Secondary 2 Chemistry Notes

For Secondary 2, Chemistry is grouped under 4 major topics, as follows,

Elements, Atoms and Molecules

Atomic Structure
Writing Formula and Equations
Acids and Bases
The Periodic Table of Elements

1.1 Elements, Atoms and Molecules

An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances
by chemical methods. To date, there are 118 known elements, as seen from the
Periodic Table of Elements. 92 of them are found in Earth, in the rocks, soil, air
and water. Others are made artificially by scientists in laboratories, and are
known as Synthetic Elements. One example is Technetium, with an atomic
number of 43. They cannot be found on Earth naturally as they have short halflives, which mean that the element will decay away quickly.

Every element is represented by a chemical symbol. The symbol consists of a

capitalized letter, but for cases with symbols having 2 letters, only the first letter
Sources: Google Image
is capitalized.
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=96&prev=/images%3Fq%3DHYDROGEN%2520symbol&um=1&hl=en&tbs=isch:1&ei=KDXF
TKD9L9PQcJnBvNgL&start=0

Not Capitalized

Capitalized

Capitalized

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Classification of elements

Classifying by physical states:

- At room temperature, elements have varied physical state, thus can be
classified in this manner.
- Among 92 naturally occurring elements,
11 are gases (Hydrogen, Helium)
2 are liquids (Bromine, Mercury)
79 are solids (Lithium, Carbon)

Classifying as metals and non-metals:

Elements are classified as metals and non-metals, based on the elements
electrical conductivity.
Metals are good conductors of electricity while non-metals are very poor
conductors of electricity.
However, there are some elements are classified as metalloids, such as Silicon.
They are semi-conductors of electricity, having properties between those of
metals and non-metals, useful for the computer industry.

1.2 Atoms
Elements are made up of tiny particles called atoms. Atoms differ from one
element to another.
It is the smallest particle in any element, having a diameter of only 0.1
nanometre. It cannot be seen with the naked eye, only to be seen with the
electron microscope, or the scanning tunnelling microscope (STM). Every element

consists of only a specific type of atom. (So Sodium, Na, can only contain Sodium
atoms, not any others)
Not all elements exist as atoms. However, some are. They are under Group 0 in
the Periodic Table of elements, founded by William Randsey. These elements are
also called the noble gases, since they are extremely unreactive with other
elements. Thus, they were once known as inert gases, but this mistake was
corrected when it was realized that the noble gases gets more reactive as it goes
down the group. One example would be Xenon reacting with Fluorine to form
Xenon Tetrafluoride (XeF4)
It is possible for the atoms to exist as atoms as they have a stable octet electron
configuration, and a stable duplet electron configuration in the case of Helium.
(This would be explained further under the chapter of Atomic Structure)
Metals are also able to exist as atoms. This is due to metals arrangement to form
giant structures. Most non-metals exist as molecules.

1.3 Molecule
A molecule is a group of two or more atoms that are covalently bonded together.
Molecules of elements consist of a fixed number of the same type of atoms
combined together.
For example, Fluorine molecules are formed from two chemically combined
atoms of Fluorine. Thus, its molecular formula is F2.
Ne (Neon) is an example of a monatomic (mono = 1) element, since it exists as
single atoms.
F2 (Fluorine molecule) is an example of a diatomic (di = 2) molecule, since it is
formed by the combination of 2 atoms
O3 (Ozone), is an example of a triatomic ( tri = 3) molecule, consisting of 3 atoms
chemically combined together.

Any molecules formed by 3 or more molecules, i.e S8 (Sulfur), is known as

polyatomic molecules (poly = many)

1.4 Compounds
Compounds are made up of molecules and ions.
Compounds are made up of 2 or more different elements chemically combined
together.
Molecules of compounds consist of a fixed number of two or more different types
of atoms combined together.
Symbol for element

An example would be Ammonia,

NH4.

Relationship between
the two elements, 1 N
atom for every 4 H
atoms.

Ions also make up compounds, known as ionic compounds.

One example would be table salt, Sodium Chloride, with the chemical formula of
NaCl. Ions are simply atoms with electric charges as they had gained or lost 1 or
more electrons.
Ions with a positive charge (Lost electron) are known as cations.
Ions with a negative charge (Gained electron) are known as anions.

2.1 Atomic Structure

The structure of the atoms is quite simple, although the processes going on are
quite complicated. Lets now look at the sub-atomic particles inside the atom.
Source: Google Images
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michistory.fall.2009&imgurl=http://reichchemistry.wikispaces.com/file/view/ECAM.jpg
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3&tbnh=131&tbnw=180&start=19&ndsp=10&
ved=1t:429,r:5,s:19

As you can see, the atom is made up of 3 fundamental sub-atomic particles, the
Proton, Neutron, and the Electron. The neutrons and the protons are grouped
together in the nucleus, and together called the nucleons. The nucleus is very
dense, since it accounts for all the mass inside the atom, although it takes up little
spaces, but surrounded by electrons. These electrons are attracted to the
protons electrostatically.

Relative charges
Relative masses
Location in the
atom

Proton
+1
1
Nucleus

Neutron
0
1
Nucleus

Electron
-1
1/1836
Electron shell

Since every atom is electrically neutral, when an electron, having a negative

charge, is removed, the atom becomes positively-charged, and it becomes
negatively charged when an electron is gained. Electrons are also responsible for
the chemical properties on an atom.

2.2 Expression of the Atom

To represent an atom, we could use the following method of

Where X is the symbol of the Element, while A is the nucleon/mass number

(Number of protons + neutrons) and Z is the atomic (proton) number.
Since the amount of electrons is equivalent to the amount of protons in an
electrically neutral atom, we can derive the amount of electrons from the atomic
number.
We can also derive the number of neutrons by subtracting the atomic number
from the nucleon number.

2.3 Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element, but have different number of neutrons.
Isotopes of an element have the same
Proton Number
Number of electrons in an atom
Electron configuration
Chemical properties
Isotopes on an element have different
Nucleon Numbers
Number of neutrons in an atom
Physical properties, i.e. Boiling/Melting points

One example would be Carbon. It could have the mass number of 12, 13 or even
14.

2.4 Shells
Electrons move around within the atom along their shells. These shells can hold
up to a maximum number of 2n2 electrons, where n is the number of the shell.
The shells are numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5...Etc. The 1st is nearest to the nucleus,
followed by the 2nd shell, and then the 3rd shell.
Now, look at the electronic configuration of the first 20 elements in the Periodic
Table of Elements.
Element
Hydrogen
Helium
Lithium
Beryllium
Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon
Sodium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulfur
Chlorine
Argon
Potassium
Calcium

Electronic Configuration
1
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.8.1
2.8.2
2.8.3
2.8.4
2.8.5
2.8.6
2.8.7
2.8.8
2.8.8.1
2.8.8.2

Notice that the first shell can only hold up to 2 electrons, while the second shell
can hold up to eight. The third shell, for the first 20 elements, can only hold up to
8 electrons. This is due to the energy levels of the shells that will not be tested in
Secondary 2.

Look at the noble gases, highlighted in red. They all have a stable duplet structure
for Helium; since it is the valence shell (last shell) had been fully occupied by the
electrons and is stable. On the other hand, for both Neon and Argon, they have a
stable octet structure. Thus, few can combine with them to form compounds or
even with each other to form molecules. This explains why they are monatomic.

2.5 Chemical bonds

Chemical bonding is the attraction between atoms or molecules which allows
the formation of chemical compounds, which contain two or more atoms. These
atoms bond to achieve a stable electronic configuration.
Ionic Bonding
Before we talk about Ionic Bonding lets have an introduction to ions.
Ions are atoms which had either lost or gained electrons. This makes the atoms
not electrically neutral and is given the term, ion.
Ions are separated into two different categories, Cations and Anions. Cations are
ions with a positive charge (lost electrons) while Anions are ions with a negative
charge (gained electrons).

Ionic bonding takes place due to most atoms not having the stable electronic
configuration of a noble gas. Thus, the atoms would have to either lose or gain
electrons to achieve that configuration.
To remember which ions are cations and which are anions, there is a simple
method. Metals will form cations while non-metals will form anions.

Lets have some examples.

Atom of chlorine

This negative sign tells us that Chlorine only

gained one electron.

Ion of chlorine
Source:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/sc
ience/add_aqa/atomic/ionicrev3.shtml

This positive sign tells us that Sodium only

lost one electron.

Source: Google Images

http://www.google.com.sg/imglanding?q=sod
ium+ion&um=1&hl=en&biw=1090&bih=447&
tbs=isch:1&tbnid=ej3WGIdtzk7kBM:&imgrefu
rl=http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize
/science/add_aqa/atomic/ionicrev2.shtml&im
gurl=http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebites
ize/science/images/diag_sodium.gif&zoom=1
&w=232&h=135&iact=rc&ei=Y9jnTLKIOpHGv
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&esq=1&page=1&tbnh=104&tbnw=179&start
=0&ndsp=10&ved=1t:429,r:7,s:0

Atom of Sodium

Ion of Sodium

If you have ionic compounds such as Calcium Chloride, CaCl2, the Calcium atom
will transfer one electron to one of each Chlorine atom and then all of them will
achieve a stable octet structure.

Covalent Bonding
This type of bonding is only achieved between non-metals. Like ionic bonding, it is
to attain the electronic configuration of a noble gas.
Source: Google Images

Oxygen Electrons

Hydrogen Electrons

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0

The electrons of the Hydrogen atoms and those of Oxygens will share, giving all
of the atoms an electronic configuration of a noble gas.

3.1 Writing Formula and Equations

Some rules/ definitions:
1) For all formulas, the metal is always written before the non-metals. So in
the case of Sodium Chloride, it is always written as NaCl.
2) Cations are usually metals and anions are usually non-metals
3) Diatomic molecules names end in ide, i.e. Germanium Telluride

4) If a compound contains oxygen, its name would end in ate or ite

5) A compound contains more oxygen atoms if its name end with ate instead
of ite.

3.2 Chemical formula of ionic compounds.

Writing chemical formulas are an important part in the learning of chemistry,
especially when you need to express the composition of a substance.

There is a simple method to write chemical formulas of ionic compounds. Lets

use an example, Calcium Chloride.
Firstly, we have to determine the amount of electrons each of their ions gain or
lose.
Calcium gains two electrons, while chlorine loses one.
Written in symbols:

Ca2+

Cl-

Next, do a switch.

Ca2+

Cl-

Ca

Cl2

The chemical formula for Calcium Chloride is thus CaCl2.

Generally, when Ax+ and By- forms an ionic compound, the resulting chemical
formula will be AyBx.

3.3 Molecules
This chapter had been explained earlier on. However, whats new is the
nomenclature (naming of compounds).
Assuming we are asked for the chemical composition of Sulfur Trioxide, how do
we find it out?
Look at the table below:
Amount of element in a molecule
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Prefix
mono
di
tri
tetra
penta
hexa
hepta

Prefix of 3

Sulfur Trioxide
Thus, we can conclude that the chemical composition is SO3.

3.4 Balanced Chemical Equations

We used to write word equations in Secondary 1. However, we now have to
express the equations as symbols.
Lets say we are asked to write a chemical equation of
Magnesium + Oxygen

Magnesium Oxide

Step 1: Write down the reactant (Left hand side) and Product (Right hand side).
Mg + O2

MgO

Mg atom: 1

Mg atom: 1

O atoms: 2

O atoms : 2

Step 2: Balancing the equations

Mg + O2

2MgO

Mg atom: 1

Mg atoms: 2

O atoms: 2

O atoms: 2

Step 3: Recheck
We realize that the Mg atoms are not balanced. So, we have to add one more Mg
atom to the side of the reactant.

Therefore,
2Mg + O2

2MgO

Mg atoms: 2

Mg atoms: 2

O atoms: 2

O atoms: 2

The equation is now balanced.

Last step: State symbols (If required)

Sometimes, we will be asked to show the physical state of a substance.

For solids, we use (s)
For liquids, we use (l)
For gas, we use (g)
For aqueous solutions (solutions/ substances dissolved in water), we use (aq)

4.1 Acids and Bases

An acid is a substance which dissociates in water to produce hydrogen ions, H+.
So, acids only show their properties when dissolved in water.
Due to that property, it is known as a proton donor, since H+ ions contains no
electrons.
Also, the hydrogen ion is responsible for all acidic properties.

Acids
Organic
Acids: Naturally
occurring acids i.e. citric acid, ethanoic acid
Mineral/
Inorganic
acids
Organic acids
Inorganic Acids (mineral acids): Mostly man-made acids i.e. hydrochloric acid

4.2 Strength of Acid

Strength (not to be confused with concentration) of an acid refers to how easily
an acid dissociates into its ions when dissolved in water.
HCl (aq)

H+ (aq) + Cl-

Hydrochloric acid, being very strong, completely dissociates in water to give

hydrogen ions and chloride ions.

CH3COOH (l)

CH3COO- (aq) + H+ (aq)

Ethanoic acid, being a weak acid, dissociates in water partially to give hydrogen
ions and ethanoate ions.

4.3 Properties of Acids

Acids
-

Tastes sour
Turn blue litmus paper red
pH values below 7
Dissolves in water to form solutions to conduct electricity (due to the
mobile ions) in aqueous form.

4.4 General equations of acids:

Metal + Acid Salt + Hydrogen
The next page will feature the reactivity series.

Source: Google Images

http://www.google.com.sg/imglanding?imgur
l=http://image.wistatutor.com/content/metal
s-non-metals/metals-reactivityseries.jpeg&imgrefurl=http://www.tutorvista.
com/content/science/science-ii/metals-nonmetals/reconcept-seriesmetals.php&h=371&w=253&sz=17&tbnid=yW
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Metals placed above Hydrogen in the series will react with acids to form
hydrogen (fulfilling the above equation).
Metals placed below Hydrogen in the series will not react with acids to form
hydrogen.
Example: Mg(s) + 2HCl (aq) = MgCl2(s) + 2H(g)

Metal

Acid

Salt

Hydrogen

Another equation:
Carbonate + Acid CO2 + H2O + Salt
Example: (Chemical Equation)
MgCO3 + H2SO4 CO2 + H2O + MgSO4

Example: (Word Equation)

Magnesium Carbonate + Sulfuric Acid Carbon Dioxide + Water + Magnesium
Sulfate

Metal oxide + Acid Salt + Water

Metal hydroxide + Acid Salt + Water
They are neutralisation reactions.
Example:
2NaOH + H2SO4 NaSO4 + 2H2O
Sodium Hydroxide + Sulfuric Acid Sodium Sulfate + Water

4.5 Bases and Alkalis

A base is a substance that reacts with acids to produce salts and water
There are ionic bases and covalent bases.
Ionic bases consists of metal hydroxides and metal oxides
There are many covalent bases, but we need to know about NH3 (aq), known
aqueous ammonia.
Alkalis are bases soluble in water
Like acids, alkalis dissociates in water, but to form hydroxide ions (OH-) instead
of hydrogen ions.
Also, they only show their alkaline properties after being dissolved in water.
Also, hydroxide ions are responsible for all alkaline properties.

Example:
KOH K+ + OHPotassium Hydroxide Potassium ion + Hydroxide ion

4.6 Strength of Alkalis

The strength of alkalis refers to how easily an alkali dissociates into its ions when
dissolved in water.

LiOH (s)

Li+ (s) + OH- (aq)

Lithium Hydroxide, being very strong, completely dissociates in water to give

lithium ions and hydroxide ions.

NH3(aq)

OH- (aq) + NH4+ (aq)

Aqueous ammonia, being a weak alkali, dissociates in water partially to give

hydroxide ions and ammonium ions.

4.7 Properties of Alkalis

Alkalis
-

have a soapy feel

tastes bitter
turn red litmus paper blue
have >pH7
Dissolves in water to form solutions to conduct electricity (due to the
mobile ions) in aqueous form.

4.8 General equations of alkalis

Alkali + Acid Salt + H2O
The reaction of alkali and acid is known as neutralisation.
Example:
KOH + HCl KCl + H20
Potassium Hydroxide Potassium Chloride + Water
Alkali + Ammonium salt Salt + NH3 + H2O
Example:
LiOH + NH4I LiI+NH3 + H2O
Lithium Hydroxide + Ammonium Iodide Lithium Iodide + Ammonia + Water

Alkali (A) + Salt (B) B Hydroxide + Salt (A) Where A and B are metals.
Example:
2NaOH +NiCl2 Ni(OH)2 + 2NaCl
However, the metal hydroxide produced mustnt be soluble in water.

Enough about the equations, if we cant apply them in real life, the knowledge
wouldnt help us much.
The following table will tell you more about the bases/ alkalis and their uses.
(Continued in the next page)

Bases and Alkalis

Sodium hydroxide
Magnesium hydroxide

Calcium oxide
Ammonia solution
Potassium hydroxide

Uses
Making soaps and detergents
Involved in the production of paper
Used in toothpastes
Used in antacids to aid gastric problems
and indigestion
Make iron, concrete and cement
Used in fertilisers
Used in solutions for cleaning windows
Used to neutralise acidic soil

4.9 pH

Source: Google Image

http://www.google.com.sg/imglanding?q=ph+scale&um=1&hl=en&sa=N&tbs=isch:1&tbnid=xtfGk7QnzlB7MM:&imgrefurl=http
://www.btinternet.com/~mr.larsen/ClipArt.htm&imgurl=http://www.btinternet.com/~mr.larsen/images/pHScale.gif&zoom=1
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158&start=25&ndsp=11&ved=1t:429,r:2,s:25&biw=1090&bih=447

Above you see the pH scale. It compares the strength of acids and how acidity or
alkaline a solution is.
As you can see, pH of 7 is neutral. They are neither acidic nor are they alkaline i.e.
Deionised water
pH < 7 are acidic i.e. Hydrochloric acid

pH > 7 are alkaline i.e. Sodium hydroxide

Also, the lowest value is 1 and the highest is 14
The pH scale measures a solutions based on the number of hydrogen or hydroxide
ions it has.
The more hydrogen ions a solution have, the more concentrated the acid and
the more hydroxide ions a solution have, the more concentrated the alkaline.
When there is a neutralisation reaction, the hydroxide ions (OH-) and hydrogen
ions (H+) will react.
H+ + OH- H2O
This is why water is one of the products of a neutralisation reaction.
4.10 Acid- Base Indicators
It was learnt in primary school that CO2 reacts with limewater (Ca(OH)2)
Limewater is an alkaline and acts as an indicator for CO2.
So what are indicators?
Indicators are substances that changes colour when added to an alkaline or
acidic solution.
There is an indicator known as Universal Indicator. It contains a mixture of
several different dyes and can determine the pH of a solution. We will be able to
recognise its pH from the colour the dye turns into.
The colours can be seen from the picture on the next page

Source: Google Images

http://www.google.com.sg/imglanding?imgurl
=http://homepages.ius.edu/DSPURLOC/c121/i
mages/uni.gif&imgrefurl=http://qwickstep.co
m/search/ph-universalindicator.html&h=582&w=750&sz=112&tbnid
=uDSSPxSpTrVxFM:&tbnh=109&tbnw=141&pr
ev=/images%3Fq%3Duniversal%2Bindicator&z
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ei=8dXnTLjINYKkvgP0usjCCA&sqi=2&ved=0CC
oQ9QEwAQ

The colour changes when the acidity/ basicity changes.

Two other very common indicators are methyl orange and phenolphthalein.
- Phenolphthalein is colorless in acidic solutions and pink in basic
solutions.
- Methyl orange is red in acidic solutions and yellow in basic solutions. At
the end point of the titration, methyl orange appears orange.

4. 11 Oxides
This is the last section to be studied at Secondary 2 level (although this may vary
from school to school)
Oxides can be branched out into 4 different types shown below
Oxides

Acidic Oxides

Basic Oxides

Amphoteric Oxides

Neutral Oxides

Acidic oxides are oxides of non-metals that dissolve in water to form an acid
However, they also react with bases to form salt and water (like acids)

Basic oxides are oxides of metals that react with acids the same way bases do.
(Form salt and water).
Oxides of reactive metals will dissolve in water to form alkalis.
Basic oxides, as the name suggests, are insoluble in water (bases). However, some
are alkaline, dissolving in water readily e.g. NaOH
Note: Basic oxides are solids at room temperature.

Amphoteric oxides are metallic oxides which react in both acids and alkalis to
form salts and water, displaying properties of both acidic and basic oxides.

Neutral oxides are usually non-metals, showing neither acidic nor basic
properties. They are insoluble in water.

Some reactions of oxides

ZnO + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2O (Reaction of an amphoteric oxide)
MgO + H2SO4 MgSO4 + H2O (Reaction of a basic oxide)
K2O + H2O K(OH)2 (Reaction of a basic oxide)
SO3 + H2O H2SO4 (Reaction of an acidic oxide)

5.1 The Periodic Table

The Periodic Table of Elements that we are using today is the brainchild of a
Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev. At his time, in the 19th Century, more and
more elements are discovered and it became almost impossible for anyone to
remember the elements by heart. Organisation of the elements was needed by
chemists all around the world. Dmitri, while preparing a chemistry textbook, saw
patterns among the elements and created the Periodic Table of Elements.
Chemists soon accepted it and over the years, some minor changes were made to
the table we know today.
We have to know a few groups of elements, as followed
-

Alkaline metals
Alkaline earth metals
Metalloids
Halogens
Noble Gases
Transition elements

5.2 Alkaline Metals

Alkaline metals are found in Group I of the Periodic Table, excluding the element
hydrogen. As their names suggests, alkaline metals form compounds with oxygen
and give alkaline solutions when dissolved in water. These metals are also highly
reactive with water.

5.3 Alkaline earth metals

This group of metals are found in Group II. They form compounds with oxygen
and give alkaline solutions after dissolving in water, however, the charge of their
ions will be different from the alkaline metals. This will be elaborated further
afterwards.

5.4 Metalloids
Metalloids have properties of non-metals and metals. They are semi-conductors
and so, they do not conduct electricity as well as metals do, but better than nonmetals. Some examples are silicon and germanium. They are modified to become
transistors, allowing the use of electronic devices and are responsible for solidstate electronics rapid growth.

5.5 Halogens
Halogens are found in group VII of the Periodic Table. The name is derived from
the two Greek words, halas and gennau, which means salt and generate
respectively. Fluorine from this group is highly reactive, being able to form bonds
with noble gases. However, it is less reactive as you go down the group.

5.6 Noble Gases

Noble gases were once thought to be inert gas, which means that they show no
sign of any chemical reactivity. However, it was found that some noble gases like
Xenon have some chemical reactivity with highly reactive elements like Fluorine.
This term, Noble doesnt restrict to only gases. Gold is commonly referred to as
a Noble metal due to its limited reactivity with other elements.

5.7 Transition metals

Transition metals are just the block of elements found in the middle of the
Periodic Table, with no group numbers. They are metals and thus have all the
qualities that a metal should possess i.e. ductility and malleability.

5.8 Ion charges

Aside for the ability for us to recognise the properties of the elements, the
Periodic Table allows us to determine the charges of an element so that we can
know the charges of a polyatomic compound and help us write chemical
equations.
The alkaline metals have a +1 charge when it becomes an ion, a.k.a. it loses one
electron. The halogens have a -1 charge when it becomes an ion a.k.a it gains an
electron. This is why when alkaline metals and halogens form an ionic bond; it is
always in the ratio of 1:1.
The alkaline earth metals would then have a +2 charge when it becomes an ion
and so on and so forth.
Group III elements would have a +3 charge when it becomes an ion
Group IV elements will have a -4 charge when it becomes an ion
Group V elements will have a -3 charge when it becomes an ion
Group IV elements will have a -2 charge when it becomes an ion
A few examples:
NaCl
SiO2
H2O2
You would realise that its either the positive charges and negative charges cancel
each other out or that the amount of electrons will be 8, allowing the compound
to obtain a stable duplet (for the case of hydrogen molecules, and monatomic
helium) or a stable octet configuration.

For transition elements, there is no pattern for us to recognise the charges. Below
will list some common charges transition metals when they are ions and some
compounds associated with transition elements.
Iron (II), Iron (III)
Zinc
Copper
Chromium (II), Chromium (III)
Silver
Barium
Potassium Dichromate
Permanganate ion

Fe2+, Fe3+
Zn2+
Cu+, Cu2+
Cr2+, Cr3+
Ag+
Barium2+
K2Cr2O7
MnO4-

Some transition elements will have a Roman numeral behind its name, like
Chromium (II). This shows that Chromium has a charge of +3.

Credits
O-Level Chemistry Guide by Bob Ryan
Chemistry Matter and its Changes, Brady, Senese
Secondary 2 Chemistry Notes