixture is all gas at point Z and

we begin to take away heat energy, the following
will happen:
The mixture would cool until point Y is reached.
At this point the first drop of liquid would appear
from the component with the highest boiling
point. This is the dew point for this mixture at the
corresponding
pressure.
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When more heat is removed, more and more liquid

is formed as the temperature is reduced to the
boiling points of lighter hydrocarbons. When the
temperature corresponding to point W is reached
the mixture would be all liquid. Point W is of course
the bubble point of the mixture.
Although the behaviour of a hydrocarbon mixture is
more complicated than that of a single component,
what I said earlier still applies. We can liquefy
some or all of the components of a natural gas
stream by reducing the temperature, raising the
pressure or a combination of both. The actual
amounts of liquid obtained will depend on the
composition of the stream and the degree to which
we can cool or compress the gas.
All of this is a rather roundabout way of showing
how we can liquefy natural gas.
If we can create conditions of
temperature and pressure so that we
cross the vapour pressure line from the
gas to the liquid state, the problem is
solved
Test Yourself 1.5

Assume that the substance indicated in
Figure 1.10 is a mixture of Heptane hexane
and pentane. Determine the temperatures at
points W and Y if there was a temperature
rise from V to Z at atmospheric pressure.
NOTE:
The actual shape of the graph will vary
depending on the composition of the hydrocarbon mixture. I am using this general
shape for the purpose of the Test Yourself.
Compression and cooling, or refrigeration, are

by far the most common methods used in the
recovery of gas liquids. There are other methods
however, and in the introduction I mentioned
adsorption and absorption. Of these the
adsorption process is more commonly used in
gas dehydration operations. A separate unit in the
petroleum processing technology series covers
this. Its use in natural gas liquids recovery is not
very widespread so we will disregard it in this unit.
However the absorption process is often used so
we must consider the theory behind this before
looking at some of the processes in more detail.
Absorption
Absorption is a process which involves contacting
the gas with a liquid called lean oil or absorption
oil. When this is done some of the components
of the gas will dissolve in the oil. The heavier
components, the gas liquid components, will
dissolve more readily but some of the lighter gas
components will also be absorbed.
It is quite simple to see that gas can in fact
dissolve in a liquid.
Before I move on to another method of recovering

some of the lighter hydrocarbons from a gas
stream, have a go at the following Test Yourself
question.
If you take a sealed bottle of soda water and stand

it on a table, you will see a bottle of clear liquid with
no apparent activity within it.

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If you now gently remove the cap of the bottle what

happens? You should see the contents start to fizz
and gas escape from the surface of the liquid. The
gas must have been dissolved within the liquid. In
fact the gas is carbon dioxide which is dissolved
in plain water. The process of removing the cap
reduced the pressure in the bottle causing the gas
to be liberated from the liquid.
In order for the water to absorb the gas, they
would need to be in contact with each other under
pressure. You have probably seen this in practice.
The equipment which is sold for making fizzy
drinks at home uses this principle.
The process is made more efficient at lower temperatures. (In general, gases are
more soluble in liquids at lower temperatures). Also, if the contact area between gas
and liquid can be increased the process will again be more efficient.
On an offshore oil production platform the
recovered gas liquid components may be
sent ashore still dissolved in the absorbing
oil. This oil is injected into the main crude
oil transportation pipeline. Of course, when
it arrives at the reception terminal, further
processing is necessary to recover the
natural gas liquids.
The gas ( carbon dioxide) is supplied in small

pressurised cartridges. When the cartridge is
mated with a bottle of water and the cartridge
punctured the carbon dioxide is forced into the
water under pressure.
An altemative to this is to remove all the

NGLs as gases from the absorbing oil at the
processing location. These will then have to
be liquefied again for onward transportation
or storage.
You can see then that this process can be used

to recover the gas liquids components from a
gas stream by dissolving them into a liquid under
pressure.
The absorption process then is only part

of the story. In order to recover natural gas
liquids by this method a two stage process is
involved.
In addition to pressure two other factors influence

the efficiency of the process. These are :
First the NGL components of the total gas

stream are absorbed into the absorption oil.
Then the components are removed from the
oil as gas. The simple block diagram Figure
1.11 shows the principle of this.
temperature
contact area between gas and liquid
Figure 1.11 : Absorption Process Block Diagram
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The terminology associated with such a process I

have listed below :
Rich gas
Gas containing absorbable

( NGL ) components.
Dry gas
Gas having given up its

absorbable components.
Rich oil
Oil having absorbed the

NGL gases.
Lean oil
Oil having had the absorbed

NGL gases removed.
b)
Absorber
Process vessel where

absorption takes place.
Stripper
Process vessel where

removal of NGL gases from
lean oil takes place.
Of course the actual process is somewhat more

complex than the simple example I have just given
you.
In Section 4 we will look at one such process in
more detail.
Before moving on to the next section though, have a

go at the final Test Yourself in this section.
Test Yourself 1.6

a)
c)

Classify the following substances as either solid, liquid or gases at room temperature.

steel - water - acetylene - copper - oxygen.

Match the following symbols with the list of element names.
CI - a - Sl - He - Fe - C.
Carbon - Hydrogen - Iron - Oxygen - Chlorine - Sodium - Silicon - Helium.

Using Figure 1.10 match the letters in the multi-component phase diagram with the
descriptions below.
1. The 50% liquid line.
2. The gas region.
3. The bubble point curve.
4. The dew point curve.
5. The liquid region.
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Summary of Section 1
In this section we have been looking at some
of the basic theory behind natural gas liquids
recovery.
Having defined natural gas in the introduction,
we went on to consider the simple chemistry of
hydrocarbons.
You saw how the elements hydrogen and carbon
can bond together to form the hydrocarbon
compounds of natural gas.
You also saw that these compounds form the
hydrocarbon series called the paraffin or alkane
series. Although members of other hydrocarbon
series, together with impurities, can be present in
natural gas, in this unit we concentrated on the
alkanes.
Having covered the very basic chemistry of
hydrocarbons we went on to look at the physical
properties of these compounds.
Using the example of water, you saw that adding or

removing energy from a substance can change the
state of the substance. Ice can be turned to water
and then to steam and vice versa. Heat energy and
pressure energy are responsible for these changes
of state.
We defined boiling point and vapour presure.

We then showed how this idea of phase behaviour
could be applied to a multi-component mixture.
We used a modified phase diagram to illustrate
this, which we called a phase envelope.
You saw that the three states of matter, solid, liquid

and gas are referred to as phases. The effects that
temperature and pressure have on a substance is
called its phase behaviour.
All this helped to show that, by decreasing the

temperature and increasing the pressure of natural
gases, certain of the components can be liquefied.
The actual amounts of liquid recovered from a gas
of a certain composition will depend on the degree
to which these energy levels are altered.
We prepared diagrams to illustrate this effect called

phase diagrams. Firstly we concentrated on pure
substances or single components. The region
which we were most interested in was the change
in state from liquid to gas and from gas to liquid.
You saw that the line on the phase diagram which
separates these regions can be called the bubble
point curve, the dew point curve or the vapour
pressure line.
At the end of the section we looked at an

alternative method of recovering natural gas liquids
by absorption. This is a process which
involves contacting the gas with an oil under
pressure. The NGL components of the gas are
absorbed by the oil and then recovered by
stripping.
In the next section we will look at the simplest of
the recovery processes, that of compression and
cooling.
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Section 2 - NGL Recovery Using Compression and Cooling

As we showed in Section 1, NGL recovery by
compression and cooling is the simplest and
cheapest method available. In fact, natural gas
liquids are often produced as a by-product during
petroleum gas compression operations.
Imagine an oil production plant where a
considerable amount of associated gas is also
produced. This gas is then available for sale.
Lets say that the separation facilities on this
plant involve 2 stages of separation operating at
pressures of 25.9 bar (375 psi) and 5.2 bar (75
psi). Gas from the separators will require to be
dehydrated and then routed through gas export
compressors into the pipeline for transportation
to the point of sale. If we say that a gas export
pressure of 138 bar (2 000 psi) is required, then
it is obvious that the gas from each stage of
separation will have to be compressed in order to
achieve this.
You will remember from Section 1 that
compressing the gas is likely to promote a phase
change of some components. So, the very fact
that we have to compress the gas from the
separators will cause NGLs to be produced.
Cooling the gas also promotes a phase change

of some of the gas components. More liquids are
produced!
So, in a gas compression facility we are going to
get some liquids produced whether we want them
or not. But these liquids are valuable, so in some
instances, it is worth recovering them for sale.
Unfortunately, this type of process is relatively
inefficient in recovering the maximum amount of
NGL. Where large quantities of gas or NGL are involved it is more common to increase the recovery
of gas liquids by reducing the temperature much
further than is necessary simply to protect the compression equipment. This is done by refrigerating
the gas rather than just cooling it. We will look at
some plants which do this in the next section.
However, in this section lets look at a typical
Compression and Cooling System which is used to
recover NGL from the gas stream leaving a crude
oil separation plant.
Test Yourself 2.1

Ethane, Propane and Pentane, are leaving a
separator at atmospheric pressure and 38C
(100F). By how much would each have to
be cooled in order to liquefy them?

Before you move on, have a go at the following

Test Yourself question.
The process of gas compression also causes its

temperature to rise. If the gas is being compressed
in a number of stages this increase in temperature
can cause damage to the compression machinery.
(The gas compression programme in the
petroleum processing technology series covers
this in more detail.) To prevent damage to the
compressors the gas must be cooled after each
stage of compression.
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A Typical Compression and

Cooling System
Take some time to study Figure 2.1
which shows a typical compression and
cooling NGL recovery system. We will
follow the flow through the system.
Figure 2.1 : Compression and Cooling System

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In our example the gas to be treated is from a two

stage Separation System. The gas is compressed
in two stages by two centrifugal compressors. The
compressors are positioned on a single shaft and
driven by a single motor.
The temperatures and pressures which I will use
are purely hypothetical and are not meant to
represent a specific process plant.
Lets follow the first part of the process now.
Look at Figure 2.2. It is simply the first part of the
overall system which I have reproduced for greater
clarity. First of all identify where the gas from the
low pressure or second stage separator enters the
system.
The gas leaves the 2nd stage Separator at a
pressure 5.2 bar (75 psi) and temperature of,
say, 80C (176F) and enters the 1st stage
compressor suction knockout drum.
This drum is a vessel whose job it is to remove
any droplets of free liquid from the gas. It is an
essential part of any gas compression facility. If
any free liquids reach the compressor, serious
damage could be done to the equipment. You may
also come across the term suction gas scrubber
to describe the knockout drum.
Figure 2.3, on the next page, shows a typical
suction knockout drum.
Figure 2.2 : 1st Stage Gas Compression

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The drum in our system is a vertical steel cylinder which has an

inlet connection approximately three quarters of the way up.
Gas enters the vessel and impinges on a baffle plate which is
positioned opposite the inlet nozzle. This causes a change in
flow direction and reduction of gas velocity. At this point liquid
droplets separate from the gas and fall to the bottom of the
vessel.
These liquid drops will be a mixture of condensed gas liquids
and water.
The liquid accumulates at the bottom and is taken out of the
drum under level control. The recovered liquid is dumped to a
Closed Drain System. From there liquids will be pumped back
to the 2nd stage Separator. Already some small amounts of gas
liquids have been recovered.
The gas rises towards the outlet of the drum and passes
through a mist extractor. As its name suggests this unit is
there to extract any very fine droplets of liquid which may
remain in the gas in the form of mist. It consists of a number of
knitted wire mesh pads through which the gas must flow. As the
gas flows through, any mist droplets impinge on the wire mesh
and stick to it. Further small droplets coalesce until they are
large enough to fall down to the bottom of the vessel.
The gas, now completely free of liquid, leaves the 1st stage
Compressor Suction K.O. Drum through the dry gas outlet, at
the top of the vessel.
Figure 2.3 : Suction Knockout Drum
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The liquid level in the knockout drum is controlled

via a level controller (LC) and control valve. A sight
glass or level gauge (LG) is also incorporated in
the level control instrumentation.
Further instrumentation protects the system
against loss of level control. A level switch low (
LSL ) activates an alarm if the level should go too
low. Similarly a level switch high ( LSH) activates a
high level alarm.
Normally however the gas flows forward to the 1st stage Compressor. This raises the pressure from 5.2 bar (75
psi) to 25.9 bar (375 psi). During compression the temperature of the gas increases from 80C (176F) to 127C
(260F). If the gas is not cooled at this point the efficiency of the next compressor would be affected.
So this hot, medium pressure gas, is cooled by passing it through a heat exchanger. In our system, the heat
exchanger is of the shell and tube type. Figure 2.4 shows an exchanger of this type.
If, despite the activation of a high level alarm

the level of liquid in the vessel continues to rise,
a dangerous situation could occur. Too high
a level could result in carry over of liquid into
the compressor with possible serious damage
being done. This situation is prevented by
having a shutdown incorporated into the vessels
instrumentation.
A level switch high high ( LSHH ) activates a
signal which shuts down the system, preventing
potential hazardous situations arising.
A pressure controller on the top of the drum
controls the pressure of gas in the vessel. If the
pressure is too high and the compressor is not
pulling the pressure down for whatever reason,
then the pressure controller opens the valve and
allows excess gas to escape to the flare.
Figure 2.4 : Shell and tube Heat Exchanger
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The hot gas passes through the inside of the

tubes where it is cooled by sea water passing
through the shell.
The temperature of the gas leaving the heat
exchanger is controlled by a temperature controller
(see Figure 2.2). The temperature controller opens
and closes a valve to control the flow of cooling
water through the unit. If the gas temperature
leaving the exchanger is too high the temperature
controller will open the valve and allow more sea
water to flow through. If the gas temperature is too
low the temperature controller will close the valve
and allow less sea water to flow through the heat
exchanger.
Go back over the process so far and satisfy
yourself that you understand it before having a go
at the following Test Yourself question.
Test Yourself 2.2

insert the correct word or words from the list provided into the blanks in the following sentences.
1.
The process of gas compression causes the gas ................................................... to rise.
2.
The suction gas scrubber removes ................................................... from the gas.
3.
Within a suction K.O. drum wire mesh pads form a .....................................................
4.

In a .................................and tube heat exchanger, gas flows through the tubes and water
flows through the shell.
List of words.
wier - mist extractor - solids - temperature - liquids - shell - filter
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Medium pressure gas leaves the 1st stage

Separator at a pressure 25.9 bar (375 psi) and
a temperature of, say, 82C (180F). The two
streams, now mixed together, enter the 2nd stage
Compressor Suction K.O. Drum.
We have now increased the

pressure and cooled the gas.
More gas liquids will have
formed. At this point the mixture
is joined by the gas which is
leaving the 1st stage Separator.
This drum removes any liquid which is in the gas

coming from the 1st stage separator, plus any
liquids which have been formed during the
compression and cooling of the original gas from
the 2nd stage separation.
The 2nd stage Compressor Suction K.O. Drum
operates at a higher pressure than the 2nd stage
Separator. (Remember, it operates at 5.2 bar (75
psi)) The recovered liquid can therefore be piped
straight back to the 2nd stage Separator.
The gas, again completely free of liquid, leaves the
2nd stage Compressor Suction K.O. Drum
where a pressure controller controls the pressure
of gas in the vessel. It operates in a similar manner
to the one previously described.
The gas then enters the 2nd stage Compressor.
The 2nd stage Compressor compresses the gas
to a pressure 50 bar (725 psi) and the temperature
will rise to, say, 138C (280F).
Figure 2.5 shows this part of the process.

You can see that it is almost identical to
part 1.
Let's quickly go through this part now.
Figure 2.5 : 2nd Stage Gas Compression

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The hot, high pressure, gas is then cooled by

passing it across a shell and tube heat exchanger
similar to the one used to cool the 1st stage
discharge gas.
The gas and liquid mixture enters the NGL

Knockout Drum which separates the two phases.
This vessel is yet another separator which works
in the same way as the Compressor Suction K.O.
Drum. In this case however the vessel is a horizontal cylinder.
The temperature of the gas leaving this heat

exchanger is again controlled by a temperature
controller.
The gas leaving the NGL Knockout Drum is routed

to dehydration. The liquids accumulate at the bottom of the vessel where the level is controlled by a
level control system.
The pressure of the gas is maintained at 50 bar

(725 psi) as it passes the heat exchanger but the
temperature of the gas is lowered to, say, 29C
(85F). This combination of high pressure and
relatively low temperature causes the heavier
hydrocarbons to turn into a liquid. All that remains
now is to separate these liquids from the gas
before the gas is dehydrated, further compressed
and exported.
In our case, the NGLs will be transported from the

plant via the main oil pipeline operating at, say,
69 bar (1 000 psi). This injection of NGLs into the
crude is often referred to as spiking the crude with
NGLs. The Knockout Drum operates at a lower
pressure than the main oil pipeline. In order to
get the NGLs into the line, the pressure must be
boosted by an NGL Booster Pump.
There will be no NGL knockout after the export

compressor discharge gas is cooled, as the
pressure will be above the point at which any
liquid could exist.
The level controller on the NGL Knockout Drum

is different to the previous ones we looked at. It
works in conjunction with the booster pump. The
control valve is positioned downstream of the
pump. If the level in the vessel goes down the
controller opens the control valve and allows liquid
to circulate back to the drum. If the level goes too
high all the NGLs are pumped into the crude line.
This brings us to the final part of this simple

system which is shown in Figure 2.6.
Figure 2.6 : NGL Knockout Drum

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In this short section we have looked at a simple process used to recover liquids from
natural gas.
In the section we looked at a typical Compression and Cooling System and saw:

what equipment was used
how the NGL was recovered
how the process was controlled
what happened to the NGL after it had been recovered
As I pointed out in this section the simple compression and cooling process recovers
a limited amount of liquids. To make the process more efficient, the degree of
cooling must be much greater. We need to refrigerate the gas. In the next section
we will look at some methods of doing this.
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Section 3 - NGL Recovery by Refrigeration

In this section we are going to take the recovery
process one step further. More NGL recovery
can be achieved if the temperature is reduced
to a greater degree than that obtained by simply
cooling. In order to reduce the temperature of
the gas even more, it is necessary to refrigerate
it. There are two methods commonly used to do
this. The first method can be called mechanical
refrigeration and the second, auto refrigeration.
We can look at these two processes in turn . Lets
start with mechanical refrigeration.
When a substance is liquefied by compression, heat energy is liberated. In a refrigerator this heat is dissipated
through a condenser which resembles a car radiator. The liquid then passes through an expansion valve where
it vapourises. The necessary heat for vapourisation comes from the surroundings (in this case, the refrigerator
contents) which are thereby cooled. The refrigerant is then recycled.
Figure 3.1 is a block diagram which shows this process very simply.
Mechanical Refrigeration
Mechanical refrigeration systems use a similar
process to that found in a domestic refrigerator.
Before we look at a refrigeration process to recover
NGL lets take a look at an ordinary domestic
refrigerator, and see how it works.
We have already seen that many substances
that are gases at normal temperatures can be
liquefied by increasing their pressure. The liquids
can then be vapourised again by increasing the
temperature. In a refrigerator a substance which is
liquefied then vapourised is called a refrigerant.
Fig 3.1 : Mechanical refrigeration Block Diagram

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In the next figure Figure 3.2, the main

components of an ordinary domestic
refrigerator are shown. Take a look at
the figure and identify the following
components.
On the outside of the refrigerator we have

An electric power supply which drives an electric
motor.
A compressor which is driven by the electric motor.
A compressor suction line which takes refrigerant
gas into the compressor.
A compressor discharge line with a check valve
which stops anything flowing back through the
compressor.
A set of condensing coils where the heat in the
refrigerant is dissipated and the refrigerant turns
from a gas into a liquid.
An accumulator which stores a small amount of
liquid refrigerant.
Inside the refrigerator, in the freezer section, we have:
An expansion valve where the liquid refrigerant
flashes off, changing into a liquid/gas mixture.
A set of chilling coils where the refrigerant is boiled
off, completing the change from a liquid to a gas.
Fig 3.2 : Domestic Fridge Schematic Diagram

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Inside the refrigerator, in the cooler section, there is a

temperature switch which will switch off the electric power
to the electric motor when the temperature falls to a preset level, and, switch on the electric power to the electric
motor when the temperature rises to a pre-set level.
Now that you have identified the refrigerator components
we can now look at what is going on inside the unit.
Starting from the discharge of the compressor Figure 3.3
shows what is happening as follows:
The refrigerant leaving the compressor is a hot, high
pressure, gas. As the refrigerant gas passes through
the condensing coils it loses heat and turns into a liquid.
It arrives in the accumulator as a relatively cool, high
pressure liquid.
From the accumulator it flows through the expansion
valve where the pressure is reduced. This expansion
causes the refrigerant liquid to start to vapourise and
become a cold, low pressure, gas/liquid mixture.
This mixture now enters the chiller coils. The remaining
liquid is boiled off by heat entering the chiller coils from
the air in the freezer section of the refrigerator. This
completes the vapourisation of the liquid refrigerant. The
refrigerant gas is now at low pressure and temperature.
Fig 3.3 : Domestic Fridge

Schematic Diagram
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This gas enters the compressor. The

compressor raises the pressure and the
temperature of the gas and the process starts all
over again.
The system will keep running, circulating a
limited amount of refrigerant around the system,
until the temperature falls to the point where the
temperature switch operates and stops the electric
motor.
Test Yourself 3.1

Starting with Refrigerant leaves the compressor, put the following steps of a refrigeration
process in the correct order.
It will stay switched off until the temperature in the

cooler section rises and starts the electric motor
again.
1.
Refrigerant leaves the compressor.
..............................
2.
Refrigerant flows through accumulator.
..............................
Think about the operation of a fridge and have a go

at the following Test Yourself question.
3.
Refrigerant enters condensing coils.
..............................
4.
Refrigerant enters compressor.
..............................
5.
Refrigerant starts to vapourise and becomes cold. ..............................
6.
Refrigerant loses heat and liquefies.
..............................
7.
Refrigerant completely vapourises.
..............................
8.
Refrigerant mixture enters chiller coils.
..............................
9.
Refrigerant flows through expansion valve.
..............................
Now lets see how we can apply the theory of

operation of a domestic refrigerator by comparing
it with a typical natural gas liquids recovery plant.
You will find the correct answers in CheckYourself 3.1 on Page 60.
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A Typical Mechanical Refrigeration

NGL Recovery System
Figure 3.4 shows a typical Mechanical Refrigeration
System which uses Propane as the refrigerant.
Figure 3.4 : Mechincal Refrigeration NGL Recovery System

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The boiling point of Propane is -42C (-43.7F). It

is often used as a refrigerant in gas processing.
It is not used in domestic refrigerators because
it is flammable. If leaked, it could cause a fire or
explosion.
Within this system, there are actually two
interconnected sub-systems. They are:

the refrigeration system which reduces

the temperature of the refrigerant

the natural gas system where the
reduction in temperature of the

refrigerant is used to recover the NGL
Activity
Take a close look at Figure 3.4. See if you
can determine where these two points of
contact are.
The first point of contact is the chiller. It is in this

vessel that the low temperature created by the refrigeration system is used to refrigerate the natural
gas.
The second one is the refrigerant condenser
where the heat generated during refrigerant compression is dissipated.
Lets now work our way through the two systems

starting with the refrigeration system. We can go
through this rather quickly as it is very similar to the
domestic refrigerator we looked at earlier.
There are two points of contact between the two

systems.
Take a look at Figure 3.5 on the next page. It is the
refrigeration system from Figure 3.4 which I have
isolated from the rest of the drawing.
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Some of the liquid refrigerant leaves the

acumulator and flows across the expansion valve,
where partial vapourisation takes place. This gas/
liquid mixture now flows into the chiller.
Warm natural gas is passing through the coils in
the chiller, as we will see shortly. This is the gas
which needs to be refrigerated in order to form
NGL. The heat content of this gas is transferred to
the refrigerant in the chiller. The net effect of this is
to vapourise some of the liquid refrigerant, whilst
reducing the temperature of the natural gas. The
amount of natural gas flowing through the chiller
will vary. Therefore, the amount of liquid refrigerant
vapourised in the chiller will vary, affecting the
liquid level. This level is maintained by a level
controller operating the expansion valve.
The refrigerant leaves the chiller as a cold, low
pressure gas and enters the compressor suction
knockout drum.
This drum removes any entrained liquids which
may be carried over by the refrigerant gas from the
chiller.
Figure 3.5 : Refrigeration System

We will start at the same point as we did with the
domestic refrigerator, that is, at the discharge of
the compressor.
As it passes over the refrigerant condenser the

refrigerant exchanges heat with cold gas coming
from the gas/gas heat exchanger.
The refrigerant leaving the compressor is a high

pressure, high temperature gas.
The refrigerant condenses to high pressure,

relatively cool liquid as it enters the refrigerant
accumulater,
The refrigerant gas leaves the compressor suction

knockout drum and enters the compressor as a
cold, low pressure gas.
After compression the refrigerant leaves the
compressor as a hot, high pressure gas and the
process starts again.
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Now lets go through the actual gas liquids

recovery part of the system. Figure 3.6 is once
again the relevant part of Figure 3.4 which has
been isolated from the rest of the drawing.
The natural gas enters the NGL recovery system
after it has been dehydrated. This is to remove any
chance of hydrate formation as the gas passes
through the refrigeration process. (A separate unit
in the Petroleum Processing Technology Series
covers dehydration).
The incoming natural gas stream enters the gas
/ gas heat exchanger. It is called a gas / gas
exchanger because both the medium to be cooled
and the cooling medium are gas.
Figure 3.6 : NGL Recovery System
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As the warm incoming natural gas enters the

system it passes through the exchanger tubes
and is cooled by the cold natural gas leaving the
system through the exchanger shell. This pre-cools
the incoming gas and pre-warms the outgoing gas.
The pre-cooled gas leaves the gas/gas exchanger
and enters the refrigerant chiller. As it flows
through the tubes in the chiller, it is refrigerated to
a temperature of say -15C (-59F).
As the natural gas is refrigerated, the heavier
hydrocarbons turn into natural gas liquids. This
mixture of residual cold gas and liquids then
enters the NGL/gas separator where the NGL is
separated from the gas.
The cold gas leaves the separator from the top
of the vessel and flows through the gas/gas heat
exchanger where, as we have seen, ~ cools down
the incoming warm gas.
The NGLs accumulate at the bottom of the NGLs

gas separator, where a liquid level is maintained by
a level controller.
From there they flow to an NGL flash separator.
In this vessel any small amounts of light
hydrocarbon gases which may still be entrained in
the NGLs are separated. These gases are usually
disposed of via a flare system.
From there, the NGLs are pumped via a level
control valve to a transport system for sale.
The system we have just been looking at is a
very common system which you could find on an
offshore oil and gas production platform. However
there are other systems. I mentioned one earlier
where refrigeration is achieved using what is called
an auto refrigeration system. We will look at
one of these systems shortly. Before you move
on to this however have a go at the following Test
Yourself question on mechanical refrigeration.
Next the gas flows through the refrigerant

condenser. Here it condenses the refrigerant and
is itself warmed up further to a level where it can
be put into a pipeline as a sales gas.
Note : Depending on operating pressures,

this gas may require to be further
compressed prior to being exported as

sales gas.
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Auto Refrigeration
In this part of Section 3 we are going to look at an
alternative method of reducing the temperature of
gas in order to recover NGLs. It is a method which
uses one of the properties of the gas itself. This
property can be stated as follows :
Test Yourself 3.2

Are the following statements true or false ?
1.

Heat generated during refrigerant compression is

dissipated in the refrigerant condenser.
2. .
The chiller is used to cool down the refrigerant.
3.

As liquid refrigerant flows across the expansion

valve partial condensation takes place.
4.

Incoming natural gas flows through a heat exchanger

which uses liquid refrigerant as the cooling medium.
5.

In the NGL flash separator, small amounts of entrained light

hydrocarbon gases are removed from the NGL stream.
TRUE
FALSE
If a natural gas is rapidly expanded by reducing

its pressure, its temperature will drop.
This temperature drop associated with rapid gas
expansion is known as the Joules/Thompson
Effect. The greater the pressure drop, the greater
the temperature reduction. You can see this effect
illustrated on next page in Figure 3.7.
You will find the correct answers in Test Yourself 3.2 on Page 60.
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This chart is only by way of an example, it will not

be accurate for all gases. Also, temperature and
pressure are shown in imperial units, however it
serves to illustrate the use of such charts. You
can use this chart for SI Units by converting them
to imperial units, then use the graph to find your
answer, and then convert your answer back into SI
Units.
In order to find a temperature drop associated
with a given pressure drop, just follow the steps I
have listed here for you.
Find the point on the horizontal axis of
the graph which corresponds to the initial
pressure before expansion takes place.
From this point move vertically upwards to
where this pressure intersects the pressure
drop curve. (Note that on the graph the
pressure drop is indicated as A P i.e. initial
pressure - final pressure.)
From the intersection point, move horizontally
to the left hand vertical axis of the graph.

Read off the temperature at this point.
Figure 3.7 : Typical Natural Gas Expansion - Temperature Reduction Curves
Let's do that with some actual figures.
Note: take care to note that pressure and temperature on this graph are given in psig and fahrenheit only.
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Work through with me, the following example,

where I will start of with SI Units and convert them
to imperial to use the graph and then convert my
answer back to SI Units. :
If gas at an initial pressure of 207 bar (3000 psi) is
expanded to a final pressure of 69 bar (1 000 psi),
what will be the temperature drop?
First calculate the pressure drop.
The pressure drop will be (3000-1 000) =
2 000 psi.
Find the point on the horizontal axis of the
graph of an initial pressure of 3 000 psi.
Test Yourself 3.3

If a gas at an initial pressure of 310 bar (4
500 psi) is expanded 10 34.5 bar (500 psi),
what will be the drop in temperature?
You should have found that the temperature

drop is 70F, which you can convert to 21C.
Of course, the actual pressure drop will not always
coincide exactly with one of the curves. In such a
case a curve parallel to the nearest printed curve
needs to be drawn or imagined. Now have a go at
Test Yourself 3.3.
What could be the advantage in using the

turbine ?
(Use Figure 3.7)

Check your answer in Check Yourself
3.3 on Page 60.
Move vertically upwards to intersect the

AP = 2 000 curve.
From the intersection point move horizontally
to the left to read off the temperature drop on
the left hand vertical axis.
Test Yourself 3.4
We have seen that a pressure drop will reduce the

temperature of a gas. But how do we create the
drop in pressure? Basically there are two methods
in common use.
Check your answer in Check Yourself

3.4 on Page 60.
We will now take a look at an Auto-Refrigeration

system which uses both the valve and the turbine
in the system.
expand the gas across a valve

expand the gas across a turbine
In fact expanding the gas across a turbine makes
the gas do work as it expands and the cooling
effect is greater. Think about using the turbine to
create the pressure drop and have a go at the
following
Test Yourself.
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First of all, you should appreciate that a gas must

be at a high enough pressure initially in order that
the required pressure drop can take place. It is
seldom worth compressing the gas and raising
its pressure just to drop it again as part of an
Auto-Refrigeration system. The cost involved in
purchasing and running compressors for such a
system is far too high under normal circumstances.
Because of this, auto-refrigeration systems are
less common than mechanical refrigeration
systems.
Figure 3.8 is an illustration of an auto refrigeration
system which uses both forms of expansion to
recover NGL.
Take a look at the drawing and identify the
following components:

liquid / gas separator
Joules Thompson (JT) valve
turbo-expander driving a compressor
recovered NGL knockout drum
make up compressor
Fig 3.8 : Auto Refrigeration

NGL Recovery System
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Now lets follow the flow through the system and

see how the process works.
In this case the gas entering the system comes
from a high pressure pipeline, although in other
cases it may come from gas dehydration.
It first of all enters a liquid / gas separator. Here,
any liquids which may have condensed in the
pipeline are separated. These liquids which may
consist of water and NGLs are dumped to the NGL
Knockout Drum.
If there is any water in the gas at this stage,
methanol will require to be injected upstream of the
expansion process to prevent hydrate formation
caused by the resultant chilling effect.
The gas leaves the separator and, normally enters
the turbo-expander. As it passes across the turboexpander it is made to do work by driving the
compressor which is attached by a shaft.
The gas leaving the recovered NGL knockout drum

flows to the suction of the compressor connected
to the turbo-expander. As the gas is compressed it
is heated due to the compression process and is
warm enough, depending on operating pressures,
to leave the system as a sales gas.
If the turbo-expander is out of commission then
the JT valve acts as a secondary expansion valve.
This system will not recover as much NGL as the
Turbo expander but it will allow the process to keep
running and will recover some of the NGL.
When the JT valve is in operation, the make-up
compressor will be required to boost the pressure
of the gas leaving the recovered NGL knockout
drum to sales gas pressure.
This is a typical example of an Auto-Refrigeration
system. You may find that some systems have an
export compressor to compress the gas up to gas
pipeline pressure.
As the gas is expanded across the turbine its

temperature is reduced and NGLs are condensed.
The NGL is separated from the gas in the
recovered NGL knockout drum and, under level
control, is despatched to NGL Sales. Any water
which might be present, is also separated and sent
to disposal.
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In this section we have looked at what is probably
the most common natural gas liquids recovery
system found in offshore petroleum producing
operations. i.e. NGL recovery by refrigeration.
As you worked through the section you first of all
saw how a simple domestic refrigerator worked.
You saw that when a substance is liquefied
by compression, heat energy is liberated. In
a refrigerator this heat is dissipated through a
condensor. The liquid then passes through an
expansion valve where it vapourises. The
necessary heat for vapourisation comes from
the surroundings which are thereby cooled. The
refrigerant is then recycled.
I pointed out that there are two points of contact

between the two systems. The first one is the
chiller. It is in this vessel that the low temperature
created by the refrigeration system is used to chill
the natural gas.
The second one is the refrigerant condenser
where the heat generated during refrigerant
compression is dissipated by the chilled gas.
We then worked through the plant using a typical
flow diagram.
We then applied this knowledge to a mechanical

refrigeration system used to recover NGLs.
We then looked at an alternative method of

reducing the temperature of gas in order to recover
NGLs. A method which uses one of the properties
of the gas itself. This property can be stated as
follows:
You saw that within this system, there are two

interconnected sub systems which are:
If a natural gas is rapidly expanded by reducing

its pressure, it's temperature will drop.
the refrigeration system which reduces

the temperature of the refrigerant
the natural gas system where the reduction

in temperature of the refrigerant is used to
recover the NGLs
This temperature drop associated with gas

expansion is known as the Joules/Thompson
Effect. The greater the pressure drop, the greater
the temperature reduction.
We performed some simple calculations to show

this effect using a graph of gas expansion /
temperature reduction curves.
A system which uses this effect to achieve
temperature reduction is known as an auto
refrigeration system.
You saw that there are two methods used to
achieve this auto refrigeration.
expand the gas across a valve
expand the gas across a turbine
Finally we followed the flow diagram of a simple
plant which uses the two types of expansion to
achieve refrigeration and hence
NGL recovery.
In the next section we will look at one more method
of recovering the natural gas liquids. This uses an
absorption process.
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Section 4 - NGL Recovery Using an Absorption Process

In Section 1 you saw that contacting gas with a
lean oil causes the heavier gas components to be
absorbed into the oil. These can then be recovered
and transported as NGLs.
In this section we are going to look at a typical
system which uses this type of process. As usual
we will follow a drawing of a system and see how
the plant is constructed and how it works.
Before we start however, see if you can remember
the simple process which I described in Section 1.
Test Yourself 4.1

Figure 4.1 is the same figure that you saw in Section 1.
Where I described a simple absorption system.
You will see that there are no labels
Complete the figure with the
correct labels.
Now have a go at the following Test Yourself

question.
You will find the correct answer in

Check Yourself 4.1 on page 6.1
Figure 4.1 : Absorption system
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A Typical Absorption System

Figure 4.2 is a line drawing of a typical
system. Study the drawing for a while and
identify the various components.
Figure 4.2: Absorption System

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You will probably have noticed that the system is, in essence,
the same as the very simple system which you labelled in your
answer to Test Yourself 4.1. At the heart of the system are the
two towers, the absorber tower and the stripper tower.
You will notice that there is a continuous circulation of oil round
the system. This is the oil which absorbs the NGLs as the gas
is contacted with it. We will refer to it as Absorption Oil. It is a
hydrocarbon liquid and in some cases it can be dead crude oil.
In our example the absorption oil is classed as lean oil or rich
oil as it flows around the circuit. The lean oil is oil which has
been stripped free of NGL gases. The rich oil is oil which has
absorbed the NGL gases.
Before we start to follow the process flow, lets take a look at
the absorber tower which as I said earlier is at the heart of the
system.
Look at Figure 4.3 which shows a typical absorber tower. The
figure is a simplified cutaway view which shows the internal
features.
As you can see, the absorption oil enters the tower through the
inlet pipe near the top. It is spread out through spray bars and
a distribution plate before flowing down the tower. It flows down
through two sections packed with devices which increase the
surface area of the liquid. (You will remember from Section 1
that if the contact area between gas and absorption oil can be
increased the process will be more efficient).
Figure 4.3 : Absorption Tower

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The selection of the packing devices for any type of contactor is dependent upon:

the gas/liquid to be contacted

the flow rate requirements
the size of the column
the materials of manufacture for each type of packing
Figure 4.4 is an illustration of a few of the different kinds of packing devices. When the liquid
flows over them it forms a thin film and increases its surface area.
The reason for having two separate sections is to ensure that

the liquid and gas flows can be evenly re-distributed. If all the
liquid went down one side of the tower and all the gas went up
the other side there would be very little contact between the
two.
You will notice that halfway down the tower there is a redistribution plate. After the oil has passed the upper section of
packing it accumulates on the plate. It then flows through small
caps which spread the oil out over the next section of packing.
The lower section of packing is supported on a plate located
above the gas inlet. When the oil has percolated through all the
packing and the support plate, it accumulates in the bottom of
the tower. A liquid level is maintained and the oil exits the tower
from the outlet under level control.
The gas enters the absorber tower just beneath the lower
packed section. It flows upwards through the two packed
sections and finally leaves the tower through the gas outlet at
the top of the vessel.
During its passage up the tower the gas is forced to intimately
mix with the downcoming oil. It is this mixing under the right
conditions which cause the NGLs to be absorbed into the oil.
Lets now go back to Figure 4.2 and work our way through the
process. We will start with the gas flow through the system then
follow the flowpath of the absorption oil.
Figure 4.4 : Absorption Tower Packing Devices

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Gas Flow
Once again I have isolated the gas flow section from the
rest of Figure 4.2 in order to simplify the explanation.
The first feature you should note is that the absorber can be
by-passed. This may be required when the absorption system
is out of action for repair or maintenance.
Under normal operating conditions the gas enters the tower at
the bottom and flows upwards. As the gas rises through the
absorber tower, the heavier gases (the NGLs) are absorbed
into the absorber oil which is flowing down the tower. The
gas, stripped of NGL, leaves the tower at the top. If there is
sufficient gas, it may be transported for sale. If the amounts of
gas are too small to justify collection for sale, it may be used
as fuel with the surplus being flared.
Under normal operating conditions there is a small differential
pressure from top to bottom across the packed sections. If the
packing becomes dirty, the differential pressure could rise and
the gas flow could cause the packing to be dislodged. This
may cause channelling through the packing resulting in a loss
of efficiency. To guard against this the differential pressure is
monitored by a differential pressure transmitter PDT 01.
This will give an alarm before the packing begins to lift.
Figure 4.5 : Absorption System Gas Flow
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Before we continue, try Test Yourself 4.2.
Test Yourself 4.2

We said that increasing the contact area
between gas and liquid increases the
efficiency of the absorption process. State
two other factors which influence the
efficiency.
From the answer to the Test Yourself you can see

that it is necessary to maintain a pressure in the
tower. This is done by a back pressure controller
PC 01 opening and closing pressure control
valve PCV 01 in the gas outlet line.
The flow of gas is reasonably straightforward.
We can now go on to look at the flowpath of the
absorption oil as it circulates round the system.
You will find the correct answers in

Check Yourself 4.2 on Page 61.
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Absorption Oil Flow

Look at Figure 4.6 which shows the route taken by
the absorption oil flowing round the system.
We are going to start at the oil circulation pumps
so locate these on the drawing. At this
point the oil is lean. You will remember that this
means that the absorption oil has had all the NGLs
stripped from it.
The pumps are used to increase the pressure of
the lean oil which enables it to enter the high
pressure absorber tower.
Downstream of the pumps a flow element FE 01
monitors the flow of lean oil to the absorption tower
and switches on a stand-by pump in the event of a
flow failure.
It is important to ensure that a constant ratio of
gas to lean oil flow rates is maintained within the
absorber tower. Instrumentation is provided to
do this. If the gas flow increases the absorption
oil circulation rate will increase. Conversely if the
gas flow decreases the absorption oil circulation
rate will decrease. Note that I have omitted this
instrumentation from the drawing for the sake of
simplicity.
Figure 4.6 : Absorption System Absorption Oil Flow
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You saw in Section 1 and the answer to Test

Yourself 4.2 that the colder the absorption liquid
the more gas it can absorb. So, before passing into
the absorber tower, the lean oil flows through a
lean oil cooler.
The cooler is a heat exchanger which uses sea
water to cool the lean oil to as Iow a temperature
as possible.
The cooled lean absorption oil enters the Absorber
Tower near to the top. It flows downwards and
spreads out over the packing contacting the gas
flowing upwards through the tower.
The oil accumulates at the bottom of the tower. It
is now rich oil and has absorbed as much NGL as
it can.
The liquid level in the tower is controlled by a level
controller LC 01 through a level control valve
LCV 01 located in the liquid outlet line from the
tower.
From the absorber tower the rich oil flows to a
rich oil flash drum. Small amounts of the light
hydrocarbon gases may have been absorbed into
the oil. The rich oil flash drum acts as a separator
to remove the gas which is mainly methane. This
gas joins the gas leaving the absorber tower and is
sold, used as fuel gas or sent to the flare.
The rich oil flash drum is filted with pressure

controller PC 02 which controls the pressure by
opening and closing pressure control valve PV
02.
The level in the rich oil flash drum is controlled by
level controller LC 02 in conjunction with LCV 02.
This control valve is positioned downstream of the
next equipment in the system, the rich oil filters.
As the oil passes across LCV 02, the pressure
falls. Because of this reduction in pressure, some
of the gases which are absorbed into the oil will
begin to separate. This is often called flashing off.
If the valve were situated before the filters, there
would be a mixture of liquid and free gas flowing
through them. This would affect the efficiency of
the filters. Placing the control valve downstream,
helps prevent separation taking place before we
want it to.
So, the total flow of rich oil from the rich oil flash
drum is passed through a set of filters. These filters
remove any fine solids which may have entered
the system with the gas.
Stop for a moment here and think about the
situation in our NGL recovery plant.We have
reached a point where we have removed the NGLs
from the gas stream and they are dissolved within
the absorption oil.
It would be possible to transport the NGLs to
another location still dissolved in the oil and
recover them in a separate processing plant.
In fact this is what happens on some offshore oil

producing platforms. The rich oil is injected into
the main oil transport line going ashore. Further
processing plant at the shore terminal is used to
remove the NGLs which are then further refined
into pure products of propane, butane etc.
But we are following a complete plant so lets go
back to the system which we were
following.
The flow of oil plus flashed gas is now routed to the
Stripping Tower. This tower is almost identical to
the absorption tower in size and design. It is used
to remove the rest of the absorbed components
from the absorption oil.
The gas/oil mixture enters the Stripper Tower
through a set of spray bars located above the
top of the packed section. The spray bars do two
things.
They:
immediately Increase the surface area of the
rich oil to assist in removing the gas.
evenly distribute the oil across the top of the
packing.
The rich oil falls down the tower. and the large
surface area generated over the packing plus the
drop in pressure allows the absorbed gas to be
released.
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In order to assist in the stripping process heat is

often added to the tower. Also a small amount of
dry lean gas may be introduced at the bottom.
This flows up and helps to vapourise the absorbed
components.
A feature of most absorption systems is that the

interplay of :
gas flow rates
Test Yourself 4.3
tower level control

The gas which is released comprises the NGLs in
gaseous form which have been recovered from the
original gas stream. This gas flows upwards and
leaves the tower at the top. The pressure in the
tower is controlled by pressure controller PC 03
in conjunction with pressure control valve PCV
03 on the gas outlet line.
The absorption oil accumulates at the bottom of
the tower where it can now be called lean oil. The
level of the oil is controlled by level controller LC
03 operating level control valve LV 03.
The next piece of equipment in the system is
the lean oil surge drum. This keeps a sufficient
amount of oil in the system to ensure that a
continuous flow of absorption oil is maintained
around the circuit
flash drum level control

absorption oil flow rates
Place the following items in the correct order

in the absorption oil circulation path starting
with absorber tower.
these can all add up to result in a slight slugging of

flow. The lean oil surge drum evens out this slugging
effect by providing a buffer in the system.
a) absorber tower
.................
b) filters
.................
The drum is fitted with:
c) stripper tower
.................
d) lean oil cooler
.................
e) rich oil flash drum
.................
f) lean oil surge drum
.................
g) oil circulation pumps.
.................
level switch high-high (LSHH 01)

level switch low-low (LSLL 01).
These switches will operate to shutdown the system
if the slugging becomes too severe.
This completes our brief section on gas liquids
recovery using an absorption system. Before I
summarise the section have a go at the final Test
Yourself in this unit.
You will find the correct answers in

Check Yourself 4.3 on Page 61.
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In this section we looked at a system which uses
the principle of contacting gas with a lean oil.
This causes the heavier gas components to be
absorbed into the oil which can then be recovered
and transported as NGLs.
You saw that at the heart of the system are the
two towers, the absorber tower and the stripper
tower.
Next we followed the path of the natural gas

through the absorber tower. You saw that the gas
flowing upwards is contacted with a downcoming
stream of absorbtion oil. As the two streams comingle the oil absorbs the NGLs and the residual
gas flows from the tower to sales or flare.
Within the oil circulation system we looked at the
following pieces of equipment.
There is a continuous circulation of oil round the

system. This is the oil which absorbs the NGLs as
the gas is contacted with it.
We referred to it as Absorption oil. It is a
hydrocarbon liquid and in some cases it can be
dead crude oil. The oil is classed as lean oil or
rich oil as it flows around the circuit. The lean oil is
oil which has been stripped free of NGL gases. The
rich oil is oil which has absorbed the NGL gases.
oil circulation pumps
lean oil cooler
absorber tower
rich oil flash drum
filters
stripping tower
We looked at the construction of a typical packed

column type of absorber tower and saw how it
worked
lean oil surge drum
You have now completed this unit on natural gas

liquids recovery. Before you move on to another
unit in the Petroleum Processing Technology
Series I would like to make some final comments.
The unit you have just completed relates to
NGL recovery in general. It is not meant to
apply to any specific plant or process. If you
are involved with process plant operation you
must be completely familiar with the specific
plant under your control. You must always
follow laid down procedures and operational
guidelines and adopt safe working practices at
all times.
I explained the function of each of these pieces

of equipment and pointed out how they are
controlled.
56
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Check Yourself 1.1

nitrogen - (N)
- element
sodium chloride - (NaCl)
- compound
water - (H20)
- compound
helium - (He)
- element
sulphuric acid - (H2SO4)

- compound
carbon - (C)
- element
iron - (Fe)
- element
Check Yourself
1.2
a) C8 H (2 x 8) +2
i.e.C8H18
b) C9 H (2 x 9) +2
i.e. C9H20
Check Yourself
1.3
B 0C (32F)
C 0C (32F)
D 100C (212F)
Check Yourself 1.4

At point Y the substance would exist as steam.
If heat energy is removed at constant pressure
the temperature of the substance would fall
towards point X. When the line BC is reached
the steam would start to condense and the
first drop of liquid would form. At this point the
temperature would remain stable until all the
steam had condensed to liquid water.
The temperature would then fall again
until line BD is reached. Once again the
temperature would remain constant until all
the liquid freezes into solid ice. When the
substance is solid, the temperature again falls
to point X.
So, there have been 2 phase changes. From
gas ( steam) to liquid and from liquid to solid.
E 100C (212F)
57
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Check Yourself 1.5
Check Yourself 1.6
36C (97F). i.e. the temperature at which

pentane ( having the lowest boiling point)
starts to boil.
a)
Solid - liquid - gas - solid - gas.
b)

CI- Chlorine, O - Oxygen, Si - Silicon,

He - Helium, Fe - Iron, C - Carbon,
99C (209F). I.e. the temperature at which

Heptane ( having the highest boiling point)
boils.
c)
1 - X, 2 - Z, 3 - W, 4 - Y, 5 - V,
58
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Check Yourself 2.1

Ethane
Check Yourself 2.2
228F
(100 - (-128))
1.
The process of gas compression causes the gas temperature to rise.
Propane
143.7F
(100 - (- 43.7))
2.
The suction gas scrubber removes liquids from the gas.
Pentane
3F
(100 - 97)
3.
Within a suction K.O. drum wire mesh pads form a mist extractor.
4.

In a shell and tube heat exchanger, gas flows through the tubes and
water flows through the shell.
59
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Check Yourself 3.1

The correct order is :
Check Yourself 3.3

110F (43.3C)
1-3-6-2-9-5-8-7-4
Check Yourself 3.2
Check Yourself 3.4
1.
True
2.
False - It is used to refrigerate the natural gas.
If the gas is being used to power a turbine as it expands, the

turbine could be used to drive some other machinery. The
most common would be a compressor. However, a pump or
generator could be driven by the turbine.
3.
False - Partial vapourisation takes place.
4.

False - The cooling medium is cold gas from

the NGL / gas separator
5.
True
60
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Check Yourself 4.1
Check Yourself 4.2

a)
Pressure

Contact must be made under

pressure.
b)
Temperature

The process is made more efficient

at lower temperatures.
We discussed this in Section 1. Go back and refresh your

memory of this if you had any difficulty.
Check Yourself 4.3

The correct order is :
a) - e) - b) - c) - f) - g) - d)
61
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Petroleum Open Learning

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OPITO 1993 (rev.2002)

Natural Gas Liquids Recovery

- The Theory of NGL Recovery

- NGL Recovery Using Compression & Cooling

A Typical Compression and Cooling System

training targets for you to

test yourself questions

check yourself answers to

activities for you to apply

summaries for you to recap

Section 3 - NGL Recovery by Refrigeration

training targets for you to

test yourself questions

check yourself answers to

activities for you to apply

summaries for you to recap

- NGL Recovery Using Absorption Process

A Typical Absorption System

Check Yourself - Answers

State the reasons for recovering natural gas liquids

Oil and Gas Separation

A natural gas stream is capable of being partially or

Finally you should be aware of the expression

Gas being marketed has to meet certain

Composition can be controlled by using an adsorption or absorption process.

Pressure is controlled directly. Temperature is

Natural Gas Liquids Recovery

Section 1 - The Theory of NGL Recovery

Table 1 : Elements with English names

ELEMENT LATIN NAME

Pure substances can be elements or compounds.

Table 2 : Elements with symbols from Latin names

Elements are the building blocks of all matter.

Compounds are pure substances which consist

Instead of using the full name to describe an

The compound may not bear any resemblance to

Another term with which you should be famiiar at

Atoms of a single element can combine to form molecules

The following list of substances are either elements or compounds.

sodium chloride - (NaCl)

sulphuric acid - (H2SO4)

In this unit we are concerned with the recovery of

Of course, each arm of the carbon atom need not

Hydrocarbons are compounds of the elements

Hydrocarbons and Chemical

Figure 1.1 : Methane Molecule

For instance, carbon has four arms whilst hydrogen

This is the hydrocarbon molecule ethane.

In the alkane series, which starts with metane,

For instance ethane, which has two carbon atoms

Test Yourself 1.2

You will find the correct answers in Check

So a hydrocarbon molecule of the alkane family

C4H(2x4)+2 i.e. C4H10

Scientists do not use the word family to describe a

In the Introduction, I listed the first ten members of

You will also remember from the Introduction

A typical gas stream leaving a separator in a

These components are often referred to by