CHILD ABUSE

INTRODUCTION
Abuse against children is symptom that cause various reactions from each of the community
each time the matter was raised in the media or any times a child victim. People's reactions will
continue for a while, or until the news shows the legislation has been sentenced offender
or no longer available and such news appear the mass media. Society will become more sensitive
or less sensitive depending on the role and perception of each individual case that occurred.
Abuse occurs because the abuser is more powerful and physically energetic and mentally more
powerful and psychology of the abused. Because the offender is energetic, more powerful and
more capable, some of them feel entitled to do as they please toward the weaker.
Whether intentionally or unintentionally, they take advantage of differences in physical
and mental strength to punish and torture of the body and the mental. They do not reflect or take
into account the rights of a person people as enshrined in Article (5) Declaration on the Rights
People who say No one deserves to be tortured or subjected to no inhuman or dropped her honor
... (No one shall be subjected to torture or to Cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or
punishment).(United Nations 1948)
In this situation the more frequently a victims consist of children. Even more
heartbreaking is this child was abused by those who should protect them. Abusers are family
members own. Child Abuse were divided into four. The main types of abuse, namely physical
abuse,

torture

sexual

abuse

because

they

neglected

the

care

and

in

the

emotional abuse (Malaysia 1991).

The

three

types

of

abuse

are

already

included

Child Protection Act 1991 which formulated (Malaysia, 1991).All forms of abuse, both physical,
sexual or neglect of care, cannot be separated from the aspect of emotional abuse. Actually, the
primary emotional abuse also occur in isolation. Emotional abuse occurs in the any kind of
abuse. When emotional abuse occur together with other abuse, the effects of emotional abuse
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is actually a far more serious, deep and prolonged compared with the effects of physical abuse on
the body. Most doctors do not recognize aspects of treating emotional abuse, and only emphasize
the treatment of physical injury is evident. Conditions also occur in children and adolescents who
are abused sexually and neglect their care.

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Definition of Child Abuse

WAITING scar appearance may be too late to save our children. Over the past two decades
various attempts around the world to prevent the increasing incidents of child abuse.
In Malaysia, the statistics of the Social Welfare Department (JKM) in 2008 show an increase of
cases of child abuse in our country. Therefore Children's Fund United Nations Organization
(Unicef) last year launched a campaign 'Get on board' to educate and enlighten the public on
child abuse issues.For most people the term 'child abuse' leads to poor children with a body full
of scars due to physical or sexual abuse. But we are each working day dealing with a child sees
emotional abuse, psychological or omitted to be affected 'damage' is equally as physical abuse the

result

of

the

failure

of

parents

to

fulfill

their

obligations.

UNICEF Representative in Malaysia, Hans Olgen urged the community to understand the
definition of the term child abuse in a broader scope. This aspect is very important to really
understand. If we only consider child abuse involves only physical and sexual abuse alone, there
are many abuses of this little human that we will be overlooked. (Dr Zarazuela Zolkipli, 2012)
Child abuse is the bad treatment of a child under the age of 18 by a parent, caretaker, someone
living in their home or someone who works with or around children. Abuse of a child is anything
that causes injury or puts the child in danger of physical injury. Child abuse can be physical
(such as burns or broken bones), sexual (such as touching of private parts or incest), or emotional
(such as belittling or calling the child names). Neglect happens when a parent or responsible
caretaker fails to provide adequate supervision, food, clothing, shelter or other basics for a child.
Child abuse is any action (or lack of) which endangers or impairs a childs physical, mental or
emotional health and development. Child abuse occurs in different ways. All forms of abuse and
neglect are harmful to the child.

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Child abuse may be:

Physical
Emotional
Sexual
Neglect

- hitting, shaking, burns, human bites, strangulation.

- constant disapproval, belittling, constant teasing.
- fondling, the showing of private parts by an adult, sexual intercourse,
oral and anal sex, forcing a child to watch while others have sexual
intercourse, incest, pornography.
- absence of adequate food, shelter, emotional and physical security, and
medical care.

Physical abuse is any physical injury to a child that is not accidental. Physical abuse involves
physical harm or injury to the child. It may be the result of a deliberate attempt to hurt the child,
but not always. It can also result from severe discipline, such as using a belt on a child, or
physical punishment that is inappropriate to the childs age or physical condition.
Many physically abusive parents and caregivers insist that their actions are simply forms of
disciplineways to make children learn to behave. But there is a big difference between using
physical punishment to discipline and physical abuse. The point of disciplining children is to
teach them right from wrong, not to make them live in fear.( Rutter M. 1971:pp.233)
Sexual abuse is when the child is involved in any sexual activity with an adult or another child
who is either older or more powerful. Child sexual abuse is an especially complicated form of
abuse because of its layers of guilt and shame. It's important to recognize that sexual abuse
doesn't always involve body contact. Exposing a child to sexual situations or material is sexually
abusive, whether or not touching is involved.(Kasmini K. & Sham K. 1995:pp.793)
While news stories of sexual predators are scary, what is even more frightening is that sexual
abuse usually occurs at the hands of someone the child knows and should be able to trustmost
often close relatives. And contrary to what many believe, its not just girls who are at risk. Boys
and girls both suffer from sexual abuse. In fact, sexual abuse of boys may be underreported due
to shame and stigma.

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Child neglect
Child neglecta very common type of child abuseis a pattern of failing to provide for a
child's basic needs, whether it be adequate food, clothing, hygiene, or supervision. Child neglect
is not always easy to spot. Sometimes, a parent might become physically or mentally unable to
care for a child, such as with a serious injury, untreated depression, or anxiety. Other times,
alcohol or drug abuse may seriously impair judgment and the ability to keep a child safe.
(Kasmini K. & Sham K. 1995b:pp.799)
Older children might not show outward signs of neglect, becoming used to presenting a
competent face to the outside world, and even taking on the role of the parent. But at the end of
the day, neglected children are not getting their physical and emotional needs met.
Psychological or Emotional child abuse is also sometimes termed verbal child abuse or mental
injury of a child.
Surprisingly, psychological or emotional abuse of a child can have more long-lasting negative
psychiatric effects than either physical abuse or sexual abuse. Learn about the types and
symptoms of psychological abuse.
Psychological abuse is a pattern of intentional verbal or behavioral actions or lack of actions that
convey to a child the message that he or she is worthless, flawed, unloved, unwanted,
endangered, or only of value to meet someone else's needs. Withholding emotional support,
isolation, or terrorizing a child are forms of psychological abuse. Domestic violence that is
witnessed by a child is also considered a form of psychological abuse.(Rosenberg M.S.
1987:pp.166.)
Psychological abuse is often divided into eight categories defined as such (Plutchik R.
1980:pp.96)

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Rejection: to reject a child, to push him away, to make him feel that he is useless or worthless, to
undermine the value of his ideas or feelings, to refuse to help him.
Scorn: to demean the child, to ridicule him, to humiliate him, to cause him to be ashamed, to
criticize the child, to insult him.
Terrorism: to threaten a child or someone who is dear to him with physical violence,
abandonment or death, to threaten to destroy the child's possessions, to place him in chaotic or
dangerous situations, to define strict and unreasonable expectations and to threaten him with
punishment if he does not comply.
Isolation: to physically or socially isolate a child, to limit his opportunities to socialize with
others.
Corruption or exploitation: to tolerate or encourage inappropriate or deviant behavior, to expose
the child to antisocial role-models, to consider the child as a servant, to encourage him or coerce
him to participate in sexual activities.
The absence of emotional response: to show oneself as inattentive or indifferent towards the
child, to ignore his emotional needs, to avoid visual contact, kisses or verbal communication
with him, to never congratulate him.
Neglect: to ignore the health or educational needs of the child, to refuse or to neglect to apply the
required treatment.
Exposure to domestic violence: to expose a child to violent words and acts between his parents.
The behavior of an emotionally abusive parent or caregiver does not support a child's healthy
development and well-being-instead, it creates an environment of fear, hostility, or anxiety. A
child is sensitive to the feeling, opinions, and actions of his or her parents. Emotionally harmful
attitudes may include the following:

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Warning signs of child abuse and neglect

The earlier child abuse is caught, the better the chance of recovery and appropriate treatment for
the child. Child abuse is not always obvious. By learning some of the common warning signs of
child abuse and neglect, you can catch the problem as early as possible and get both the child and
the abuser the help that they need.
Of course, just because you see a warning sign doesnt automatically mean a child is being
abused. Its important to dig deeper, looking for a pattern of abusive behavior and warning signs,
if you notice something off.
Warning Sign for abuse as per below (Kasmini K., Y. C. Cheah, S. M. Amin & R. Rosdinon.
1994:pp.32-46):
1.Warning signs of emotional abuse in children

Excessively withdrawn, fearful, or anxious about doing something wrong.

Shows extremes in behavior (extremely compliant or extremely demanding; extremely

passive or extremely aggressive).

Doesnt seem to be attached to the parent or caregiver.

Acts either inappropriately adult (taking care of other children) or inappropriately

infantile (rocking, thumb-sucking, tantruming).

2.Warning signs of physical abuse in children

Frequent injuries or unexplained bruises, welts, or cuts.

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Is always watchful and on alert, as if waiting for something bad to happen.

Injuries appear to have a pattern such as marks from a hand or belt.

Shies away from touch, flinches at sudden movements, or seems afraid to go home.

Wears inappropriate clothing to cover up injuries, such as long-sleeved shirts on hot days.

3.Warning signs of neglect in children

Clothes are ill-fitting, filthy, or inappropriate for the weather.

Hygiene is consistently bad (unbathed, matted and unwashed hair, noticeable body odor).

Untreated illnesses and physical injuries.

Is frequently unsupervised or left alone or allowed to play in unsafe situations and

environments.

Is frequently late or missing from school.

4.Warning signs of sexual abuse in children

Trouble walking or sitting.

Displays knowledge or interest in sexual acts inappropriate to his or her age, or even
seductive behavior.

Makes strong efforts to avoid a specific person, without an obvious reason.

Doesnt want to change clothes in front of others or participate in physical activities.

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An STD or pregnancy, especially under the age of 14.

Runs away from home.

MHYTHS AND FACT ABOUT CHILD ABUSE AND NEGLECT ( Belsky, J.1980:pp.320325)
MYTH #1: It's only abuse if it's violent.
Fact: Physical abuse is just one type of child abuse. Neglect and emotional abuse can be just as
damaging, and since they are more subtle, others are less likely to intervene.
MYTH #2: Only bad people abuse their children.
Fact: While it's easy to say that only "bad people" abuse their children, it's not always so black
and white. Not all abusers are intentionally harming their children. Many have been victims of
abuse themselves, and dont know any other way to parent. Others may be struggling with
mental health issues or a substance abuse problem.
MYTH #3: Child abuse doesn't happen in good families.
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Fact: Child abuse doesn't only happen in poor families or bad neighborhoods. It crosses all
racial, economic, and cultural lines. Sometimes, families who seem to have it all from the outside
are hiding a different story behind closed doors.
MYTH #4: Most child abusers are strangers.
Fact: While abuse by strangers does happen, most abusers are family members or others close to
the family.
MYTH #5: Abused children always grow up to be abusers.
Fact: It is true that abused children are more likely to repeat the cycle as adults, unconsciously
repeating what they experienced as children. On the other hand, many adult survivors of child
abuse have a strong motivation to protect their children against what they went through and
become excellent parents

FACTOR TO CONTRIBUTE CHILD ABUSE

Abusive Parents
Although the family is typically a source of security and protection for the young child,
sometimes it can be just the opposite. Child abuse is a tragic reality of some households, and it is
a problem that may be growing (Wolfe, 1987:pp.88).
Abuse and neglect have major developmental consequences for growing children. By 1
year of age, maltreated infants tend to lag in both social and cognitive development (Lyons-Ruth,
Connell, & Zoll,1989:pp.137), and these problems typically continue into childhood and
adolescence. Many developmental researchers have come to believe that these deficits result
from the lack of a secure attachment relationship with the mother. As a result, a great deal of
recent research has focused on the attachment process in infants who have been abused or are at
risk for abuse ( Cicchetti & Carlson, 1989:pp.113)

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Sensitive and responsive caregiving growing out of mutual infant-caregiver regulation,
we have seen, is thought to provide the basic for secure attachment. But, as also noted, many
abusive mothers fail to develop a smooth and effective communication system with their infants.
Although babies will become attached even to mother whose quality of caregiving is poor, the
quality of the attachment relationship suffers. Perhaps for this reason, the anxious attachment
patterns occur more frequently among maltreated infants (Aber & Allen, 1987;pp.46-50)
Some mothers maltreat their infants in ways that involved physical punishment, active
hostility, and instrusiveness into the babys world. Rather that synchronizing their behavior with
that of the child, they often insentively forge ahead with whatever they are doing (such as
feeding a baby before she is hungry), focusing more on their own need than those of the infant.
This caregiving style has been referred to as overstimulating and has been linked to physical
abuse, such as beating and battering, and to the anxious-avoidant pattern of attachment ( pattern
A). In contrast, the insensitive care of some mothers takes the form of withdrawal and
underinvolvement. The style, termed understimulation, has been associated with physical and
emotional neglect and appears to be a cause of the anxious-ambivalent pattern of attachment
(pattern C) (Belsky et al.,1984;pp.320-325).
In addition to Ainsworths three original patterns, maltreated infants have been found to
display several others. For instance, there are babies who, when observed in the Strange
Situation, display not only avoidance of their mothers during reunions but also crying, decreased
exploration, and resistance to the mother overtures for contact. These infants have been
characterized as pattern A-C babies ( Spieker & Booth, 1988:pp.156-157). By contrast, some
babies cannot be classified into the original three catagories because they fail to display any
coherent pattern of reaction to the Strange Situation. These infants frequently display elements of
each category, sometimes accompanied by bizarre responses like freezing, assuming unusual
posture or expressions, and making interrupted or mistimed movement. Such behaviors have led
these babies to be classified as disorganized and disoriented, or pattern D, infants (Main &
Solomon, 1986:pp.98). Both of these pattern predict problems for the childs development,
especially in pattern D infants, who are at risk for developing aggression and antisocial behavior
problems (Lyons-Ruth, Alpern, & Repacholi, 1993:pp.72.)
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Psychological Factor In Child Abuse

Personal psychological factors in parents can play a significant role in the risk of abuse.
However, these factors usually relate to the stressors that parents might experience. Stress can
arise from many sources, not the least of which is the task of parenting itself. It is a permanent
status that at times can seem overwhelming, particularly for persons with inadequate support
networks. Some children with special needs require additional care that heightens caregiving
stress.
Not all babies are equally easy-going, and those that seem more prone to crying can lead
parents to question their skills. Stress is increased when one is a single parent, has lower income
or is unemployed, is ill, or experiences conflict with a romantic partner. Furthermore,
environmental stressors such as the family ideal, work, finances, and even health issues can
cause a large amount of stress.
The use of alcohol or drugs reduces inhibitions and heightens the abusers' awareness of
personal insecurities. Both alcohol and drugs can, through aggravating stress and impairing
judgment, cause an abuser to verbally or physically attack a child for some perceived wrong. If
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an individual is a victim of prior abuse, he or she is more likely to become an abuser, too,
although the individual is not destined to be abusive. Estimates are that 30 percent of abused
children will grow up to be abusers, in contrast to 3 percent of persons who were not abused.
Low self-esteem and feelings of inadequacy have also been linked to a greater tendency to abuse
when compared with persons with higher levels of self-esteem. After prolonged exposure to
negative opinions, an individual may become violent as a way of venting the built-up pressure
and anxiety caused by low self-esteem. (Breiner, S.J.,1990:pp.123-129)

Environmental Factors in Child Abuse

Stress. Unemployment, financial problems, being a single parent, being a teenage mother and
sexual difficulties are all factors that are related to child maltreatment, as are a host of other
stressor events (Burrell, Thompson and Sexton, 1994:pp.39-49).
Social isolation and social support. The data on social isolation are somewhat less
consistent than are the data for the previously listed risk factors. First, because so much of the
research on child abuse and neglect is cross-sectional, it is not clear whether social isolation
precedes maltreatment or is a consequence of it. Second, social isolation has been crudely
measured and the purported correlation may be more anecdotal than statistical. Nevertheless,
researchers often agree that parents who are socially isolated from important sources of social
support are more likely to maltreat their children. (Wolfe and St. Pierre, 1989:pp.377.) Part of the
explanation for the correlation between social isolation and child maltreatment may be the poor
social skills of the caregivers (Azar, Povilaitis, Lauretti and Pouquette, 1998 pp.30).

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Social support appears to be an important protective factor. One major source of social
support is the availability of friends and family for help, aid and assistance. The more a family is
integrated into the community and the more groups and associations they belong to, the less
likely they are to be violent (Straus et al., 1980:pp.55).
The intergenerational transmission of violence. The notion that abused children grow up
to be abusing parents and violent adults has been widely expressed in the child abuse and family
violence literature (Gelles, 1980:pp.73). Kaufman and Zigler (1987:pp.186-188) reviewed the
literature that tested the hypothesis of intergenerational transmission of violence toward children
and concluded that the best estimate of the rate of intergenerational transmission appears to be
30% (plus or minus 5%). Although a rate of 30% is substantially less than the majority of abused
children, the rate is considerably more than the 2-4% rate of abuse found in the general
population (Widom 1989:pp.160). Egeland and his colleagues (Egeland, Jacobvitz and Papatola,
1987:pp.255) examined continuity and discontinuity of abuse in a longitudinal study of high-risk
mothers and their children. They found that mothers who had been abused as children were less
likely to abuse their own children if they had emotionally supportive parents, partners or friends.
In addition, the abused mothers who did not abuse their children were described as "middle
class" and "upwardly mobile," suggesting that they were able to draw on economic resources that
may not have been available to the abused mothers who did abuse their children.
Evidence from studies of parental violence indicates that although experiencing violence
in one's family of origin is often correlated with later violent behavior, such experience is not the
sole determining factor. When the intergenerational transmission of violence occurs, it is likely
the result of a complex set of social and psychological process.

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Statistic: Child Abuse and Incest In Malaysia

(As Reported To the Malaysian Royal Police)
Child Abuse

Incest

Year

Total

Average
Month

Total

Average
Month

2001

150

12.5

246

21

2002

123

10

306

26

2003

119

10

254

21

2004

148

12

335

28

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2005

189

16

295

25

2006

108

18

209

35

Total

873

1,645

Source: Ministry Of Woman, Family and Community Development(UNICEF

2012)

INCIDENCE OF CHILD ABUSE AND NEGLECT (UNICEF 2012)

Statistic of the Malaysian Royal Police (PDRM) show that child abuse, molestation and
rape are on the increase, from 2,236 cases in 2005 to 5,744 in 2008. For the first seven
months of 2009, 2,193 cases were reported to PDRM.

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The difficulties of definition and the covert nature of child abuse (especially abuse in the
privacy of the home involving family members) make it extremely difficult to make
accurate assessments of the incidence of child abuse and neglect

This is compounded by the absence of proper institutional mechanisms for monitoring

and managing such cases in Malaysia

Cases reported to an officially recorded by the Social Welfare Department are normally
the more severe instances and are estimates to represent only about 10% of the actual
incidence in Malaysia. (Social Welfare Department 1995)

Cumulatively, Selangor followed by Federal Territory, Pulau Pinang and Johor Bharu
have the highest number of reported cases of child abuse between the periods of 2001 to
2006. This may however be an indication of higher levels of public awareness in these
states.

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Socio-Economic Environment for Child Abuse and Neglect

The generally accepted cause for child abuse and neglect to occur include: severe
emotional pressures, pressures arising from poverty, marital relationship problem, poor
housing conditions, negative employment situations, drug abuse, absence of supportive
extended family members, fanatical religious or superstitious beliefs.

Statistics suggest that there is a correlation between child abuse, neglect and poverty in
Malaysia. Parents who have to struggle to make a living in negative employment
situations often hold more than one job and have little time to supervise their children.

In addition, living in crowded and unhealthy condition is very stressful and mental health
problems occur, which are manifested in marital conflicts, alcoholism and drug abuse.
These marginalized families are also less likely to have access to social and recreational
facilities and services such as counseling and family support.

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Available child minding services are unsupervised and of questionable standards, posing
the risk of abuse by child minders.

Abuse and neglect of children also takes place in affluent families. These involve adults
with emotional problems who lack parental skills or have low levels of tolerance and
unrealistic expectations of the children they abuse.

Nevertheless, it is important to recognize that irrespective of income, children become the

target of abuse because they are the most vulnerable members in the family hierarchy.

A factor which can be linked to increase of child abuse and neglect is the lack of avenues
for children to articulate their grievances against adults who abuse and neglect them.

The cultural and social environment which instills the value of unquestioned obedience to
adults suggests to children that even in cases of abuse and neglect, they are expected to
submit to the adult perpetrator and keep silent.

Also, factors like the hierarchal structure of a family, with the parents or guardian having
the final say in matters concerning the care and upbringing of child, can thwart the
attempts of child to draw attention to abuse and neglect.
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The child is not fully aware that it is wrong for an adult to abuse and neglect his or her
body. As a result the children suffer in silence.

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References:

1) Azar, S. T., T. Y. Povilaitis, A. F. Lauretti, and C. L. Pouquette. "The current status of

etiological theories in intrafamilial child maltreatment." In J. R. Lutzker, eds. Handbook
of Child Abuse Research and Treatment. New York: Plenum Press, 1998, pp. 30.
2) Aber , J. L, & Allen, J. P. (1987). Effect s of malthreatment on young childrens
socioemotional development: An attachment theory perspective. Developmental
Psychology .pp. 46-50.
3) Breiner, S.J. (1990). Slaugther of the innocent: Child Abuse through the ages. New
York:Wiley,pp. 123-129.
4) Burrell, B., Thompson, B., and D. Sexton. "Predicting and child abuse potential across
family types." Child Abuse & Neglect 18 (1994): pp. 39-49.
5) Belsky, J. (1980). Child maltreatment: An ecological intergaration. American
psychologist.pp.320-325
6) Belsky, J., & Rovine, M., & Taylor, D. G. (1984). The Pennsylvania Infant and Family
Development Project, III. The origins of individual differences in infant-mother
attachment: Maternal and infant contributions. Child Development.pp. 71.
7) Cicchetti, D., & Carlson, V. (Eds.). (1989). Child maltreatment: Theory and research on
the causes and consequences of child abuse and neglect. New York: Cambridge
University Press.pp.113.
8) Dr Zarazuela Zolkipli,2012,Minda: Penderaan bukan semata-mata lebam
http://www.hmetro.com.my/myMetro/articles/Minda_Penderaanbukansematamatalebam/Article/index_html

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9) Egeland, B., D. Jacobvitz, and K. Papatola. "Intergenerational continuity of abuse." In R.
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11) Kasmini K. & Sham K. 1995. Psychosocial aspects of 101 cases of child abuse seen in an
urban Malaysian setting. Child Abuse and Neglect,The International J. 19 (7): 793-799.
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Schizophrenic Parents. Mal. J. of Psychiatry 2 (2):pp. 32-46.
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Journal of Orthopsychiatry 57 (1987):pp. 186-188.
14) Lyons-Ruth, K., Alpern, L., & Repacholi, B. (1993). Disorganized infant attachment
classification and maternal psychosocial problems as predictors of hostile-aggressive
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infants at risk for abuse: Relations with infant attachment behavior and infant
development at 12 months af age. In D. Cicchetti & V. Carlson (Eds.), Child
maltreatment: Theory and research on the causes and consequences of child abuse and
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16) Main, M., & Solomon, J. (1986). Discovery of a disorganized/ disoriented attachment
pattern. In T. B. Brazelton & M. W. Yogman (Eds.), Affective development in infancy.
Norwood, NJ: Ablex.pp.98-107.
17) Malaysia. 1991. Akta Perlindungan Kanak-kanak Malaysia (Act 468).
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Psychol. Psychiatry.pp. 233.
20) Rosenberg M.S. 1987. New directions for research on the psychological maltreatment of
children. American Psychologist.pp.166-171.
21) Straus, M. A., R. J. Gelles, and S. K. Steinmetz. Behind Closed Doors: Violence in the
American Family. New York: Doubleday/Anchor, 1980.pp.55.
22) Spieker, S. J., & Booth, C. L. (1988). Maternal antecedents of attachment quality. In J.
Belsky & T. Nezworski (Eds.), Clinical implications of attachment. Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum.pp.156-157.
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23) United Nation. 1948. General Assembly Resolution 217A (iii). Universal Declaration of
Human Rights.
24) UNICEF,Child protection and child abuse, (20/3/2012),
http://www.unicef.org/malaysia/Factsheet-Child-Protection-Child-Abuse-in-Malaysia.pdf
25) Widom, C. S. The Cycle of Violence. Science 244 (1989):pp. 160-166.
26) Wolfe, D. A., and St. Pierre, J. "Child abuse and neglect." In T. H. Ollendick and M.
Hersen, eds. Handbook of Child Psychotherapy. 2nd ed. New York: Plenum Press, 1989,
pp. 377.
27) Wolfe, D. A. (1987) . Child abuse: Implications for child development and
psychopathology. Newbury park, CA: Sage.pp.88-91.

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CHILD ABUSE

Child Abuse Effects

The cruelness and violences to the small kids are unacceptable. More cases on
televisions news reported childrens death because of being killed. Sadly, they are not only being
killed, but sexually abused and being tortured. Child abuses will effects children from 5 different
effects or more than that. Each abuse will normally cause more than one types.
Physical Abuse Effects
Who are the Perpetrators? Perpetrators can be parents,
grandparents, or step-partners, older brothers and sisters, uncles,
aunts, neighbours, teachers, childcare workers, babysitters or leaders
in organizations such as sporting clubs and churchesPhysical abuse
that is perpetrated by spouses or intimate partners is described in the
section on domestic violence. Some perpetrators have alcohol or
substance abuse problems. Some are caregivers for those they abuse.

Children who had been through the physical abuse may receive cancer. Science Daily (June 25,
2009) Childhood physical abuse is associated with elevated rates of cancer in adulthood,
according to a new study by University of Toronto researchers. The study shows those
individuals physically abused in childhood are more likely to develop cancer than those who
have not been abused. Childhood physical abuse is associated with 49 per cent higher odds of

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cancer in adulthood, says (Esme Fuller-Thomson of U of T's Factor-Inwentash Faculty of Social
Work and Department of Family and Community Medicine. )
Children may cause bruises or cuts for immediately physical effects, and many of them
also are likely have broken bones, haemorrhage, or even death. In some cases, the physical
injuries are temporary, but their pain and suffering should not be discounted. The short term can
be recovered in short time, but not the long term physical effects.

Impaired brain development:Here are three examples of long terms physical effects can
cause to the children. The first one is impaired brain development. These alterations in
brain maturation have long-term consequences for cognitive, language, and academic
abilities. (Watts-English, Fortson, e.t al, 2006p45 ).

Poor physical health: The second effects is poor physical health, a studies shown adults
who experienced abuse or neglect during childhood are more likely to suffer from
physical ailments such as allergies, arthritis, asthma, bronchitis, high blood pressure, and
ulcers. (Springer, Sheridan, Kuo, & Carnes, 2007 p87 ).

Shaken baby syndrome: Shaken babysyndromeis one ofserious injuryin infantsand

childrenandthey should not betaken lightlybyevery parent, guardian orcaregiver. Most of
thesyndromecasesshake

theinfantmadebyadultswhoare

plagued

withfeelings

of

angerandfrustrationon thechildren andshakethemwithout mercyandsympathy. An adult

needs tothinkand to showtheirconcernwhen they seea child crying in hours whether than
act

in

harmful.

Sexual Abuse Effects

Child sexual abuse is a form of child abuse in which a child is abused for the sexual
gratification of an adult or older adolescent. Child sexual abuse also occurs when an adult
indecently exposes their genitalia to a child, asks or pressures a child to engage in sexual
activities, displays pornography to a child, or uses a child to produce child pornography.

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Nightmare: Sexual abuse cause two terms of the effects, short term effects and long term
effects. The victims who were sexually abuse will find themselves as different and then
cause inner stress.

They dont really know what happen because the perpetrators

behaviours are abnormal and never had seen or experience before. Some more, the
uneasy feelings will appear and become a nightmare. A nightmaremay make them feel
scared, upset but nightmares are not real and can't harm the dreamer. However, the dream
may contain situations of danger, discomfort or physical terror. Sufferers usually awaken
in a state of distress and may be unable to return to sleep for a prolonged period of time.

Sleep disorder/ insomnia: Insomnia is the inability to get to sleep for hours, which
leaves children unrefreshed feeling and jaded. They might not sleep at all during the night
when get affected by insomnia. They will also has difficulty in concentrating and
irritability. Insomnia is commonly caused by emotional lifestyle and psychological
problems, which for the sexual abuse victims, psychotic illness cause by the unusual
perpetrators erotic behaviour. Its also cause changes in the sleep environment, by the
timing of sleep, severe depression, or by stress. Its consequences, sleepiness and impaired
psychomotor performance are similar to those of sleep deprivation. ( Huebner, D. 1996 p
15 )

Addiction/ Juvenile prosecution: Some victims had more than a time of sexual abuse,
which is the perpetrators did when they get chance. The repetitive sexual activities will
cause long term effects to the victims. Some of the children will get the chronic pain and
self-esteem issues, but somehow the abuse also can cause addiction to sexual activities to
some of them. Some of the children involve their self in juvenile prosecution activities
and these starts to increase the numbers of the prosecutors.

Suicidal thoughts: Suicidal thoughts, is one of the long term sexual abuses effects. It
also known as suicidal ideation are thoughts about how to kill oneself, which can range
from a detailed plan to a fleeting consideration and does not include the final act of
killing oneself. The majority of people who experience suicidal ideation do not carry it

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CHILD ABUSE
through. Some may, however, make suicide attempts. Some suicidal ideations can be
deliberately planned to fail or be discovered, while others might be carefully planned to
succeed.The fact thata study shown 113 suicide casesreported inMalaysiain the
periodfrom July to December2007,82weremaleand41were married. NSRM data
reportedsuicidemethodof

choiceamong

Malaysianswas

hanging,strangulation

and

suffocation and the studies also identify mood disorders, especially depression asthe most
frequent disorderof those whodiedbysuicide,from30 to70percent.(Bernama, Kuala
Lumpur, March 17, 2009 p 17 ).

Anxiety/panic :Anxiety is also the effects that can cause to thechildren by the sexual
abuse. The term anxiety is related to the fight or flight mechanism which
allowspeople to perform well in crisis, by producing adrenaline. However,

too much

adrenaline produce by the children suffer from anxiety will make them feel ill and
creating an increasing anxiety as they worry over their symptom. The panic attack can be
lead if this circle of anxiety is unbroken. The panic attack can create feeling of dizziness,
feeling of hot and cold, rapid heartbeat, shaking, sweating quickly to the victims. ( Csoti,
M., 2001 p 68 )

Depression: The sexual abuse victims especially child, need more attention and guidance
according to their age, they are still young and immature. They dont have enough
courage to tell to the parents their problems, yet they cant stop from thinking of it. They
will feel they are not a good person anymore, dont deserve to be happy and these entire
negative thinking bring to depression. Depression creates melancholy in reaction to a
specific event. For the examples, a child who got sexual abuse by a huge body perpetrator
will facing panic attack when they are get near to the huge body man look alike the
preparatory. It is important to stress that clinical depression is not solely feeling down,
they will has irrational feelings of worthlessness or guilt and may have preoccupations
with dying or suicide.(S. H Ian,2006 p 221-224)

Psychology & emotional abuse

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Poor relationships with peers and/or the opposite sex, increase number of

homosexual
As an example, when the daughter live in problematic family which is his father is a bad
tempered father, she always beaten by her father. When its always happen its always
happen to her, she will hate her father and when she grows up she will have a feeling that
all man have a same behavior like her father and she will afraid to have any relationship
with man. At the end, she will choose to have a relationship with a woman because she

think that a woman will treat her more soft compared to a man.
Aggressive behavior
In a study published in an upcoming issue of The Journal of Child Psychology and
Psychiatry researchers show that over reactive parenting, such as heavy criticism or
yelling as a response to a child's negative behavior, can produce higher levels of
aggression or rule-breaking in a child who is normally introverted, non-benevolent, nonconscientious, or imaginative.(ScienceDailyNov. 19, 2009 p 15)
Children who are extraverted, benevolent, conscientious, or not that imaginative
by nature are least adversely affected by this parental response.
The research (taken from 586 families) shows that rule-breaking and aggressive behavior
is influenced by the inherent personality traits of a child. The study also shows that
aggression-related behavior generally decreases as the children grow but on average the
rule-breaking behavior does not change, and both genders exhibit these behaviors
between the ages six to fifteen. When examining both personality and gender boys and
girls are not different affected by parenting methods.

Depressed & Low self-esteem

Psychology and emotional abuse also affect the child to being depressed. It
happen because, when they keep abusing by their parents of other sides, they will feel
that they are useless and the feeling of depression will come in themselves.
Adolescents and young adults with a history of childhood maltreatment were 3
times more likely to become depressed or suicidal compared with individuals without

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CHILD ABUSE
such a history. Adverse contextual factors, including family environment, parent and
child characteristics, accounted for much of the increased risk for depressive disorders
and suicide attempts in adolescence but not in adulthood
Over the past 20 years depression among adolescents has received recognition as
a serious psychiatric condition that warrants timely intervention (Peterson et al., 1993:
155), and many studies appear to confirm that anxiety that evident in social phobias,
obsessive-compulsive disorder and post traumatic stress can be reduced with cognitivebehavior therapy on its own or in combination with humanistic approaches.
Research on the continuum from low self-esteem to depressive and suicidal
thoughts has revealed some helpful insight on the aetiology and management of stress.
From an evolutionary point of view, response to stress to fight or flight has been a
advantage on coping with the demands of the primitive environment (Gregson and
Looker, 1994). When a under stress, three stress chemicals come into play. As with a
cornered animals under attack, human beings may fight using anger in order to survive,
and this highly-charged states causes increased levels of noradrenaline and adrenaline.
Symptoms of high stress or depression include increased heartbeat, palpitations,
shallow breathing, a dry mouth, heartburn, queasy stomach, diarrhea, constipation,
muscular tension in the neck and shoulders, aches, pains, cramps, hyperactivity, fingerdrumming, foot-tapping, nail-biting, trembling hands, fatigue, exhaustion, disturbed sleep
patterns, feeling faint or dizzy, and sweatiness. (King R.A. 2006)

Neglect effect

Aggressive behavior

Early child neglect may be as important as child abuse for predicting aggressive
behaviour, researchers say. Neglect accounts for nearly two-thirds of all child maltreatment

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CHILD ABUSE
cases reported in the United States each year, according to the Administration for Children
and Families.
"The lack of attention devoted to the problem of neglect -- the so-called 'neglect of neglect' -is a long-standing concern in the child welfare field," said study co-author Jon Hussey,
research assistant professor of maternal and child health in the UNC School of Public Health
and a fellow at the Carolina Population Center. "Despite being more common than abuse, we
know relatively little about the impact of neglect on children."
More than 1,300 children from four cities and one Southern state are participating in the
longitudinal study, which is coordinated by the UNC Injury Prevention Research Center
(IPRC). All were known to have been maltreated or were at risk of maltreatment. They were
monitored from birth through age 8. A child was considered neglected if his parents or
caregivers did not provide adequate supervision or failed to meet the child's minimum
physical needs for food, clothing and shelter. Abuse was defined as either sexual or physical.
Aggression -- arguing, cruelty to others, destruction of property, disobedience, threatening
people and fighting or physically attacking others -- was based on perceptions of the child's
primary caregiver, who was interviewed when the child was aged 4, 6 and 8.
"This isn't the first time we've seen evidence suggesting that in some circumstances, neglect
can be as harmful to children as abuse," said Hussey, who published a study in Pediatrics in
2006, linking neglect to teenage violence, depression and drug use. "Understanding the
consequences of early childhood neglect will help us plan programs and other interventions
to benefit these children throughout their lives.( Barkley, R.A, Mc Murray, e.t al, 1989)

poor school performance

The present study examines the effect of childneglect, alone and in combination with

abuse, on academic achievement and school disciplinary problems for elementary, junior
high, and senior high students. The sample included 324 neglected children and adolescents,
and a matched nonmaltreated sample of 420children and adolescents. All subjects were in
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CHILD ABUSE
grades K through 12 in a small city in New York state. The results revealed that
neglected children did perform more poorly than their nonmaltreated counterparts, having
lower grades, more suspensions, more disciplinary referrals, and more grade repetitions, even
when controlling for gender of child and SES. Neglect alone and neglect in combination with
physical or sexual abuse was related to lower grades and more suspensions. The combination
of abuse and neglect had a particularly strong effect on the number of disciplinary referrals
and grade repetitions. Abused/neglected students in junior high had the highest number of
grade repetitions. The number of disciplinary referrals continued to increase through senior
high

for

both

neglected

and

abused/neglected

students.

Interestingly,

the

academic performance of all subjects dropped during junior high. Neglect and neglect in
combination with abuse appeared to exacerbate a decline in academic performance that
occurs as children enter junior high school.
Studies of the impact of abuse or neglect on children have focused largely on maltreated
infants, toddlers, or preschool children. In this study a total of 139 school-age and
adolescent children participated in a multi-model, multi-source assessment; 22 of
the children had been physically abused, 47 had been neglected, and the remainder served as
comparison

subjects.

Parent

and child interviews,

teacher

ratings,

and

data

from school records were used to comprehensively assess children's schoolperformance;

social and emotional development in school, at home, in the community, and with peers; and
adaptive behavior in areas such as motor skills, personal care skills, and community
orientation. With the effects of socioeconomic status covaried out, results showed that the
abused children displayed pervasive and severe academic and socioemotional problems.
Neglected children differed little from children who were neither abused nor neglected on
measures of socioemotional development, but they displayed severe academic delays. Both
groups of maltreated children showed unexpected strengths on measures of adaptive
behavior.( Eckenrode, John e.t al, Jan 1993)

illness left untreated

In a rural area of western Kenya, primary schoolchildren's health seeking behaviour in

response to commonillnesses was investigated. 57 primary schoolchildren (age 1117 years,

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CHILD ABUSE
median 13 years) were interviewed weekly about their health status and health seeking
activities for 30 weeks.
The children each experienced on average 25 illness episodes during this period. Most
episodes could be categorised into 4 groups: cold, headache, abdominal complaints and
injuries. One fifth (21%) of theillness episodes were serious enough to keep
the children from school. In 28% of them, an adult was consulted, while 72% were not
reported to an adult caretaker. Of the episodes without adult involvement, 81%
remained untreated, while 19% were treated by the children themselves with either herbal or
Western medicines. Of all the medicines taken by the children, two thirds were provided or
facilitated by adults (assisted treatment) and one third taken by the children themselves
without adult involvement (self-treatment).
Among boys, the proportion of illnesses, which were self-treated increased with age from
12% in the youngest age group (<13 years) to 34% in the oldest (>14 years). In girls, the
proportion of illnesses which were self-treated was consistently lower than among boys and
remained constant around 9% for all age groups.
The proportion of Western pharmaceuticals used for self-treatment increased with age
from 44% in the youngest age group to 63% in the oldest (average 52% Western
pharmaceuticals). Again, there were differences between boys and girls: among the youngest
age group, boys were twice as likely to use pharmaceuticals than girls (62 versus 32% of the
self-treatments, respectively) and in the oldest age group they were nearly three times more
likely (75 versus 25%, respectively). These differences in self-treatment practices and choice
of medicines between girls and boys may reflect the higher income potential of boys, who
can earn money by fishing.
Pharmaceuticals were generally preferred for the treatment of headache and fevers, or
colds, while herbal remedies were the preferred choice for the treatment of abdominal
complaints and wounds. The most commonly used pharmaceuticals were antimalarials
(mainly chloroquine), painkillers and antipyretics (mainly aspirin and paracetamol), which
were stocked in most small shops in the village at low prices and readily sold to children
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Throughout primary school age Kenyan children are growing into a pluralistic medical
practice, integrating Western pharmaceuticals into the local herbal medical system, and
gradually become autonomous agents in their health care..( Barbor and Piller, 1987)

References :
1) Brown J. (December 2001) Childhood Abuse and Neglect : Specific of Effects on
Adolescent and Young Adult Depression and Suicidality, Journal of the American
Academy of Child &Adolscent Psychiatry, 38,12, p 1490-1496
2) Barkley , R.A., McMurray, e.t al The response of aggressive children. Journal of
the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, p 873-881.

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CHILD ABUSE
3) Barbor and PillerReport on The Medical Aspects of Child Abuse. The Chilrens
Research Fund, Liverpool, 1987 p 3.
4) Csoti, M. School Phobia, Panic Attacks and Anxiety in Children. Kingsley
Publisher, London 2001 p 68
5) Eckenrode, John e.t al, School Performance and Disciplinary Problems Among
Abused and Neglected Children, Jan 1993, 29,1, 53-62.
6) Esme Fuller-Thomson of U of T's Factor-Inwentash Faculty of Social Work and
Department of Family and Community Medicine.
7) Huebner, D. What to Do When You Worry Too Much : A Kid,s Guide to
Overcoming Anxiety, Magination Press Washington, D.C ( 2006, p 144)
8) Nightmare : http://kidshealth.org/kid/feeling/thought/nightmares.html
9) Sciences Daily, June 25, 2009 Pgs. 35.
10) Springer, Sheridan, e.t al,Poor Physical Health, United Kingdom 2007
11) Suicidal Statistic In Malaysia : Bernama, Kuala Lumpur, March 17, 2009 pg. 10
12) S. H Ian, The Psychology of Ageing (An Introduction 4thEdition ), Jessica
Kingsley Publishers, London &Philadephia, 2006, pg 221, 224.
13) Social science : (3/3/2012),
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277953699004281
14) Watts-English, Fortson, e.t al Impaired Brain Development, United States 2006.

Ways to prevent child abuse

1.Counseling
- A teachers should be given a guide and practice to identify troubled children. Counseling is one
of the way that should be started at the school levels and did not focus to the career building only
but it should consider the emotion healths too. The introduction of counseling at the school can
be used as a first step to identify and provide a place for the children to complain. In order to be a
effective counselor, one need a deep and wide knowledge about the human growth and
developments. They need to be trained and join a courses to develop their skills. In United States
and Canada, a counseling center established to helps to those abusing their children. This service
available all the time which the parents can make a call when they need a solution.

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Apart from that, classes must be conducted to teach the newly married couples that plan to get a
son soon. This is to ensure that they can raise and take care their children well. Prevention from
abusing should be the main topic that they will discuss in the class. This is the must that they
need to do if they want to build a happy family.(Lucinda Almond,2006.pp.96)
2.Public
aware
- The human awareness about the child abuse can be cultivated through the anti-torture campaign
series. In Sweden, this program introduced to help changing public point about the childrens
which the Sweden Government use the anti strike laws as a way to educate and rising awareness
among the public. The campaign is practicable with so many ways and depends on the suitability.
(Khadijah Alavi & Ann Wan Seng, 2003.pp.107.)
Other than that, any cases related to child abuse should be reported to the authorities such as
police. This case usually happens in home, so neighbour plays an important roles to prevent the
abusing. In some situations, it occurs anywhere, it might be a child being neglected and leaved at
the street or chased from the home. So public should help those who being the victim by send
them to any welfare centre or reporting it to the police. (Khadijah Alavi & Ann Wan Seng,
2003b.pp.110)

3.Fund donation from the NGO

- A donation from the Non Government Organization or NGO also must be held as an alternative
ways to reduce the financial and poverty problem faced by the homeless families. The welfare
and social services is to prevent and provide support to poor families so that they do not live in
destitute which may bring many social problems such as child abuse. In Western countries, the
financial assistance provided by the government, but due to rapid economic growth in our
country, the responsibility can be taken by the big and profitable firms.
The donation also can be used to build a home for the neglected childs and provide them with the
equipments. (Khadijah Alavi & Ann Wan Seng, 2003c.pp.111)

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4.Mass media role

-Mass media should be aware and strives to expose the problem to the public. It can be the most
effective links and have a big influence if they can publish and highlight more information that
includes positive message that can rise awareness to the public. This can be done in so may ways
such as via the internet,television,radio ,magazine or newspaper. This is also the fastest ways to
spread the information and explain further about the topic. People can gain information about the
child abuse if they read, watching ,listening or surfing the internet, all of this can plant a
awareness among them and develop a feeling to prevent the abusing from happens. (Khadijah
Alavi & Ann Wan Seng, 2003d.pp.115)

5. Prevention by the law

- Prevention and protection by the law is the best way to use punishing the abusers. This is
because the abusers will get the capital punishment that determined by the court. This also is the
best way to scary people so that they will not doing harassmen to child. Unfortunately,many of
the cases not referred to court because there is no evidence and witnesses. In Malaysia, there is
act that introduced by the government that is Child Protection Act 1991 and Family violence
Act. This kind of law enable action to be taken against abuser and give protection to those
abused.(Khadijah Alavi & Ann Wan Seng, 2003e.pp.125.)

6. Fighting poverty
- Poverty is the another factor why child abusing happens. This happens when there is not
enough money to support family and that will lead a problem in the house. The child might
suffering pain due to beaten by his/her parents . This is because the parents stress and cannot
control their temper,and sometimes also the child did not eat enough . So it is important that the
government should take a look at this point and plan on how to solve the problems,which means
the economic development is needed. We know that children in poor health also at a much higher
risk of abuse or neglect,especially those with serious or chronic health problem, so providing a
place for them also can save their life.(Lucinda Almond, 2006b.pp.128)
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7.Be a nurturing parents
- Being a nurturing parents means that a parents that can raise and took care their children well.
It takes a countless reaction and a lot of time and energy. This can be done in many ways such as
spending time with your children, let the children know that you still love then even they did a
mistake ,this is to ensure that they know that you love them. Other than that, you may also bring
your family to vacation or any other places that the whole family can be together and build a
strong connection among family. It is important that parents need to really care about their
children progress but the best way to educate your child is by being a nice parents.
8. Get a help from relatives,neighbour or friends
-Being a parents must be tiring and stress, so sometimes there is a time they will shouted,beat or
things so on to their child and this kind of behaviour could be consider as a abusing also. So seek
a help from your relatives, neighbour or friends to take care of your children might prevent you
from doing harassmen. Take this time to release all your negative aura and stay calm by doing
some meditation or getting a counseling session. Release anything that make you worry about
and get ready to start a new day with a new determination .That all will make you feel fresh and
can handle things better. Above all of this just remember that God is always there for you, pray
for a better life and be thankful.

______________________________________________________________________________
References
1. Almond, L. (2006). Child Abuse. United States: Bonnie Szumski (pp 96-128)
2. Khadijah Alavi & Ann, W.S. (2003). Memahami Latar Belakang Penderaan Kanakkanak. Pahang: PTS Publications SDN BHD (pp 107-125)
3. Ten Ways to prevent child abuse (3/3/2012),
www.preventchildabuse.org/publications/.../ten_ways_to_prevent.pdf
All References:

1) Azar, S. T., T. Y. Povilaitis, A. F. Lauretti, and C. L. Pouquette. "The current status of

etiological theories in intrafamilial child maltreatment." In J. R. Lutzker, eds. Handbook
of Child Abuse Research and Treatment. New York: Plenum Press, 1998, pp. 30.

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2) Aber , J. L, & Allen, J. P. (1987). Effect s of malthreatment on young childrens
socioemotional development: An attachment theory perspective. Developmental
Psychology .pp. 46-50.
3) Almond, L. (2006). Child Abuse. United States: Bonnie Szumski (pp 96-128)
4) Breiner, S.J. (1990). Slaugther of the innocent: Child Abuse through the ages. New
York:Wiley,pp. 123-129.
5) Burrell, B., Thompson, B., and D. Sexton. "Predicting and child abuse potential across
family types." Child Abuse & Neglect 18 (1994): pp. 39-49.
6) Belsky, J. (1980). Child maltreatment: An ecological intergaration. American
psychologist.pp.320-325
7) Belsky, J., & Rovine, M., & Taylor, D. G. (1984). The Pennsylvania Infant and Family
Development Project, III. The origins of individual differences in infant-mother
attachment: Maternal and infant contributions. Child Development.pp. 71.
8) Brown J. (December 2001) Childhood Abuse and Neglect : Specific of Effects on
Adolescent and Young Adult Depression and Suicidality, Journal of the American
Academy of Child &Adolscent Psychiatry, 38,12, p 1490-1496
9) Barkley , R.A., McMurray, e.t al The response of aggressive children. Journal of the
American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, p 873-881.
10) Barbor and PillerReport on The Medical Aspects of Child Abuse. The Chilrens Research
Fund, Liverpool, 1987 p 3.
11) Csoti, M. School Phobia, Panic Attacks and Anxiety in Children. Kingsley Publisher,
London 2001.p 68

12) Cicchetti, D., & Carlson, V. (Eds.). (1989). Child maltreatment: Theory and research on
the causes and consequences of child abuse and neglect. New York: Cambridge
University Press.pp.113.
13) Dr Zarazuela Zolkipli,2012,Minda: Penderaan bukan semata-mata lebam
http://www.hmetro.com.my/myMetro/articles/Minda_Penderaanbukansematamatalebam/Article/index_html
14) Eckenrode, John e.t al, School Performance and Disciplinary Problems Among Abused
and Neglected Children, Jan 1993, 29,1, 53-62.

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15) Esme Fuller-Thomson of U of T's Factor-Inwentash Faculty of Social Work and
Department of Family and Community Medicine.
16) Egeland, B., D. Jacobvitz, and K. Papatola. "Intergenerational continuity of abuse." In R.
J. Gelles and J. B. Lancaster, eds. Child Abuse and Neglect: Biosocial Dimensions.
Hawthorne, N.Y.: Aldine de Gruyter, 1987, pp. 255-258.
17) Huebner, D. What to Do When You Worry Too Much : A Kid,s Guide to Overcoming
Anxiety, Magination Press Washington, D.C ( 2006, p 144)
18) Gelles, R. J. "Violence in the family. A review of research in the seventies." Journal of
Marriage and the Family 42 (1980): pp. 73.
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