Construction and Building Materials 54 (2014) 1016

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Effects of stabilization on resilient characteristics of y ash as pavement

material
M. Aysen Lav, A. Hilmi Lav
Istanbul Technical University, Faculty of Civil Engineering, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey

h i g h l i g h t s
 The effect of stabilization on resilient modulus of a Class F y ash by the means of cyclic triaxial testing.
 Although the conning pressure supplied by air was practical to use, it was difcult to maintain exact target pressure.
 Under the same stress paths samples having higher cement or lime contents exhibited lower strains.
 The rate of axial strains under corresponding stress paths decreased with increasing cement or lime content.
 There was a nonlinear relationship between axial strain and deviator stress.

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 27 July 2013
Received in revised form 5 December 2013
Accepted 16 December 2013
Available online 9 January 2014
Keywords:
Highway
Fly ash
Resilient modulus
Pavement analyses
Mechanistic-empirical design
Cyclic triaxial testing
Indirect tensile testing

a b s t r a c t
The disposal of industrial by-products constitutes a mounting problem of global dimensions. Among
these, the disposal of y ash is very problematic, for the increasing demand for electricity from coal burning power stations has been resulting in growing amounts of stockpiled y ash, inevitably causing environmental problems. The use of this y ash in road pavements provides an opportunity to use high
volumes of this material, however, the ash needs to be stabilized to improve its performance when utilized in upper pavement layers. Because the principal input in mechanistic-empirical analyses is resilient
modulus, the aim of this study is to investigate the effect of stabilization on resilient modulus of a Class F
y ash.
2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
One of the most signicant detriments for the modern world is
waste production, with billions of tons of waste being generated
each year around the world. As a result of this, considerable attention has been given to the utilization of waste materials and other
by-products from different production processes. In the recent past
these materials were simply stockpiled and dumped as waste. In
the last few decades, however, the increasing amount of waste production and the diminishing availability of land ll sites have restrained the dumping of waste products. Therefore, the industries
producing waste materials now face an increasing nancial burden
(cost of disposal) and community concern regarding the potential
risk to the environment.

Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 535 6119529.

E-mail address: lav@itu.edu.tr (A. Hilmi Lav).
0950-0618/$ - see front matter 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.12.029

Increasing demand for electricity has rendered coal red power

stations indispensable for many countries. In these stations, the
coal is used to provide the steam that drives turbines to generate
electricity. Before combustion, the coal is pulverized in coal mills
and injected into the furnace by compressed hot air. During the
combustion process coal minerals undergo some physical and
chemical changes. About 15% of the burned coal falls through open
grids into the furnace oor where it sinters to form bottom ash
which is a coarser material. The majority (about 8085%) is carried
out of the furnace by means of the ue gases, where it hardens into
a ne grained material known as y ash.
As the demand for energy increases, so does the amount of y
ash that have the potential of being utilized in various applications.
Construction of road base, subbase and subgrade provides an
opportunity to use high volumes of this material. There is a growing demand for road materials in every country, yet the supply of
the classical base and subbase materials such as crushed rock
and gravel is diminishing as government regulations restrict

M. Aysen Lav, A. Hilmi Lav / Construction and Building Materials 54 (2014) 1016

quarry operations. As a result, natural materials are becoming ever

more scarce and expensive. The consumption of high quality natural quarry materials in pavement building continues, however, to
be the standard practice. If our goal, however, is to support an environmentally sustainable world, it makes more sense to use these
valuable natural materials in structural concretes (high rise building, bridge, pre-stressed concrete structures, etc.), where high
strength and good quality material are essential. Furthermore, utilizing materials that are already produced results in less energy
and emission in total highway construction, resulting in a Green
Highway (A generic for a highway that is produced with minimum
or even no harm to the environment in terms of protection of natural
materials and reduction of greenhouse gas emissions). Hence, y ash
has the potential of replacing classical road building materials
when circumstances permit.

2. Structure of highways
In general, highways consist of two parts: the pavements and
foundation. The pavements are engineering structures that separate the trafc loading (the tires of vehicles) from the foundation
(which is usually natural soil, also called subgrade) of roads. Subgrades are generally weak materials and may not be able to bear
the stresses induced by wheel loads. Therefore, pavements are
needed to decrease the stress to a tolerable level in the subgrade.
As an engineering structure, pavements should not fail during their
design life. Unlike most civil engineering structures, pavement failure does not happen unexpectedly like the collapse of a bridge or
building, but gradually deteriorates over time. That means that
the emergence of cracks and the accumulation of plastic deformation up to an unallowable level are considered as design failures.
This pavement failure eventually decreases or totally eliminates
the function of the structure. Pavement design aims to prevent
the failure of the pavement over its design life which is usually
2030 years.
Regarding the design of y ash pavements, mechanistic-empirical methods are preferred as empirical design methods are restricted to the range of classical pavement materials. In the
mechanistic-empirical method, the stress induced by wheel loading is calculated in order to identify the mechanical responses in
the structure (pavement analysis), usually by means of purpose
built computer programs. The mechanical responses are basically
deections, stresses, strains and displacements. In order to perform
a pavement analysis, the fundamental properties of the y ash
(along with other pavement materials used) should be measured.
Stiffness is the most important fundamental property of a pavement materials and it is expressed by resilient modulus, which
can be obtained by advanced laboratory tests explained below.

3. Properties of y ash and stabilizing agents used in the study

The y ash used in this study is a Class F [1] material with low
calcium content (1.61%) and very low loss on ignition (LOI) of 1.28,
which is related to the grinding method used to pulverize the coal
in power station. Grain size distribution of the material was
determined with a laser operated particle size analyzer as the
hydrometer test is unsuitable due to its pozzolanic reactivity. A
Horiba LA-500 analyzer was utilized by a professional laboratory
and the results were presented. The y ash was found to be
smoothly graded, being the maximum and the minimum particle
sizes were 174 and 0.15 lm. A total of 83% of the material is ner
than 45 lm; therefore, it could be considered as a ne graded y
ash. The stabilizing agents, namely, cement and lime, were also
tested to determine their particle size distribution. The maximum

11

and the minimum particle sizes were 116 and 0.13 lm for cement,
and 152 and 0.2 lm for lime.
As mentioned previously, y ash should be stabilized to improve its performance when utilized in upper layers of pavements
since stress and strains due to vehicle loadings are signicant at
the top layers of pavements. In addition, Class F ashes exhibit lower
stiffness than Class C ashes due to their low calcium content. However, an uncommon application of 100% y ash base with no additive or aggregate was attempted in 1988 at Fulshear, Texas, USA.
After placement and compaction, the average compressive
strength increased only 255 kPa, with between 7 days and 28 days
of curing. Also, in four months time it was seen that the asphalt
layer at the top became corrugated in some sections. The trial
was considered to be a failure [2] and, henceforth, that kind of testing was not again attempted.
In our study, cement and lime were used separately to stabilize
the y ash. These were mixed as percentages by total weight (e.g.
10% lime or cement stabilized y ash means that 10 g stabilizing
agent was mixed with 90 g of y ash). All of the stabilized samples
that required curing before testing were wrapped in plastic bags
and cured in a room with controlled humidity and temperature
(23 C and 50% humidity) until the test date.

4. Repeated load indirect tensile test of stabilized y ash

The repeated load indirect tensile test is based on Frochts equation [3] for the stress distribution due to a point load. The point
load on a ctitious disk is extended to line loading to create a cylinder. In practice, the load is distributed over a loading strip. The
strip reduces the vertical compressive stresses and prevents failure
under the line load. The load results in a uniform tensile stress
(along the vertical diametric plane) and a corresponding horizontal
strain that is used to calculate the properties of the material tested.
The test is carried out by repeated pulse loading the sample to
determine resilient characteristics. According to Kennedy and
Hudson [4,5], indirect tensile test can be used to evaluate all pavement materials including stabilized materials. The only exception
is unbounded granular materials. Moreover, AUSTROADS [6] has
ranked the method as the fourth preferred procedure for testing
the resilient characteristics of stabilized materials. Since the test
is relatively easy to conduct and sample preparation is easy as well,
it was therefore decided to conduct an indirect tensile test to observe the variation of resilient modulus over time and the inuence
of stabilizing agent content. The Universal Materials Testing Apparatus (UMATTA) manufactured by Industrial Process Control Limited [7] was used. Samples having a diameter of 105 mm and a
length of between 51.5 and 70.5 mm were compacted at optimum
moisture content and maximum dry density. The lime or cement
contents in the samples were 2%, 4%, 8% and 10%. The tests were
carried out on samples cured for 7 days, 28 days, 180 days and
300 days. The testing procedure conforms to the ASTM D 412382 [8].
Initially, different loading forces up to 700 N (the maximum
applicable force was 738 N) were applied to examine the variation
in results. Discrepancies due to different load levels were insignificant and it was decided to apply 300 N of loading force throughout
the entire test. Testing of samples at a constant tensile strain (constant strain test) was found to be inappropriate for stabilized y
ash, as some samples broke during the trial of constant strain. In
the test, ve consecutive loading forces having a pulse period of
3000 ms and a rise time of 30 ms were applied in the form of a triangular wave shape. Average modulus was calculated from the
recoverable diametric strain. Each sample was then rotated 90
and the same procedure was repeated. The mean value of the average of the moduli at 0 and the average of the moduli at 90

12

M. Aysen Lav, A. Hilmi Lav / Construction and Building Materials 54 (2014) 1016

positions was calculated as the typical modulus. The repeated load

indirect tensile test results are presented in Fig. 1 for cement stabilized samples and in Fig. 2 for lime stabilized samples.
The effects of stabilization on lime stabilized samples were
small during the rst 7 days, whereas cement stabilized samples
clearly showed the distinctive effect of the stabilizing agent
amount in terms of modulus improvement. After 28 days, the effect of the amount of stabilizing agent in y ash on the moduli of
samples became apparent. The higher content gave higher modulus except for the case of 2% lime which had a higher modulus value than 4% lime at 180 days. This possibly happened due to high
pozzolanic reactivity of the y ash used in that particular sample
(this is a signicant point to be considered y ash stabilization).
The modulus of the lime and cement samples in correspondent
contents become closer as the curing time increased. Consequently, the response of pavement structure to trafc loading in
terms of tensile strength development became similar over time
in both cement or lime stabilized layers. Therefore, the fatigue
behavior of lime and cement stabilized y ash will be determinant
in the performance of each type of pavement.
It is also signicant to observe the effect of hydration over time
(increased modulus and decreased tensile strain over single pulse),
which is shown in Figs. 3 and 4.

Fig. 2. Repeated load indirect tensile modulus test results for lime stabilized y ash
samples.

5. Stress strain relationship and triaxial testing of pavement

materials
In general, a point of a material in a pavement structure is subjected to nine stress components in Cartesian coordinates. If this
point is located somewhere beneath the center of the wheel load,
the point is subjected to three principal stresses alone, because
there are no shear components of stress under the center line of
the wheel load.
The repeated load triaxial testing method has been extensively
used to characterize the stressstrain behavior of pavement materials. In other words, it measures the mechanical response of the
materials under simulated, repeated trafc loadings. In the USA,
Seed and McNeill [9] carried out experiments on unbound materials in a repeated load triaxial machine. In the UK, the instrument
was used by Grainger and Lister [10] at the Transportation Research Laboratory to characterize the performance of soils and unbound pavement materials. The test applies a repeated vertical
stress and either a repeated or constant conning stress to a
Fig. 3. Effect of cement content and curing on indirect tensile strain for single pulse
of 300 N.

Fig. 1. Repeated load indirect tensile modulus test results for cement stabilized y
ash samples.

cylindrical sample. The system is not able to represent all conditions (triaxial) because two of the principal stresses are equal (conning stress or cell pressure). There are a few true triaxial
machines available with rigid boundaries using a cube sample
[11], but the common triaxial system gives good results and is suitable for testing of pavement materials. Although the method is
ranked number one by AUSTROADS [6] for the testing of granular
pavement materials, it is equally effective on stabilized pavement
materials, including waste materials [12,13].
In pavement layers under trafc loading, each stress has a constant value from overburden, and the passing wheel load causes an
additional transient value. Transient stress may be simulated by
deviator stress (vertical), while the overburden is simulated by
conning pressure (horizontal). Consequently, the repeated load
triaxial test corresponds to actual stress conditions, however, for
the lower section of the stabilized y ash layers, tensile stresses
may be developed in the horizontal direction (due to exure) and
this situation cannot be reproduced in the repeated load triaxial
test. According to Brown [14], this case may not diminish the

M. Aysen Lav, A. Hilmi Lav / Construction and Building Materials 54 (2014) 1016

Fig. 4. Effect of lime content and curing on indirect tensile strain for single pulse of
300 N.

Fig. 5. Nonlinear resilient modulus of 2% cement stabilized y ash samples.

importance of the triaxial testing to characterize the behavior of

such materials (i.e. materials subject to tensile stresses under
wheel load).
5.1. Cyclic triaxial testing of stabilized y ash
The other experimental part of this research was achieved by a
stress path triaxial test system which is capable of characterizing
the stress dependent (resilient) characteristics of pavement materials under different stress paths by simulating the in situ conditions in laboratory. This system was manufactured by Industrial
Process Controls Limited [7] and was originally congured to apply
conning pressure through a liquid medium (water or silicon oil),
but for this study compressed air was used as to provide conning
pressure.
The test is carried out by applying a repeated vertical stress
(deviator stress) and constant conning stress to cylindrical samples having a diameter of 100 mm and a height of 200 mm as recommended by FHWA [15]. The stress was transmitted to the
sample by haversine shape cyclic load. Initially samples are

13

Fig. 6. Nonlinear resilient modulus of 2% lime stabilized y ash samples.

conditioned, applying between 500 and 2000 cycles. Cement or

lime content was 2%, 4%, 8% and 10% by weight. During the test
the samples were subjected to ve constant conning pressures
in the following order: 250 kPa, 200 kPa, 150 kPa, 100 kPa and
50 kPa. For each conning pressure, cyclic deviator stress, namely,
50 kPa, 100 kPa, 150 kPa and 200 kPa was applied consecutively (a
total of 20 different stress paths were applied). These stress levels
were well below failure lines and thus the possibility of the development of plastic (permanent) strains was greatly reduced. Various researchers suggest applying different pulse cycles before
measuring the resilient strain (recoverable strain). Some recommended that the measurement should be made between 10 and
100 cycles [1618]. According to AASHTO [19] and TRB [20] elastic
strain should be measured after applying 200 cycles. In this study
the test continued until six consecutive identical strains were obtained. Otherwise 200 vertical pulses were applied for each stress
path as recommended by AASHTO and TRB.
Another parameter to be considered is loading frequency. Frequencies between 0.01 Hz and 25 Hz have been tested on granular
materials by various researchers [18,21,22]. However, in this study
single frequency (repetition period) and loading duration (pulse
width) of 1 Hz and 100 ms applied all samples, respectively. The
remaining time in each cycle was left intentionally to allow the
samples to recover (rest period). Recoverable axial strains were
measured for each stress path. The predetermined stress paths
(particularly conning stress) could not be always achieved precisely due to the difculty of keeping air pressure at the desired
levels.
In the most simplistic terms, resilient modulus (MR) is the elastic modulus utilized in mechanistic-empirical pavement analyses
and design. It is based on the recoverable strain under repeated
load as the loading and unloading cycle exhibits a hysteresis loop.
Therefore, it is dened as the ratio of the amplitude of the repeated
axial stress to the amplitude of the resultant recoverable axial
strain [23] as emphasized by researchers [24].
The in situ resilient modulus of pavement materials greatly depends on the level of stress applied by trafc loading. Therefore, a
mathematical model (constitutive equation) that is a function of
stress and resulting strain state should be developed. There are
several constitution equations from simple to complex that may
be employed to estimate resilient modulus of pavement materials.
In this study, the resilient behavior of stabilized y ash is identied
by the following well known, nonlinear model:

14

M. Aysen Lav, A. Hilmi Lav / Construction and Building Materials 54 (2014) 1016

Fig. 7. Nonlinear resilient modulus of 4% cement stabilized y ash samples.

Fig. 8. Nonlinear resilient modulus of 4% lime stabilized y ash samples.

Fig. 9. Nonlinear resilient modulus of 8% cement stabilized y ash samples.

Fig. 10. Nonlinear resilient modulus of 8% lime stabilized y ash samples.

Fig. 11. Nonlinear resilient modulus of 10% cement stabilized y ash samples.

Fig. 12. Nonlinear resilient modulus of 10% lime stabilized y ash samples.

M. Aysen Lav, A. Hilmi Lav / Construction and Building Materials 54 (2014) 1016

15

Table 1
Laboratory testing program.
Test method

Complying standard

Cement or lime content (%)

Cure duration (days)

Parameters obtained

Grain size distribution

Repeated load indirect tensile

ASTM D 4123

7,28,180,300

Fineness, max. and min. grain size

Resilient modulus

Repeated load triaxial

Plain (y ash only)

2,4,8,10 (C)
2,4,8,10 (L)
2,4,8,10 (C)
2,4,8,10 (L)

90

Resilient modulus in terms of stressstrain relationship

kh model was the rst to be introduced in order to establish

nonlinear relationship from cyclic triaxial test results with constant conning pressure [25,26]. There are several other models
developed to estimate resilient modulus, however, the kh model
is quite reliable and widely used [27,28]. The general presentation
of the model is as follows:
k2

MR k1 fr

where MR is the Resilient modulus, f(r) is the Stress parameter

which may be chosen as follows k1 and k2 = regression constants
representing nonlinear elastic properties of material tested.
The so called kh model was widely used to describe the nonlinear behavior of unbound granular pavement materials
[27,29,30]. A version of this relationship was also used for unstabilized y ash by Lee and Fishman [31] and they obtained a trend
similar to that obtained this study. Moreover, Fossberg [32] reported a relationship between resilient modulus and rst stress
invariant for cement stabilized soil.
In this study the following stress parameter was chosen for
calculations

MR k1 hk2
where MR is the Resilient modulus, h is the sum of the principal
stresses (sum of the rst stress invariant/bulk stress; r1 + r2 + r3),
k1 and k2 are the constants depend on the cement or lime content.
Although it is generally used for granular materials, the kh
model closely ts the triaxial results of stabilized y ash as presented in Figs. 512. According to Raad and Figueroa [33], the model is valid even for h values that approach failure for granular
materials, but the usual practice is to apply stresses well below
failure to avoid excessive permanent strains with which this study
compiles this rule.
6. Summary of testing program
In order to keep the readers follow testing program easier, all
the laboratory testing program is summarized in Table 1.
7. Environmental concerns
While the aim of current studies has been to investigate the
suitability of y ash as pavement material where high amounts
of the material may be used, this utilization also raises some concerns that the toxic elements in y ash may leach out to the environment. Although this concern is beyond the scope of this paper, a
detailed leaching study of this material has been carried out and
published. This study found that the material is not hazardous in
terms of leaching characteristics [34].
8. Discussion and conclusions
In this study, repeated load indirect tensile and repeated load
triaxial (cyclic triaxial) tests were carried out to investigate the effects of stabilization on resilient behavior of y ash as pavement
material with the following outcomes:

The stress strain behavior of stabilized y ash was non-linear,

namely, stress dependent. The relationship may be explained
by a resilient strain model. A well-known relationship was used
to relate resilient modulus to stress levels.
The repeated load indirect tensile test was easy to conduct. The
only problem encountered was that the samples were fragile
under tensile stresses and they easily split into two pieces.
Therefore, the applied force needed to be adjusted carefully,
especially for lime-stabilized samples. Once the test was carried
out properly, the results were consistent with other test results
obtained under compressive stresses.
Since the repeated load triaxial apparatus capable of applying
compressive stresses only, the results are valid in pavement
regions where all the principal stresses are in compression (tensile characteristics of the material should be investigated by
cyclic exural test).
Although the conning pressure supplied by air was practical to
use, it was difcult to maintain exact target pressure. There was
an approximate 5% difference between intended and applied
conning pressure.
Under the same stress paths, samples having higher cement or
lime contents exhibited lower strains.
The rate of axial strains under corresponding stress paths
decreased with increasing cement or lime content. This behavior showed similarity to the strain changes under indirect tensile stresses. However, unlike indirect tensile results the
variation of strains between cement and lime stabilization were
small. This is probably due to loading type and connement of
the samples.
There was a nonlinear relationship between axial strain and
deviator stress (the stress due to the vertical loading pulse)
and that the nonlinear component of the stress strain relation
of the samples increased as the conning stress decreased.
In conclusion, stabilized y ash is a stress dependent material
and cyclic triaxial results showed that an apparent relationship between resilient modulus and the rst stress invariant (the sum of
the three principal stresses). Therefore, the resilient modulus of
the material increases with the increasing magnitude of the rst
stress invariant. It should be noted that throughout the testing program, after removing the conning stresses, the strains under conning pressures were recovered. This proved that the samples
were not subjected to signicant permanent strains, hence in
in situ applications it is recommended that this material should
be designed in thicker layers than conventional pavement layers
to keep strains lower. Otherwise, it may end up with premature
cracking over shorter times, which signicantly reduces pavement
life.
References
[1] ASTM C 618. Fly ash and raw or calcined natural pozzolan for use as a mineral
admixture in portland cement concrete. Am Soc Test Mater
1996;04(02):3046.
[2] Wong C, Michael KH. Experimental y ash base farm to market road 1093
fulshear. Texas: State Department of Highways and Public Transportation,
Report no. DTH-17; 1989.

16

M. Aysen Lav, A. Hilmi Lav / Construction and Building Materials 54 (2014) 1016

[3] Frocht MM. Photoelasticity. 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc.; 1964.
[4] Kennedy TW, Hudson WR. Application of the indirect tensile test to stabilized
materials. Highway Res Rec 1968;235:3648.
[5] Kennedy TW. Characterization of Asphalt pavement materials using the
indirect tensile test. Assoc Asphalt Pavement Technol 1977;46:13249.
[6] AUSTROADS Pavement Design A. Guide to the structural design of road
pavements. AUSTROADS: Publication; 1992: No. AP-17/92.
[7] De Vos KB, UMATTA. Universal materials testing apparatus for asphalt and
unbound specimens. Reference and Operating Manual. IPC Limited; 1992.
[8] ASTM D 4123. Standard test method for indirect tension test for resilient
modulus of bituminous mixture. Am Soc Test Mater 1996;04(03):4235.
[9] Seed HB, McNeill RL. Soil deformation under repeated stress applications. In:
Proceedings of conference on soils for engineering purposes. Mexico; 1957.
[10] Grainger GD, Lister NW. A laboratory apparatus for studying the behaviour of
soils under repeated loading. Geotechnique 1962;12:314.
[11] Lanier J, Zitouni Z. Development of a data base using the grenoble true triaxial
apparatus. In: Proceeding of the international workshop on constitutive
equations for granular non-cohesive soils. Cleveland; 1988. p. 4758.
[12] Ullidtz P. Pavement analysis. Elsevier Science Publisher B.V.; 1987.
[13] Leite FC, Motta RS, Vasconcelos KL, Bernucc L. Laboratory evaluation of
recycled construction and demolition waste for pavements. Constr Build Mater
2011;25:29729.
[14] Brown SF. Improved framework for predicting permanent deformation in
asphalt layers. Trans Res Rec 1975;537:1829.
[15] FHWA. Predictive Design Procedures. VESYS Users manual. Report No. FHWARD-77-154. US Federal Highway Administration; 1978.
[16] Hicks GR, Monismith CL. Factors inuencing the resilient response of granular
materials. Highway Res Rec No. 45 1971:1531.
[17] Allen JT, Thompson MR. Resilient response of granular materials subjected to
time dependant lateral stresses. Trans Res Rec No. 510 1974:113.
[18] Brown SF, Selig ET. The design of pavement and rail truck foundations, cyclic
loading of soils: from theory to design, In: OReilly, Brown (Editors). Blackie;
1991. p. 249305.
[19] AASHTO Guide for design of pavement structures. American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Ofcials. Washington (DC); 1993.

[20] TRB Test Procedures for characterising dynamic stress strain properties of
pavement materials, special report 162. Transportation Research Board.
Washington (DC); 1975.
[21] Kalcheft JV, Hicks GR. A Test procedure for determining the resilient response
properties of granular materials. J Test Eval 1973;1:4729.
[22] Brown SF. Repeated load testing of a granular material. J Geotech Eng Div,
ASCE 1974:82541.
[23] Mallick RB, El-Korchi T. Pavement engineering. 1st ed. Boca Raton: CRC; 2009.
[24] Bilodeau JP, Dore G. Relating resilient behaviour of compacted unbound base
granular materials to matrix and interlock characteristics. Constr Build Mater
2012;37:2208.
[25] Brown SF, Pell PS. An experimental investigation of the stresses, strains and
deections in layered pavement structure subjected to dynamic loads. In: 2nd
International conference on structural design of asphalt pavements. Ann Arbor
(USA); 1967. p. 487504.
[26] Hicks RG, Monismith CL. Prediction of the resilient response of pavements
containing granular layers using non-linear elastic theory. In: Proceedings of
the 3rd international conference on asphalt pavements; 1972; 1: 41029.
[27] Huang YH. Pavement analyses and design. 2nd ed. New Jersey: PearsonsPrentice-Hall; 2004.
[28] Kim D, Kim JR. Resilient behaviour of compacted subgrade soils under
repeated triaxial test. Constr Build Mater 2007;21:14709.
[29] Brown SF, Pappin JW. Analysis of pavements with granular bases. Trans Res
Rec 1981;810:1722.
[30] Brown SF, Pappin JW. Modelling of granular materials in pavements. Trans Res
Rec 1985;1022:4551.
[31] Lee SW, Fishman KL. Waste products as highway materials in exible
pavement system. J Trans Eng, ASCE 1993;119:43349.
[32] Fossberg PE. Load-deformation characteristics of three-layer pavements
containing cement-stabilized base. PhD Dissertation. University of California
at Berkeley; 1970.
[33] Raad L, Figueroa JL. Load response of transportation support systems. Trans
Eng J, ASCE 1980;106:11128.
[34] Lav AH, Kenny PJ. Leaching characteristics of eraring (NSW) y ash as road
base material. Road&Trans Res, ARRB 1997;6:5263.