Cruising Flight Performance

U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976

Robert Stengel, Aircraft Flight

Dynamics MAE 331, 2010

U.S. Standard Atmosphere

Air data measurement and computation
Airspeed definitions
Steady, level flight
Simplified power and thrust models
Back side of the power/thrust curve
Performance parameters
Breguet range equation
Jet engine
Propeller-driven
Copyright 2010 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only.
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE331.html
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/FlightDynamics.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Standard_Atmosphere

Dynamic Pressure and Mach Number

! = air density, function of height

= !sea level e" # h
a = speed of sound, linear function of height
Dynamic pressure = q =
V
Mach number =
a

1 2
!V
2

Definitions of Airspeed

Definitions of Airspeed

Airspeed is speed of aircraft measured with

respect to the air mass
Airspeed = Inertial speed if wind speed = 0

Indicated Airspeed (IAS)

IAS = 2 pstag ! pstatic

"SL = 2 ( pt ! ps ) "SL

Calibrated Airspeed (CAS)*

CAS = IAS corrected for instrument and position errors

Air Data Measurement and

Computation

Equivalent Airspeed (EAS)*

EAS = CAS corrected for compressibility effects

True Airspeed (TAS)*

TAS = EAS !SL !(z)

Mach number
TAS
M=
a

* Kayton & Fried, 1969; NASA TN-D-822, 1961

Air Data System

Air Data Probes

Stagnation/static pressure probe
Redundant pitot tubes on F-117

Cessna 172 pitot tube

Total and static temperature probe

Redundant pitot
tubes on Fouga
Magister
Total and static pressure ports
on Concorde
X-15 Q Ball
Air Speed Indicator
Altimeter
Vertical Speed Indicator

Kayton & Fried, 1969

Air Data Instruments

(Steam Gauges)
Calibrated Airspeed Indicator

Altimeter

Air Data Computation for

Subsonic Aircraft

Vertical Speed Indicator

Variometer/Altimeter

True Airspeed Indicator

Machmeter

1 knot = 1 nm / hr
= 1.151 st. mi. / hr = 1.852 km / hr

Air Data Computation for

Supersonic Aircraft

Kayton & Fried, 1969

The Mysterious Disappearance of

Air France Flight 447 (Airbus A330-200)

Suspected Failure of Thales

Heated Pitot Probe

Kayton & Fried, 1969

BEA Interim Reports, 7/2/2009 & 11/30/2009

http://www.bea.aero/en/enquetes/flight.af.447/flight.af.447.php

Visual examination showed that the airplane

was not destroyed in flight; it appears to have
struck the surface of the sea in level flight with
high vertical acceleration.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AF_447

Longitudinal Variables
Flight in the
Vertical Plane

Longitudinal Point-Mass
Equations of Motion

Steady, Level Flight

Assume thrust is aligned with the velocity

vector (small-angle approximation for !)
Mass = constant
1

V! =

(CT cos ! " CD ) 2 #V 2 S " mg sin $ (CT " CD ) 2 #V 2 S " mg sin $

%

m
m
1 2
1 2
(CT sin ! + CL ) 2 #V S " mg cos $ CL 2 #V S " mg cos $
$! =
%
mV
mV
h! = " z! = "vz = V sin $
V = velocity
r! = x! = vx = V cos $

! = flight path angle

h = height (altitude)
r = range

Flight path angle = 0

Altitude = constant
Airspeed = constant
Dynamic pressure = constant

0=

0=

(CT ! CD ) 2 "V 2 S

Thrust = Drag

m
CL

h! = 0
r! = V

1 2
"V S ! mg
2
mV

Lift = Weight

Subsonic Lift and Drag

Coefficients

Propeller

Lift coefficient

Power = P = T ! V = CT

C L = C Lo + C L! !
Drag coefficient

1 3
"V S # independent of airspeed
2

Turbojet
Thrust = T = CT

C D = C Do + ! C L2

1 2
!V S " independent of airspeed
2

Throttle Effect

Subsonic flight, below

critical Mach number
C Lo , C L! , C Do , " # constant

Power and Thrust

T = Tmax! T = CTmax ! TqS, 0 " ! T " 1

Subsonic
Incompressible

Typical Effects of Altitude and

Velocity on Power and Thrust

Thrust of a PropellerDriven Aircraft

Propeller

With constant rpm, variable-pitch propeller

T = !P!I

Pengine
V

= !net

Pengine
V

where

!P = propeller efficiency
!I = ideal propulsive efficiency
!netmax " 0.85 # 0.9

Turbojet

Efficiencies decrease with airspeed

Engine power decreases with altitude
Proportional to air density, w/o supercharger

Propeller Efficiency, "P,

and Advance Ratio, J

Thrust of a
Turbojet
Engine

Effect of propeller-blade pitch angle

1/2
02 *# ! & # ! &
42
!t o
t
! 1 ,%
T = mV
)
"
1
+
"
1
(
)
5
/
c
! o) c .
$ ! " 1 (' %$ ! t " 1 ('
32 + o
62

where
m! = m! air + m! fuel

Advance Ratio

J=

V
nD

" pstag %
!o = $
# pambient '&

( ( )1)/ (

; ( = ratio of specific heats * 1.4

"
%
turbine inlet temperature
!t = $
# freestream ambient temperature &'

where
V = airspeed, m / s

" compressor outlet temperature %

+c = $
# compressor inlet temperature '&

n = rotation rate, revolutions / s

D = propeller diameter, m

from Kerrebrock

Little change in thrust with airspeed below Mcrit

Decrease with increasing altitude

from McCormick

Performance Parameters
Lift-to-Drag Ratio
Load Factor

D=

CL

CD

n = L W = L mg ,"g"s

Thrust-to-Weight Ratio T W = T mg ,"g"s

Wing Loading

W , N m 2 or lb ft 2
S

Steady, Level Flight

Thrust Required for

Steady, Level Flight

Trimmed CL and !
Trimmed lift
coefficient, CL

W =C

qS

Ltrim
Proportional to
weight
# 2 e" h &
1
2
=
W
S
=
W
S
=
C
(
)
(
)
2
Ltrim
%$ ! V 2 (' (W S )
Decrease with V
q
!V 2
0
At constant
airspeed, increases
with altitude
2

! trim =

Trimmed angle of attack, !

Constant if dynamic pressure
and weight are constant
If dynamic pressure decreases,
angle of attack must increase

Trimmed thrust
Parasitic Drag

Ttrim = Dcruise

2W "V S # C Lo
C L!

Necessary Condition
= Zero Slope

Sufficient Condition for a Minimum = Positive Curvature when slope = 0

!Ttrim
4 $W 2
= C Do ( "VS ) #
=0
!V
"V 3S

Airspeed for
Minimum Thrust in
Steady, Level Flight
!Ttrim
4 $W 2
= C Do ( "VS ) #
=0
!V
"V 3S

Necessary Condition = Zero Slope

!Ttrim
4 $W 2
= C Do ( "VS ) #
=0
!V
"V 3S

2W 2
"1 2 %
= C Do $ !V S ' + (
#2
&
!V 2 S

Minimum required thrust conditions

1
(W S ) # CLo
q
=
C L!

Necessary and Sufficient

Conditions for Minimum
Required Thrust

# 4! &
2
W S)
V4 = %
2((
$ C Do " '

Satisfy necessary
condition

Fourth-order equation for velocity

Choose the positive root

! 2Ttrim
12#W 2
= C Do ( "S ) +
>0
2
!V
"V 4 S
(+)

(+)

Induced Drag

VMT =

2 "W % (
$ '
! # S & C Do

Lift Coefficient in
Minimum-Thrust
Cruising Flight

P-51 Mustang
Minimum-Thrust
Example

Airspeed for minimum thrust

Wing Span = 37 ft (9.83 m)
Wing Area = 235 ft 2 (21.83 m 2 )
Loaded Weight = 9, 200 lb (3, 465 kg)
C Do = 0.0163

VMT =

! = 0.0576
W / S = 39.3 lb / ft 2 (1555.7 N / m 2 )

VMT =

2 "W % (
=
$ '
! # S & C Do

Corresponding lift coefficient

0.947
2
76.49
=
m/s
(1555.7 )
0.0163
!
!

Altitude, m
0
2,500
5,000
10,000

Air Density,
kg/m^3
1.23
0.96
0.74
0.41

VMT, m/s
69.11
78.20
89.15
118.87

C LMT =

C Do
2 "W %
=
2 $
# S '&
!VMT
(

Power Required for

Steady, Level Flight
Trimmed power

Ptrim

2 "W % (
$ '
! # S & C Do

Airspeed for Minimum

Power in Steady,
Level Flight

Induced Drag

Parasitic Drag

2
)
"1
% 2(W ,
V
= TtrimV = DcruiseV = +C Do $ !V 2 S ' +
2 .
#
&
2
!
V
S
*
-

Satisfy necessary condition

! Ptrim
3
2$W 2
= C Do ( "V 2 S ) #
=0
2
!V
"V 2 S

Minimum required power conditions

! Ptrim
3
2$W
= C Do ( "V 2 S ) #
=0
2
!V
"V 2 S
2

Fourth-order equation for velocity

Choose the positive root

VMP =

(
2 "W %
$# '&
! S
3C Do

Corresponding lift and

drag coefficients

C LMP =

3C Do

!
C DMP = 4C Do

Achievable Airspeeds in Cruising Flight

Back Side of the
Thrust Curve

Achievable Airspeeds for Jet

in Cruising Flight

Thrust = constant
2
"1
% 2(W
Tavail = C Do $ !V 2 S ' +
#2
& !V 2 S

2(W
"1
%
C Do $ !V 4 S ' ) TavailV 2 +
=0
#2
&
!S
2

V4 )

Solutions for V can be put in quadratic form and solved easily

Two equilibrium airspeeds for a given thrust or power setting

x ! V 2; V = x

Low speed, high CL, high !

High speed, low CL, low !

ax 2 + bx + c = 0

Achievable airspeeds between minimum and maximum values

with maximum thrust or power

Back Side of
the Power
Curve

Achievable Airspeeds
in Propeller-Driven
Cruising Flight

# b &2
b
x = " % ( " c, a = 1
$2'
2

Thrust Required and Thrust

Available for a Typical Bizjet

Power = constant

Pavail = TavailV
V4 !

TavailV 2
4 (W 2
+
=0
C Do !S C Do ( !S )2

With increasing altitude, available thrust decreases, and range of

achievable airspeeds decreases
Stall limitation at low speed
Mach number effect on lift and drag increases thrust required at high speed

PavailV
4 #W 2
+
=0
C Do "S C Do ( "S )2

Solutions for V cannot be put in quadratic form; solution is

more difficult, e.g., Ferrari!s method

Typical Simplified Jet Thrust Model

Tmax (h) = Tmax (SL)

! " nh
, n <1
!(SL)
x

$ !"#h '
x
= Tmax (SL) &
) * Tmax (SL)+
!
(SL)
%
(

aV 4 + ( 0 )V 3 + ( 0 )V 2 + dV + e = 0
where

Best bet: roots in MATLAB

!=

"#$h
, n or x is an empirical constant
"(SL)

Thrust Required and Thrust

Available for a Typical Bizjet

Maximum Lift-to-Drag Ratio

Lift-to-drag ratio

CL

CL
CD = C + !C 2
Do
L

Satisfy necessary condition for a maximum

D=

CL

CD

! CL

C Do

1
2" C L2
#
2
+ "CL
C Do + " C L2

=0

Lift coefficient for maximum L/D and minimum thrust are

the same

Stall
Limit

( C L )L / D

max

VL / Dmax = VMT =

( C D )L / D

max

( L / D )max =

C Do !
2C Do

Maximum L/D depends only on induced drag factor and

zero-! drag coefficient

= C LMT

L/D equals slope of line drawn from the origin

Intercept for L/Dmax depends only on # and zero-lift drag

Note different scales

for lift and drag

1
=
2 ! C Do

Single maximum for a given polar

Two solutions for lower L/D (high and low airspeed)
Available L/D decreases with Mach number

= C Do + C Do = 2C Do

C Do

Lift-Drag Polar for a

Typical Bizjet

Airspeed, Drag Coefficient, and

Lift-to-Drag Ratio for L/Dmax
2 "W % (
$ '
! # S & C Do

P-51 Mustang
Maximum L/D
Example
( C D )L / D

max

( C L )L / D

max

Wing Span = 37 ft (9.83 m)

= 2C Do = 0.0326

C Do

1
= 16.31
2 ! C Do

Wing Area = 235 ft (21.83 m 2 )

( L / D )max =

Loaded Weight = 9, 200 lb (3, 465 kg)

C Do = 0.0163

VL / Dmax = VMT =

! = 0.0576
W / S = 1555.7 N / m 2

Altitude, m
0
2,500
5,000
10,000

Optimal Cruising Flight

= C LMT = 0.531

76.49
m/s
!

Air Density,
kg/m^3
1.23
0.96
0.74
0.41

VMT, m/s
69.11
78.20
89.15
118.87

Cruising Range and

Specific Fuel Consumption
1
(CT ! CD ) 2 "V 2 S
0=
m
1 2
C L "V S ! mg
2
0=
mV
h! = 0
r! = V

Louis Breguet,
1880-1955

Thrust = Drag

Lift = Weight

Propeller aircraft

w! f = !cP P

Jet aircraft

w! f = !cT T

Rate of change of range with respect to weight of fuel burned

dr dr dt
r!
V
V
" L% V
=
= =
=!
= !$ '
# D & cT W
dw dw dt w! ( !cT T )
cT D
" L% V
dr = ! $ '
dw
# D & cT W

Specific fuel consumption, SFC = cP or cT

Breguet Range Equation

for Jet Aircraft

[ proportional to power ]
[ proportional to thrust ]

where
w f = fuel weight

kg s
or
cP :
kW
kg s
cT :
or
kN

lb s
HP
lb s
lbf

Range traveled
Wf

# L & # V & dw
Range = R = ! dr = " ! % ( % (
$ D ' $ cT ' w
0
W
R

Breguet Range
Equation for Jet Aircraft

Maximum Range of a
Jet Aircraft Flying at
Constant True Airspeed

Dassault
Etendard IV

Breguet range equation for constant V = Vcruise

For constant true airspeed, V = Vcruise

!
C $! 1 $ ! W $
R = # Vcruise L & # & ln # i &
C D % " cT % " W f %
"

%
Wf
" L%"V
R = ! $ ' $ cruise ' ln ( w ) W
i
# D & # cT &

% " W % " C %"V

% "W %
" L%"V
= $ ' $ cruise ' ln $ i ' = $ L ' $ cruise ' ln $ i '
# D & # cT & # W f & # C D & # cT & # W f &

For given initial and final weight, range is maximized when

product of V and L/D is maximized

C Do
! R ! (VC L C D )
=
= 0 leading to C LMR =
! CL
! CL
3"
C LMR =

C Do
3!

Because weight decreases as fuel burns, and V is

assumed constant, altitude must increase to hold CL
constant at its best value (cruise-climb)

C LMR q ( t ) S = W ( t ) !
q (t ) =

At constant altitude

Vcruise ( t ) =

2W ( t )

C L ! h fixed S

! Cruise-climb usually violates air

traffic control rules
! Constant-altitude cruise does not
! Compromise: Step climb from
one allowed altitude to the next

f
"C %" 1 %
2 dw
Range = ! ) $ L ' $ '
12
C
c
C
D&# T &
L (S w
Wi #

1
" W ( t ) % 3(
2
! ( t )Vcruise
=$
)
'
2
# S & C Do

!(t) = !o e" # h(t ) =

: Lift Coefficient for Maximum Range

Maximum Range of a
Jet Aircraft Flying at
Constant Altitude

Maximum Range of a Jet Aircraft

Flying at Constant True Airspeed

! Vcruise as fast as possible

! $ as small as possible
! h as high as possible

2 $ W (t) ' 3*
+
2
Vcruise &% S )( C Do
h !"W ( t ) ,Vcruise #$

" CL % " 2 % 2
=$
Wi1 2 ! W f1 2
'$ '
# C D & # cT & (S

Range is maximized when

(* ' = minimum
! CL $
#
& = maximum and )
" CD %
*+ h = maximum

Breguet Range Equation

for Propeller-Driven
Aircraft

Breguet 890 Mercure

Breguet Range Equation

for Propeller-Driven
Aircraft

Rate of change of range with respect to weight of fuel burned

Range traveled
R

Wf

Wi

"C %" 1 % " W %

= $ L ' $ ' ln $ i '
# C D & # cP & # W f &

# L&# 1
Range = R = ! dr = " ! % ( %
$ D' $ c

& dw
(' w

For constant true airspeed, V = Vcruise

Wf
" L%" 1 %
R = ! $ ' $ ' ln ( w ) W
i
# D & # cP &

dr r!
V
V
V
" L% 1
= =
=!
=!
= !$ '
# D & cPW
dw w! ( !cP P )
cPTV
cP DV

Breguet Atlantique

Range is maximized when

( )

! CL $
L
#" C &% = maximum = D
D

max

P-51 Mustang
Maximum Range
(Internal Tanks only)

Loaded Weight = 9, 200 lb (3, 465 kg)

Fuel Weight = 1, 320 lb (600 kg)

( L / D )max = 16.31
kg / s
cP = 0.0017
kW

!C $ ! 1$ !W $
R = # L & # & ln # i &
" C D % max " cP % " W f %
! 1 $ ! 3, 465 + 600 $
= (16.31) #
ln
" 0.0017 &% #" 3, 465 &%

= 1, 530 km ( (825 nm )

Next Time:
Gliding, Climbing, and
Turning Flight