CGE535

ELECTRICAL AND
INSTRUMENTATION TECHNOLOGY
Munawar Zaman Shahruddin
Faculty of Chemical Engineering
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam
munawar_zaman@salam.uitm.edu.my
Tel: 03-5544 8019; 019-249 0416

Week 11-12
CHAPTER 6: BASIC AC AND DC
MOTORS

Lesson Outcome
At the end of class, students should be able to:
Identify the proper motor type for various applications.
State how torque varies with speed for various motors.
Apply the equivalent circuit for dc and ac motors to
compute electrical and mechanical quantities.

ELECTRIC MACHINE
GENERATOR

MOTOR
4

ELECTRIC MOTOR

AC
MOTOR

DC
MOTOR

The reference of DC or AC refers to how the

electrical current is transferred through and
from the motor.
5

THE PURPOSE OF ELECTRIC MOTOR

Electrical
energy

AC/DC
motor

Mechanical
energy

The purpose of a AC/DC Motor is to

Convert Electrical Energy into Mechanical Energy
6

BASIC CONSTRUCTION
as the name suggests,
rotates. It is caused to
rotate under the influence
of the magnetic field of the
stator. The rotor tries to
keep up with the stators
magnetic field

Allows motor shaft to

move smoothly. Reduces
energy losses that would
occur through friction. The
seals keep dust from
entering the motor.

used to cool the motor.

A stationary component.
Made of copper windings
that carry current. The
stators coils set up a
magnetic field that moves
in a circular motion. The
stator surrounds the Rotor.

ARMATURE AND FIELD WINDINGS

Armature, the part of an electric generator or motor that contains the main
current-carrying winding.
The armature usually consists of a coil of copper wire wound around an iron
or steel core.
The coil and core are placed in a magnetic field produced by one or more
permanent magnets or electromagnets. If the armature in a generator or
motor is designed to rotate, it is called a rotor; if it is a stationary part, it is
called a stator.
In an induction motor (the most widely used type of electric motor), an
alternating electric current is supplied to the motor's electromagnets. The
oscillating magnetic field produced by the magnets induces a current in the
armature, causing it to rotate.

ARMATURE AND FIELD WINDINGS

A machine may contain several sets of windings (commonly
armature and field)
In DC motor, the field winding is on the stator while armature is
on the rotor
The armature windings carry currents that vary with mechanical
load
Small amplitude when load is light
Larger amplitude when load is heavier

If machine act as generator, the electrical output is taken from

armature
9

TOPIC 1: DC MOTORS

10

DC MOTOR
Common in automotive application (e.g starting,
windshield wiper, fans, power window)
Powered from DC source
Difficulty: most electrical energy are AC source-use rectifier
to convert to DC, AC machine preferable if they meet
needs of application, frequent need for maintenance
Advantage: speed and direction can be controlled more
readily than AC motor
11

ROTATING DC MACHINES
Consist of

Rotor (rotating part)

Stator (stationary part)
Brushes
Commutator
Shaft
12

DC PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
Consider a coil in a magnetic field of
flux density, B. When the two ends of
the coil are connected across a DC
voltage source, current I flows
through it. A force is exerted on the
coil as a result of the interaction of
magnetic field and electric current.
The force on the two sides of the coil
is such that the coil starts to move in
the direction of force.
13

DC PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

In an actual DC motor, several such

coils are wound on the rotor, all of
which experience force, resulting
in rotation. The greater the current
in the wire, or the greater the
magnetic field, the faster the wire
moves because of the greater
force created.
At the same time this torque is
being produced, the conductors
are moving in a magnetic field. At
different positions, the flux linked
with it changes, which causes an
emf to be induced (e = d/dt)
This voltage is in opposition to the
voltage that causes current flow
through the conductor and is
referred to as a counter-voltage or
back emf.

14

DC PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
The value of current flowing through the armature is
dependent upon the difference between the applied
voltage and this counter-voltage. The current due to this
counter-voltage tends to oppose the very cause for its
production according to Lenzs law. It results in the rotor
slowing down. Eventually, the rotor slows just enough so
that the force created by the magnetic field (F = Bil) equals
the load force applied on the shaft. Then the system
moves at constant velocity
15

DC MOTOR ROTATION
CONSIDERATIONS
Speed
Rotation of the shaft
When we supply the specified voltage
to a motor, it rotates the output shaft
at some speed. This rotational
speed or angular velocity, is typically
measured in revolutions/minute (rpm)

Torque
Torque is the product of Force x Lever
Arm Length (Radius)
Clockwise and Counter-Clockwise efforts
are distinguished by differences in sign (+
or -)
The quantitative measure of the
tendency of a force to cause or change
rotational motion is called torque

16

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF THE DC

MOTOR
The field circuit is represented
by
resistance
RF
and
inductance LF in series
Consider
steady
state
operation in which current are
constant, and neglect the
inductance because it behaves
as a short circuit for dc current
Thus for DC field V R I
F

F F

17

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF THE DC

MOTOR
The voltage EA shown in the equivalent circuit
represents the average voltage induced in the
armature due to the motion of the conductors
relative to the magnetic field.
The resistance RA is the resistance of the armature
windings plus the brush resistance.
18

Wound field

Type

Power
range
(hp)

Rotor

Stator

Comments and
applications

Shunt
connected

10-200

Armature
winding

Field
winding

Industrial applications,
grinding, machine tools

Series
connected

High torque at low

speed; dangerous if not
loaded; drills,
automotive starting
motor

TYPES OF DC MOTOR
Compound
connected

Permanent
magnet field

Traction motors

1/20-10

Armature
winding

19

Permanent Servo applications,

magnet
machine tools,
computer peripherals,
automotive fans,
window motors

SHUNT CONNECTED DC MOTOR

The field current is in parallel with the armature
The field circuit consist of rheostat having a adjustable
resistance (Radj) in series with field coil that can be used to
adjust motor speed
If the adjustable resistance is increase while holding the
source voltage constant, the speed would also increase
Also, if the voltage source is increase the field current
could be hold constant to increase the speed by increasing
the value of adjustable resistance
20

SHUNT CONNECTED DC MOTOR

The machine is supplied by constant voltage source,
VT
Has very high starting torque and draws very large
starting currents
Usually, resistance inserted in series with armature
during starting to limit the current to reasonable
levels
21

SHUNT CONNECTED DC MOTOR

The armature
resistance

Mechanical shaft
speed

Develop
torque

22

Induced
voltage

SEPARATELY EXCITED DC MOTORS

Similar
to
shuntconnected
motor
except
different
source are used for
the armature and field
Separate as reason to
be able to control
speed by varying one
of these two sources
23

SERIES CONNECTED DC MOTORS

The field winding is in series with armature
Has moderate starting torque and starting current
Speed automatically adjust over a large range as the load torque
varies
Because it slows down for heavier load, its output power is more
nearly constant than other types of motor
Advantageous because the motor can operate within its
maximum power rating for a wide range of load torque
In some cases, the no-load speed can be large enough to be
dangerous
24

SERIES CONNECTED DC MOTORS

Ex: starter motor in
automobiles,
when
engine is cold the starter
motor operate at lower
speed,
when
engine
warm the starter spin
faster.in either case, the
current
drawn
from
battery remains within
acceptable limit
25

SERIES CONNECTED DC MOTORS

Advantages of DC motor:
Ease of control
Deliver high starting torque
Near-linear performance

Disadvantages:
High maintenance
Large and expensive (compared to induction motor)
Not suitable for high-speed operation due to commutator and
brushes
Not readily available for use at home
26

PERMANENT MAGNET MOTORS

The field is supplied by magnets mounted on the stator rather than
field coil
Characteristics are similar to those of separately excited machine
except field cannot be adjusted
Advantages;

No power required to establish the field-leading to better efficiency

PM motor can be smaller than equivalent machine with field winding

The magnet can become demagnetized by overheating/ excessive armature current

Flux density magnitude is smaller thus, torque produced per ampere of armature current
is smaller

Disadvantages;

27

END OF TOPIC 1

28

TOPIC 2: AC MOTORS

29

AC MOTORS
A type of electric motor that runs on alternating current.
AC motors are more commonly used in industry than DC
motors but do not operate well at low speeds
AC Motors are highly flexible in many ways including their
speed control
The components of AC motors have been described in the
earlier slides
Can be either single or three phases
30

31

AC MOTORS PRINCIPLES OF
OPERATION
If a 3-phase supply is fed to the stator windings of a 3-phase motor, a
magnetic flux of constant magnitude, rotating at synchronous speed is
set up.
At this point, the rotor is stationary. The rotating magnetic flux passes
through the air gap between the stator & rotor and sweeps past the
stationary rotor conductors.
This rotating flux, as it sweeps, cuts the rotor conductors, thus causing
an e.m.f to be induced in the rotor conductors.
As per the Faradays law of electromagnetic induction, it is this relative
motion between the rotating magnetic flux and the stationary rotor
conductors, which induces an e.m.f on the rotor conductors.

32

AC MOTORS PRINCIPLES OF
OPERATION
Since the rotor conductors are shorted and form a closed circuit,
the induced e.m.f produces a rotor current whose direction is
given by Lenzs Law, is such as to oppose the cause producing it.
In this case, the cause which produces the rotor current is the
relative motion between the rotating magnetic flux and the
stationary rotor conductors. Thus to reduce the relative speed,
the rotor starts to rotate in the same direction as that of the
rotating flux on the stator windings. The frequency of the
induced e.m.f is same as the supply frequency.
33

Type

Power
range (hp)

Rotor

Stator

Application

Induction

1-5000

Squirrel cage

Three- phase
armature
windings

Simple rugged
construction: very
common; fans, pump

Wound field

Adjustable speed using

rotor resistance; cranes,
hoists

Permanent magnet

Precise speed; transport

sheet materials

TYPES OF AC MOTOR
Synchronous

1-5

1000-50,000 Dc field winding

34

Large constant load

3-PHASE AC POWER
Phase - defines the type
of electrical power
being supplied to the
motor
Each phase is displace
120
35

PARTS OF AN AC MOTOR
Electro-Magnets

Rotor
Stator 36

AC SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
Operating speed of synchronous motor is constant
The number of magnetic poles P is always an even integer
If some other speed other than presented in Table 1 is
required, a synchronous machine is usually not a good choice
The starting torque is zero
One approach is to operate the motor as an induction motor
with reduced load until the speed approaches synchronous
speed and then switch to synchronous operation
37

SYNCHRONOUS SPEED
Synchronous Speed - The speed of the stators
magnetic field rotation.

120 f
ns
P
f
P

is Applied Frequency
is magnetic poles that rotate at synchronous speed

38

Table 1: Synchronous Speed

Synchronous speed versus number of poles for f=60 Hz

ns

3600

1800

1200

900

10

720

12

600

Synchronous Speed (60 Hz) =

39

AC INDUCTION MOTOR
The motor has good starting torque
In normal operation, the speed of induction motor is only slightly
less than synchronous speed
Ex: at full load, a typical four pole (P=4) induction motor runs at
1750 rpm and at no load it speed approaches 1800rpm
During startup, the current drawn by induction motor can be
many times larger than its rated full-load current
To avoid excessive current, large induction motors are usually
started with reduced voltage
40

TOPIC 2: Small Motors

SMALL ELECTRIC MOTORS

Manufacturers will be required to comply with the Department of
Energys (DOE) energy conservation standard for small electric
motors beginning 2015.
A small commercial or industrial electric motor converts electrical
energy to rotating mechanical energy. When operating, the
electrical energy is transferred as useful mechanical energy to some
driven device such as a fan, pump, blower, compressor, or
conveyor.
Small electric motors include single phase and polyphase motors
built in a two-digit National Electrical Manufacturers Association
(NEMA) frame and are rated from to 3 horsepower.
42

US Department of Energy

SMALL ELECTRIC MOTORS

The current standard will save approximately 2.6
quads of energy and result in approximately $35
billion in energy bill savings for products shipped from
2015-2044.
The standard will avoid about 133.6 million metric
tons of carbon dioxide emissions, equivalent to the
annual greenhouse gas emissions of about 26.2
million automobiles.
43

US Department of Energy

44

45

END OF TOPIC 2

46

TOPIC 3: Torque, Starting

and Speed Control

47

BASIC THEORY
Torque is rotating EFFORT, speed is rotating FLOW
Torque = force x radius
Voltage is electrical EFFORT, current is FLOW of electrons
Power = EFFORT x FLOW
Mechanical power P(mech) = torque x speed
Electrical power P(elec) = voltage x current
48

TORQUE
Torque is the tendency of a force to rotate an object
about an axis, fulcrum, or pivot.
Torque is very important element of Electric machine.
In DC motor:
= ,
ka = constant for a
particular machine
Ia = Armature current

49

TORQUE
The torque developed by AC induction motor is given by
Td

Where

nV12R2 / S

s[(R1+R2/S)2+(X1+X2)2]

n= no. of poles
V1 is supply voltage
S is slip (difference between the synchronous speed and the shaft rotating
speed)
R1 and R2 stator and rotor resistance respectively
X1 and X2 stator and rotor inductance respectively
s synchronous speed (depends on the input power frequency and the number50
of
electrical magnetic poles in the motor)

TORQUE-SPEED CHARACTERISTICS
A torque speed curve shows how a motor's torque production
varies throughout the different phases of its operation.
Starting torque, also called locked rotor torque, is produced by a
motor when it is initially turned on. Starting torque is the amount
required to overcome the inertia of a standstill.
Pull-up torque is the minimum torque generated by a motor as it
accelerates from standstill to operating speed. If a motor's pull-up
torque is less than that required by its application load, the motor
will overheat and eventually stall.
51

TORQUE-SPEED CHARACTERISTICS
Breakdown torque is the greatest amount of torque a motor can attain without
stalling. High breakdown torque is necessary for applications that may undergo
frequent overloading . One such application is a conveyor belt. Often, conveyor
belts have more product placed upon them than their rating allows. High
breakdown torque enables the conveyor to continue operating under these
conditions without causing heat damage to the motor.
Full load torque is produced by a motor functioning at a rated speed and
horsepower. The operating life is significantly diminished in motors continually
run at levels exceeding full load torque.

52

TORQUE-SPEED CHARACTERISTICS
Synchronous speed is the
speed at which no torque is
generated by a motor. This
occurs in motors that run
while not connected to a
load. At synchronous speed,
the rotor turns at exactly
the same rate as the stator's
rotating magnetic field.
Since there is no slip, there
is no torque produced

53

SPEED IN DC MOTOR

m=Pm/T=nm x 2/60
since T= kaIa m=Pm/kaIa

54

= ,
ka = constant for a
particular machine
Ia = Armature current
nm= rotational speed in rpm

USEFULL RELATIONSHIP IN AC
MOTOR

55

DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

Many applications require the speed of a motor to be
varied over a wide range. One of the most attractive
features of DC motors in comparison with AC motors is the
ease with which their speed can be varied.
We know that the back emf for a separately excited DC
motor:
Rearranging the terms,
56

DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

From this equation, it is evident that the speed can be

varied by using any of the following methods:
Armature voltage control (By varying VT)
Field Control (By Varying )
Armature resistance control (By varying Ra)
57

ARMATURE VOLTAGE CONTROL

This method is usually applicable to separately
excited DC motors. In this method of speed control,
Ra and are kept constant.
In normal operation, the drop across the armature
resistance is small compared to Eb and therefore:
Eb VT
58

ARMATURE VOLTAGE CONTROL

Since Eb=kam, the equation can be arranged as
follows:
m = VT/ka
So, we can simply relate m with the VT in a simple linear
equation.
59

FIELD CONTROL
In this method of speed control, Ra and VT remain fixed.
Therefore,
m 1/ and
If as a result of magnetic linearity
So, it will result-in inversely proportional relationship
between speed and magnetic flux.
60

ARMATURE RESISTANCE CONTROL

The voltage across the armature can be varied by inserting a variable
resistance in series with the armature circuit.

61

ARMATURE RESISTANCE CONTROL

From speed-torque characteristics, we know that:

Rearranging the equation, it will relate m and Ra in a

form of linear relationship with negative slope and
intercept of VT/K.
Note that VT and in this case are remained constant.
62

AC MOTORS SPEED CONTROL

With the reference of the previous equation (page 55), we
should have a brief idea on which variable should we manipulate
to control the speed of AC motors.
It is related to either power/voltage sources or torque.
There are several ways or methods to control the speed which
are:
Change the number of poles (in discrete increments -inefficient &
rarely done) torque
Change the frequency of the AC signal power/sources
Change the slip torque
63

CHANGE AC FREQUENCY
Variable speed AC Motor adjustable speed drives are
known as
inverters,
variable frequency drives (VFD) , or
adjustable speed drives (ASD).

Common ways to vary AC frequency:

Six-step inverter
Pulse-Width-Modulation
Vector Flux

64

SIX-STEP INVERTER

AC rectified to DC,
then switched to
imitate a sine wave

65

PULSE-WIDTH MODULATION

DC voltage (rectified
AC) rapidly switched to
match "area under
curve"

66

VECTOR FLUX
Vector control implies that an ac motor is forced to
behave dynamically as a dc motor by the use of
feedback control.
Always consider the stator frequency to be a variable
quantity.
Think in synchronous coordinates.
67

CHANGING ROTOR SLIP

Important to match the motor to the load
ensure that a change in motor power gives a desired
change in load speed

Load should have a substantial inertial components

inertial torque can "carry" the load through brief periods
when motor torque cannot

Best used with motors designed for high slip

68

VARIABLE SERIES RESISTANCE

Additional
series
resistance reduces
voltage across main
windings

69

VARIABLE VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER

More efficient
than previous
method, no
power wasted
in the series

70

TAPPED WINDING
Commonly used
with 3-speed fan
motors (like the
one in AC Motor
Lab)

71

END OF TOPIC 3

72

TOPIC 4: Motor
Selection

73

MOTOR SELECTION
A motor must do three things:
1. Start the equipment load
2. Drive the load once it is started
3. Survive the abuse of the surroundings in which it
operates

74

TYPE OF POWER AVAILABLE

230-volt motor should not be used if only
115-volt circuits are available
Three-phase motor cannot be operated on electrical system with
only single-phase service
Single-Phase
Three-phase
Typical Operating Voltages:
115

208

208

230

230

460

240

480

460

75

480

SIZE OF MOTOR
Rated in HP
Refers to the power that it will develop when the motor is turning
at full speed
Rules of Thumb for estimating size needed:
If equipment can be operated by hand, a 1/4 HP motor will usually be
adequate
If gasoline engine is to be replaced by electric motor, an electric motor
approximately 2/3 the HP rating of the engine will be adequate
Replace tractor power take-off (PTO) with an electric motor of
approximately the same HP

76

STARTING LOAD
Motor selected must produce adequate starting torque to start the load
Commonlyused motors:

Split phase
Capacitor start-induction run
Capacitor start-capacitor run
Repulsion start-induction run
Series or universal
Shaded pole
Three-phase
Capacitor start-induction run & Three-phase are the most common and
produce highest starting torque

77

SPEED REQUIREMENT
Rated at the speed the shaft will turn in revolutions
per minute (rpm) when motor is operating at full
speed
Rpm of motor should be speed needed to operate
equipment at proper speed

78

BEARING TYPE
Sleeve bearings
OR
Anti-friction bearings
Require less maintenance and can be mounted in any
position

79

TYPE OF MOUNTING
The type of base or method of mounting an electric
motor may depend upon the load it drives.
Some may have a resilient mounting allowing for some
flexibility
Some are mounted directly to the machine.
Still others may have a mounting bracket welded to the
motor housing.
80

BASE TYPE
Rigid base
Sliding adjustable base
Cushion mount
Reduces vibration & wear

Determined by application of motor

81

STARTING LOADS
Easy Starting Loads

Difficult Starting Loads

Shaded Pole Induction

Capacitor-Start, Induction-Run

Split Phase

Repulsion-Start, Induction-Run

Permanent-Split, CapacitorInduction

Three-Phase, General-Purpose

Soft-Start

Perkey Concept: use tractor

PTO to start
Repulsion-Start, Capacitor-Run

82

MOTOR DUTY
Motor Duty = amount of time the motor is operating
under full load, and how much time it is stopped
Continuous Duty: constant full load for over 60
minutes at a time
Intermittent Duty: fully loaded for 5, 15, 30, or 60
minutes
83

ENCLOSURES
Motors produce heat
Cooling: fan on shaft, openings in end
Must protect from dust, water etc

84

ENVIRONMENT
Provide proper protection from surroundings
Typical motor enclosures:

Open drip proof

Splash proof
Totally enclosed-fan cooled (TEFC)
Explosion proof
Totally enclosed-air over (TEAO)
Totally enclosed-non ventilated (TENV)
85

END OF TOPIC 4

86

CONCLUSION

Define machine and motor

Explain on DC and AC motors
Explain on small motors
Explain on torque, speed and starting
Explain on motor selection

87

88