Power Series

Math 55 - Elementary Anlaysis III

Institute of Mathematics
University of the Philippines
Diliman

Math 55

Power Series

Recall

Alternating Series Test

If a given alternating series

(1) bn or

n=1

(1)n1 bn

n=1

satisfies
(i) lim bn = 0;
n

(ii) bn+1 bn for all n, i.e., the sequence {bn } is decreasing

then it is convergent.

Math 55

Power Series

Recall

Ratio Test

X
Suppose
an is a series with nonzero terms.
n=1



 an+1 
 = L < 1, then the series is absolutely

(i) If lim 
n
an 
convergent,
and

 is therefore convergent.


 an+1 


 = L > 1 or lim  an+1  = , then the series
(ii) If lim 


n
n
an
an 
is divergent.
Root Test
Given a series

an ,

n=1
1

(i) If lim |an | n = L < 1, then the series is absolutely

n
convergent, and is therefore convergent.
1
1
(ii) If lim |an | n = L > 1 or lim |an | n = , then the series is
n
n
divergent.
Math 55

Power Series

Power Series

Definition
A series of the form

cn (x a)n = c0 + c1 (x a) + c2 (x a)2 +

n=0

where x is a variable, a is a fixed real number and the cn s are

constants, is called a power series centered at a or power
series about a
Remark. We adopt the convention that (x a)0 = 1 even
when x = a.

Math 55

Power Series

Power Series

Examples
1

xn = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + . . . is a power series centered at 0.

n=0

(x 1)2 (x 1)3
(x 1)n
= 1 + (x 1) +
+
+ . . . is a
n!
2!
3!
n=0
power series centered at 1.

When does a power series converge?

When x = a, all of the terms of the power series are 0 and
so the power series converges for x = a.

Math 55

Power Series

When does a Power Series Converge?

Theorem
Given a power series

cn (x a)n , there are only three

n=0

possibilities:
(i) The series converges only at x = a.
(ii) The series converges for all real values of x.
(iii) There is a positive number R such that the series converges
if |x a| < R and diverges if |x a| > R.

R
R

Remarks.
Such number R is called the radius of convergence of
the power series.
The set of values of x for which the series converges is
called the interval of convergence of the power series.
Math 55

Power Series

Radius and Interval of Convergence

Example
Determine the radius of convergence and interval of convergence

X
of the power series
n! (x 1)n .
n=0

Solution. Let an = n! (x 1)n . By Ratio Test,





 (n + 1)! (x 1)n+1 
 an+1 




= lim 
lim

n
n  an 
n! (x 1)n
= lim (n + 1)|x 1|
n

= if x 6= 1
Hence, the series diverges when x 6= 1 so the radius of
convergence is 0 and the interval of convergence is {1}.
Math 55

Power Series

Radius and Interval of Convergence

Example
Determine the radius of convergence and interval of convergence

X
xn
.
of the power series
n!
n=0

xn
and by Ratio Test,
n!
 n+1



 x

 an+1 
n!

 = lim 
lim 


n
n (n + 1)! x 
n
an
|x|
= lim
n n + 1
= 0 for all x

Solution. Let an =

Hence, the series converges for all x so the radius of convergence

is and the interval of convergence is (, ) = R.
Math 55

Power Series

Radius and Interval of Convergence

Example
Determine the radius of convergence and interval of convergence

X
xn
of the power series
.
n
n=0

Solution. Let an =

xn
n .




 n+1


 an+1 
x
n 
n



lim

= lim 
= lim
|x| = |x|
n  an 
n n + 1 xn 
n n + 1

By Ratio Test, the series converges when |x| < 1, i.e., on the
interval (1, 1) so R = 1. How about at the endpoints?
(1)n
P
If x = 1, the series becomes
which converges.
n
n=1
1
P
which diverges.
If x = 1, the series becomes
n=1 n
Therefore, the interval of convergence is [1, 1).

R
R

Math 55

Power Series

Power Series Representations

The sum of a power series

cn (x a)n is a function f (x) such

n=0

that
f (x) = c0 + c1 (x a) + c2 (x a)2 + c3 (x a)3 +
whose domain is the interval of convergence of the power series.
That means we can represent certain types of functions as
power series. This is useful for integrating functions that dont
have elementary antiderivatives, for solving differential
equations, and for approximating functions by polynomials.

Math 55

Power Series

Power Series Representations

We begin with a familiar series:

X
1
= 1 + x + x2 + . . . =
xn
1x

|x| < 1

n=0

We now regard the series

xn as a power series representation

n=0

for the function f (x) =

1
.
1x

Using this representation, we can obtain power series

representation for certain type of functions.

Math 55

Power Series

Power Series Representations

Example
1
Express
as a power series and indicate the interval of
1 + x2
convergence.
1
1
is the sum of a
=
2
1+x
1 (x2 )
geometric series with r = x2 . Hence,
Solution. Note that

1
1 (x2 )

1
1 + x2

(x2 )n

n=0

(1)n x2n

n=0

The geometric series converges when |r| = | x2 | = x2 < 1, and

hence, the interval of convergence is (1, 1).
Math 55

Power Series

Power Series Representations

Example
Find a power series representation for

1
.
2x

Solution. We can manipulate the given expression so that it

looks like the sum of a geometric series:
1
2x

1
x
2 1
2
 
X
1
x n
2
2


n=0

X
xn
=
2n+1

x
 
 <1
2
|x| < 2

n=0

Math 55

Power Series

Power Series Representations

Example
Obtain a power series representation for

x3
.
x+3

Solution. Again, manipulating the given expression,

x3
x+3

1
x3
h
 x i
3 1
3

3
X
x n  x 
x

  < 1
3
3
3
n=0

(1)n

n=0

Math 55

xn+3
3n+1

|x| < 3

Power Series

Differentiation of Power Series

Theorem

P
If
cn (x a)n has radius of convergence R > 0, then the
n=0

function f defined by

X
f (x) =
cn (x a)n = c0 + c1 (x a) + c2 (x a)2 +
n=0

is differentiable (hence continuous) on (a R, a + R) and

X
ncn (x a)n1 = c1 + 2c2 (x a) + 3c3 (x a)2 +
f 0 (x) =
n=1

The radius of convergence of the power series for f 0 (x) is R.

In short,

"
#

X
d X
d
cn (x a)n =
[cn (x a)n ]
dx
dx
n=0

n=0

Math 55

Power Series

Differentiation of Power Series

Example
Find a power series representation for

1
.
(1 x)2

Solution. Since

X
1
=
xn
1x

|x| < 1,

n=0

differentiating each side gives




X
d
1
d n
=
(x )
dx 1 x
dx
1
(1 x)2

n=0

nxn1

n=1
Math 55

Power Series

|x| < 1
|x| < 1

Differentiation of Power Series

Example

X
n
Use the previous example to find the sum
.
2n
n=1

Solution. Note that

X
1
=
nxn1
(1 x)2
n=1

If x = 12 , the series converges and

X
X
n1
nx
=
n=1

Hence,

n=1

n
2n1

n
n
2
n=1

X
n
2n
n=1

X
n
2n
n=1

Math 55

|x| < 1.

X
n
=2
.
n
2
n=1

1
1

1 2
2

Power Series

Integration of Power Series

Theorem

P
If
cn (x a)n has radius of convergence R > 0, then the
n=0

function f defined by

X
f (x) =
cn (x a)n = c0 + c1 (x a) + c2 (x a)2 +
n=0

is differentiable (hence continuous) on (a R, a + R) and

Z

X
(x a)n+1
(x a)2
f (x) dx =
+C = c0 (xa)+c1
+ +C
cn
n+1
2
n=0
The radius of convergence of the latter is R.
In short,
Z

!
n

cn (x a)

dx =

n=0

Z
X

cn (x a)n dx

n=0
Math 55

Power Series

Integration of Power Series

Example
Obtain a power series representation for ln(1 + x).
Z
Solution. Notice that
Z
ln(1 + x) =

1
dx = ln(1 + x) + c. Hence,
1+x

X
1
dx =
1 (x)

(1)n (x)n dx

n=0

X
(1)n (x)n+1
n=0

n+1

+C

|x| < 1

To find C, let x = 0. Then C = ln 1 = 0. Hence,

ln(1 + x) =

X
(1)n (x)n+1
n=0
Math 55

n+1
Power Series

|x| < 1

| x| < 1

Integration of Power Series

Example
Use the previous example to show that

X
(1)n1
n=1

Solution.Note that ln(1 + x) =

X
(1)n (x)n+1
n+1
n=0

= ln 2.

|x| < 1.

X
(1)n
, which converges (by the
If x = 1, the series becomes
n+1
n=0
Alternating Series Test). Hence,

ln(1 + 1)

X
(1)n
n+1
n=1

1 1 1
+ +
2 3 4

X (1)n1
=
n
n=1

ln 2 =

Math 55

Power Series

Exercises

Find the radius of convergence and interval of convergence

of the following power series
a.

b.

X
(x 1)n
n 3n
n=1

Find a power series representation for

a.

X
(x 2)n
n2 + 1
n=0

1
2 + 3x

b. tan1 x

Find a power series representation for

to find the sum

X
n
.
9n

n=1

Math 55

Power Series

1
and use it
(1 x2 )2

References

Stewart, J., Calculus, Early Transcendentals, 6 ed., Thomson

Brooks/Cole, 2008

Dawkins, P., Calculus 3, online notes available at

http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/

Math 55

Power Series