OPEN:

S.No DISTANCE MOVED BY THE

MOVABLE PROBE ON SLOTTED
LINE(M)

VOLTAGE(V)

GAIN(dB)

SHORT:
S.No DISTANCE MOVED BY THE
MOVABLE PROBE ON SLOTTED
LINE(M)

VOLTAGE(V)

GAIN(dB)

VOLTAGE(V)

GAIN(dB)

MISMATCHED:
S.No DISTANCE MOVED BY THE
MOVABLE PROBE ON SLOTTED
LINE(M)

EX.NO:1
MEASUREMENT OF TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS

AIM:
To measure the frequency/wavelength, VSWR, impedance and return loss by using
VRFT-03A-DSS and co-axial slotted line.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1.
2.
3.
4.

VRFT-03A-DSS (RF source)

BNC-BNC cable
Co-axial slotted line trainer (Vcom-03)
Load 50,100,short

PROCEDURE:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Switch ON the RF source.

RF source output is connected to the input of the co-axial slotted line.
Movable probe output is connected to input of the detector using BNC-BNC cable.
Detector output of the RF source is connected to CRO (or) multimeter to measure the
detector voltage.
Output of the co-axial slotted line trainer is kept short.
Difference between the voltage maximum or minimum or can be measured by
adjusting the movable probe on the co-axial trainer.
Repeat the same procedure for open matched and unmatched.
By using the formula.

THEORY:
Frequency:
Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time. It is also
referred to as temporal frequency. The period is the duration of one cycle in a repeating
event, so the period is the reciprocal of the frequency. For example, if a newborn baby's heart
beats at a frequency of 120 times a minute, its period (the interval between beats) is half a
second
Wavelength:
The wavelength of a sinusoidal wave is the spatial period of the wavethe distance
over which the wave's shape repeats. It is usually determined by considering the distance
2

between consecutive corresponding points of the same phase, such as crests, troughs, or zero
crossings, and is a characteristic of both traveling waves and standing waves, as well as other
spatial wave patterns. Wavelength is commonly designated by the letter lambda (). The
concept can also be applied to periodic waves of non-sinusoidal shape. The term wavelength
is also sometimes applied to modulated waves, and to the sinusoidal envelopes of modulated
waves or waves formed by interference of several sinusoids. The SI unit of wavelength is the
meter.
Characteristic impedance:
The characteristic impedance or surge impedance of a uniform transmission line,
usually written Z0, is the ratio of the amplitudes of voltage and current of a single wave
propagating along the line; that is, a wave travelling in one direction in the absence of
reflections in the other direction. Characteristic impedance is determined by the geometry and
materials of the transmission line and, for a uniform line, is not dependent on its length. The
SI unit of characteristic impedance is the ohm.
The characteristic impedance of a lossless transmission line is purely resistive, with no
reactive component. Energy supplied by a source at one end of such a line is transmitted
through the line without being dissipated in the line itself. A transmission line of finite length
(lossless or lossy) that is terminated at one end with a resistor equal to the characteristic
impedance appears to the source like an infinitely long transmission line.
Return loss:
In telecommunications, return loss is the loss of signal power resulting from the reflection
caused at a discontinuity in a transmission line or optical fiber. This discontinuity can be a
mismatch with the terminating load or with a device inserted in the line. It is usually
expressed as a ratio in decibels (dB);

Where RL (dB) is the return loss in dB, Pi is the incident power and Pr is the reflected
power.
Return loss is related to both standing wave ratio (SWR) and reflection coefficient ().
Increasing return loss corresponds to lower SWR. Return loss is a measure of how well
devices or lines are matched. A match is good if the return loss is high. A high return loss is
desirable and results in a lower insertion loss.
Return loss is used in modern practice in preference to SWR because it has better resolution for
small values of reflected wave.

VSWR:
In telecommunications, standing wave ratio (SWR) is the ratio of the amplitude of a partial
standing wave at antinodes (maximum) to the amplitude at an adjacent node (minimum), in
an electrical transmission line.
The SWR is usually defined as a voltage ratio called the VSWR, (sometimes pronounced
"viswar"), for voltage standing wave ratio. For example, the VSWR value 1.2:1 denotes
maximum standing wave amplitude that is 1.2 times greater than the minimum standing wave
value. It is also possible to define the SWR in terms of current, resulting in the ISWR, which
has the same numerical value. The power standing wave ratio (PSWR) is defined as the
square of the VSWR.
SWR is used as an efficiency measure for transmission lines, electrical cables that conduct
radio frequency signals, used for purposes such as connecting radio transmitters and receivers
with their antennas, and distributing cable television signals. A problem with transmission
lines is that impedance mismatches in the cable tend to reflect the radio waves back toward
the source end of the cable, preventing all the power from reaching the destination end. SWR
measures the relative size of these reflections. An ideal transmission line would have an SWR
of 1:1, with all the power reaching the destination and no reflected power. An infinite SWR
represents complete reflection, with all the power reflected back down the cable. The SWR of
a transmission line can be measured with an instrument called an SWR meter, and checking
the SWR is a standard part of installing and maintaining transmission lines.

RESULT:
Thus measurement of frequency, wavelength, VSWR, load impedance and return loss
was done.

BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR S-PARAMETER ESTIMATION OF MICROWAVE

DEVICES:

KLYSTRON
POWER
SUPPLY

KLYSTRON
TUBE WITH
MOUNT

ISOLATOR

PIN
MODULATOR

VARIABLE
ATTENUATOR

FREQUENCY
METER

CRO

MICROWAVE
DEVICE

EX.NO:2
S-PARAMETER ESTIMATION OF MICROWAVE DEVICES

AIM:
To estimate the S-parameter of microwave devices like E-plane tee, H-plane tee and
magic tee.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Klystron power supply

Klystron tube with mount
Isolator
Pin modulator
Variable attenuator
Frequency meter
Cathode ray oscilloscope(CRO)
E-plane tee, H-plane tee, magic tee.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are given according to block diagram.
2. Microwave devices like E-plane tee, H-plane tee and magic tee is connected as
shown in the block diagram.
3. Input is given to one of the port, one port is terminated with matched load and
other port is connected to load. Power output in two arms is noted for E-plane tee
and H-plane tee.
4. Input is given to one of the port, two ports are terminated with matched load and
other port is connected to load. Power output in two arms is noted for magic tee.
5. VSWR is calculated for microwave devices.
THEORY:
E-PLANE TEE:
An E-plane Tee is a waveguide tee in which the axis of its side arm in parallel to the
E-field of the main guide. If the collinear arms are symmetric about the side arm, there are
two different transmissions characteristic. When the waves are fed into the side arm, the
waves appearing at port 1 and port 2 of the collinear arm will be in opposite phase and in the
same magnitude. Therefore
S13= - S23

10

TABULATION:-

NATURE OF
TEE

LOAD
PORT

Vmax( mV)

1
E-PLANE
TEE

2
3

1
H-PLANE
TEE

2
3

1
MAGIC TEE

2
3
4

11

Vmin(mV)

VSWR=
Vmax/
Vmin

H-PLANE TEE:
An H plane Tee is a wave guide tee in which the axis of the side arm is shunting the
E-field or parallel to the H field of the main guide as it can be seen that if two input waves
are fed into port1 and port 2 of the collinear arm, the output wave at port 3 will be phase and
additive.
MAGIC TEE:
A magic Tee is a combination of the E- plane Tee and H-plane Tee. The magic tee has
several characteristic. The magic Tee is commonly used for mixing, duplexing and
impedance measurement. Suppose the example there are two identical radar transmitters in
equivalent stock.

12

13

RESULT:
Thus the S-parameter of microwave devices like E-plane tee, H-plane tee and magic
tee was estimated.

14

BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR MICROSTRIP COUPLER:

KLYSTRON
POWER
SUPPLY

KLYSTRON
TUBE WITH
MOUNT

ISOLATOR

PIN
MODULATOR

VARIABLE
ATTENUATOR

FREQUENCY
METER

CRO

15

MICROSTRIP
COUPLER

EX.NO:3
DESIGN AND TESTING OF MICROSTRIP COUPLER

AIM:
To design and test the Microstrip coupler.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Klystron power supply

Klystron tube with mount
Isolator
Pin modulator
Variable attenuator
Frequency meter
Cathode ray oscilloscope(CRO)
Microstrip coupler.

THEORY:
A Microstrip coupler is a device in which measurement of incident wave and reflected
wave can be done separately. It consists of two transmission lines the main arm and auxiliary
arm both are electromagnetically coupled to each other.
Coupling factor, Directivity and Insertion loss can be found by using following
formulae,
1.
2.
3.

Coupling factor (dB) = 10 log [V1/V3]

Directivity (D in dB) = 10 log [V2/V3]
Insertion loss (dB) = 10 log [V1/V2]

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are given according to block diagram.
2. Input is given to port 1 and power output at port 2 is measured by terminating port
3 with matched load.
3. Input is given to port 1 and power output at port 3 is measured by terminating port
2 with matched load.
4. Input is given to port 2 and power output at port 3 is measured by terminating port
1 with matched load.
5. Input is given to port 2 and power output at port 1 is measured by terminating port
3 with matched load.
6. Coupling factor, Directivity and Insertion loss can be found by using above
formulae.
16

TABULATION:

DIRECTION

PORT1

PORT2

FORWARD

REVERSE

17

PORT3

PORT4

RESULT:
Thus the Microstripcoupler was design and tested.
18

BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR MIOCROSTRIP COUPLER:

KLYSTRON
POWER SUPPLY

HORN
KLYSTRON TUBE
WITH MOUNT

ISOLATOR

VARIABLE
ATTENUATOR

ROTARY
JOINT

FREQUENCY
METER

CRO

19

DETECTOR
MOUNT

EX.NO:4
ANTENNA RADIATION PATTERN MEASUREMENT

AIM:
To measure the pattern of the Horn Antenna.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Klystron power supply.

Klystron Mount.
Isolator.
Variable attenuator.
Frequency meter.
Horn antenna.
Crystal detector.
VSWR meter.

THEORY:
The horn antenna represents a transition or matching section from the guided mode
inside the waveguide to the unguided mode outside the waveguides. The horn antenna
reduces reflections and also leads to a lower standing wave ratio. The horn antenna is used in
the transmission and reception of RF microwave signals and the antenna is normally used in
conjunction with waveguide feed. The horn antenna gains the name from it appearance. The
wavelength can be considered to open out or to be flared launching the signal towards the
receiving antenna.
PROCEDURE: Antenna Radiation pattern:
1. Setup the equipment as keeping the axis of both antennas in same direction.
2. Energizes the Gunn oscillator for maximum output at desired frequency with square
wave modulation by tuning square wave amplitude and frequency of modulation
signal of Gunn power supply and by tuning the detector.
3. Also tune the SS tuner in the line for maximum output.
4. Obtain the full scale deflection on normal dB scale at any convenient range switch
position of VSWR, meter by gain control knob of VSWR meter or by variable
attenuator.
5. Tune the receiving horn to the left in 2 or 5 steps to 4 5 and note the
corresponding VSWR dB reading in normal dB range. When necessary, change the
range switch to next higher range and add 10 dB to the observed reading.
6. Repeat the above steps but this time the receiving horn to right and note down the
readings.S
7. Plot a relative power pattern (i.e.), output vs. angle. From diagram determine 3 dB
width of the horn antenna.

20

PATTERN MEASUREMENT:

SIDE

DEGREE

VR(V)

ANTICLOKWISE
DIRECTION

CLOCKWISE
DIRECTION

21

VT(V)

GAIN IN dB

22

GAIN MEASUREMENT:

S.NO

DISTANCE(CM)

VT(V)

23

VR(V)

GAIN IN dB

RESULT:
Thus the pattern of the wave of horn antenna was measured.

24

wn(z)

x(n)

d^(n)

d(n)

Adaptive
algorithm

GENERAL BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ADAPTIVE FILTER

Filter i/p

v(n)

d^(n)

ADAPTIVE
FILTER

d(n)
Filter o/p

Co-efficient vector

ADAPTATION
PROCEDURE

25

EX.NO:5
DESIGN OF CHANNEL EQUALIZER USING LMS ALGORITHM

AIM:
To write the MATLAB program for LMS algorithm & simulate it.

REQUIREMENTS:
MATLAB Software, PC.

ALGORITHM:
The steepest descent adaptive filter, which has a weight vector equation given
by
Wn+1=Wn +E [e (n-L) X*(n)] --- (1)
So it must be replaced by an estimate such as sample mean.
r-1
E [e (n) x (n)] = 1/L e (n-1)*(n-1)
i=0
Now the equation (1) becomes
r-1
Wn+1= Wn +/L E [N-L] x (n-1) --- (2)
i=0
If we use one point sample of 2L=1 then we get
Wn+1 = Wn + e (n)x (n)
This is known as LMS algorithm.

26

OUTPUT:

27

THEORY:
Least mean squares (LMS) algorithms are a class of adaptive filter used to mimic a
desired filter by finding the filter coefficients that relate to producing the least mean squares
of the error signal (difference between the desired and the actual signal). It is a stochastic
gradient descent method in that the filter is only adapted based on the error at the current
time. It was invented in 1960 by Stanford University professor Bernard Widrow and his first
Ph.D. student, Ted Hoff.
PROGRAM :
clc;
clearall;
closeall;
order=2;
size=2;
fs=8192;
t=[0:1/fs:size];
n=fs*size;
f1=35;
f2=99;
voice=sin(2*pi*f1*t);
subplot(4,1,1);
plot(t,voice);
title('voice (dont have access to)');
noise=sin(2*pi*f2*t.^2);
primary=voice+noise;
subplot(4,1,2);
plot(t,primary);
title('primary=voice+noise(input1)');
ref=noise+.25*rand;
subplot(4,1,3);
plot(t,ref);
title('reference(noisy noise)(input2)');
w=zeros(order,1);
mu=.005;
fori=1:n-order
buffer=ref(i:i+order-1);
desired(i)=primary(i)-buffer*w;
w=w+(buffer.*mu*desired(i)/norm(buffer))';
end
subplot(4,1,4);
plot(t(order+1:n),desired);
title('adaptive output(hopefully its close to voice)');

28

29

RESULT:
Thus the MATLAB program for LMS algorithm was simulated.
30

31

EX.NO:6

CHARACTERSTICS OF /4 AND /2 TRANSMISSION LINES

AIM:
To stimulate the characteristics of a /4 and /2 transmission lines using MATLAB.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. A personal computer
2. MATLAB 6.5 software.
THEORY:
HALF WAVELENGTH LINE (/2 LINES)
A half wave length transmission lines in one whose electrical length is one half
wavelengths. When a /2 line whose characteristics impedance is Zo is transmitted in a load
impedance ZL. Consider an RF sine wave of frequency f and wavelength transmitting from
input to the load. If Vo cos (2 (/x + ft) are the voltage and current on the transmission line,
then at the input x=0 and the input impedance is,
Zs=Vo cos (2ft) / Io cos (2ft)
At the load x=/2 and the load impedance of the lines is
ZL = Vo cos (+2ft) / Io cos ( + 2ft)
From the voltage trigonometry, we know that cos(+2ft)-cos(2ft).

ALGORITHM:
Initialization of parameter for /4 and /2 transmission lines ZL,Zs,Vs,Is.
Simulate the smith chart parameters and coordinates.
Find the location of stub and stub angle load and
Calculate the normalize value of impedance and admittance at the port on
transmission lines where stub is connected.
5. Calculate the normalized admittance of stub line and length of stub line.
6. Plot the characteristic of line on smith chart.
1.
2.
3.
4.

32

33

LAMDA PROGRAM:
Close all;
Clear all;
amp= rfckt.amplifer;
read(amp,sample 1t2.s2p);
analyse(amp,1.9e9);
data=calculate(amp, s11, s12, s21, s22, none);
[s11,s12,s21,s22]=deal(data{1},data{2},data{3},data{4});
delta= s11*s22-s12*s21;
k=(1-abs(s11)^2-abs(s22)^+abs(delta)^2,a2*abs(s12*s21);
abs_delta=abs(delta);
B=1+abs(s22)^2-abs(s11)^2-abs(delta)^2;
C=s22-delta*conj(s11);

34

35

36

CHARACTERSTICS OF /4 AND /2 TRANSMISSION LINES:

OUTPUT:

37

RESULT:
Thus the characteristics of /4 and /2 transmission lines is studied.

38

39

EX.NO:7

PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF DIGITAL MODULATION

SCHEMES

AIM:
To write the MATLAB programs for PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF DIGITAL
MODULATION SCHEMES (ASK, FSK, PSK, QPSK) & simulate it.
REQUIREMENTS:
MATLAB Software, PC.
ALGORITHM:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Start the program

Get the input binary sequence and determine its length
Append the analog input according to the digital input
Choose the sample value according for demodulation
Plot the waveform for input modulation and demodulation
Stop the program

THEORY:
Amplitude-shift keying (ASK):
ASK is a form of modulation that represents digital data as variations in the amplitude
of a carrier wave. Any digital modulation scheme uses a finite number of distinct signals to
represent digital data. ASK uses a finite number of amplitudes, each assigned a unique
pattern of binary digits. Usually, each amplitude encodes an equal number of bits. Each
pattern of bits forms the symbol that is represented by the particular amplitude. The
demodulator, which is designed specifically for the symbol-set used by the modulator,
determines the amplitude of the received signal and maps it back to the symbol it represents,
thus recovering the original data. Frequency and phase of the carrier are kept constant.
Frequency-shift keying (FSK):
FSK is a frequency modulation scheme in which digital information is transmitted
through discrete frequency changes of a carrier wave. The simplest FSK is binary FSK
(BFSK). BFSK uses a pair of discrete frequencies to transmit binary (0s and 1s) information.
With this scheme, the "1" is called the mark frequency and the "0" is called the space
frequency. The time domain of an FSK modulated carrier is illustrated in the figures to the
right.

40

41

Phase-shift keying (PSK)

PSK is a digital modulation scheme that conveys data by changing, or modulating, the
phase of a reference signal (the carrier wave).Any digital modulation scheme uses a finite
number of distinct signals to represent digital data. PSK uses a finite number of phases, each
assigned a unique pattern of binary digits. Usually, each phase encodes an equal number of
bits. Each pattern of bits forms the symbol that is represented by the particular phase. The
demodulator, which is designed specifically for the symbol-set used by the modulator,
determines the phase of the received signal and maps it back to the symbol it represents, thus
recovering the original data. This requires the receiver to be able to compare the phase of the
received signal to a reference signal such a system is termed coherent (and referred to as
CPSK).
Alternatively, instead of operating with respect to a constant reference wave, the broadcast
can operate with respect to itself. Changes in phase of a single broadcast waveform can be
considered the significant items. In this system, the demodulator determines the changes in
the phase of the received signal rather than the phase (relative to a reference wave) itself.
Since this scheme depends on the difference between successive phases, it is termed
differential phase-shift keying (DPSK). DPSK can be significantly simpler to implement
than ordinary PSK since there is no need for the demodulator to have a copy of the reference
signal to determine the exact phase of the received signal (it is a non-coherent scheme). In
exchange, it produces more erroneous demodulations.
Quadrature Phase-shift keying (QPSK)
Sometimes this is known as quaternary PSK, quadriphase PSK, 4-PSK, or 4-QAM.
(Although the root concepts of QPSK and 4-QAM are different, the resulting modulated radio
waves are exactly the same.) QPSK uses four points on the constellation diagram, equispaced
around a circle. With four phases, QPSK can encode two bits per symbol, shown in the
diagram with gray coding to minimize the bit error rate (BER) sometimes misperceived as
twice the BER of BPSK.
The mathematical analysis shows that QPSK can be used either to double the data rate
compared with a BPSK system while maintaining the same bandwidth of the signal, or to
maintain the data-rate of BPSK but halving the bandwidth needed. In this latter case, the
BER of QPSK is exactly the same as the BER of BPSK - and deciding differently is a
common confusion when considering or describing QPSK.
Given that radio communication channels are allocated by agencies such as the Federal
Communication Commission giving a prescribed (maximum) bandwidth, the advantage of QPSK over
BPSK becomes evident: QPSK transmits twice the data rate in a given bandwidth compared to BPSK at the same BER. The engineering penalty that is paid is that QPSK transmitters and receivers are
more complicated than the ones for BPSK. However, with modern electronics technology, the
penalty in cost is very moderate.

42

OUTPUT FOR AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING:

43

PROGRAM FOR AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING:

clc;
clearall;
x=[1 0 1 1 0 1];
n=length(x);
t=0:1:25;
y=sin(t);
ask=0;
fori=1:n
if (x(i)==1)
ask=[ask 4*y];
else (x(i)==0)
ask=[ask 0*y];
end
end
demod=0;
ptr=10;
fori=1:n
if ask(ptr)>0
demod(i)=1;
else
demod(i)=0;
end
ptr=ptr+length(t);
end
subplot(4,1,1);
stem(x);
title('message signal');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
subplot(4,1,2);
plot(y);
title('carrier signal');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
subplot(4,1,3);
plot(ask);
title('modulated signal');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
subplot(4,1,4);
stem(demod);
title('demodulated signal');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');

44

OUTPUT FOR FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING:

45

PROGRAM FOR FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING:

clc;
clearall;
closeall;
x=[1 0 1 1 0 1];
n=length(x);
t=0:1:25;
y=sin(t);
z=sin(2*t);
fsk=0;
fori=1:n
if (x(i)==1)
fsk=[fsk y];
else (x(i)==0)
fsk=[fsk z];
end
end
demod=0;
ptr=10;
fori=1:n
iffsk(ptr)>0
demod(i)=1;
else
demod(i)=0;
end
ptr=ptr+length(t);
end
subplot(5,1,1);
stem(x);
title('message signal');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
subplot(5,1,2);
plot(y);
title('carrier signal 1');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
subplot(5,1,3);
plot(z);
title('carrier signal 2');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
subplot(5,1,4);
plot(fsk);
title('modulated signal');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
subplot(5,1,5);
stem(demod);
title('demodulated signal');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');

46

OUTPUT FOR PHASE SHIFT KEYING:

47

PROGRAM FOR PHASE SHIFT KEYING:

clc;
clearall;
closeall;
x=[1 0 1 1 0 1];
n=length(x);
t=0:1:25;
y=sin(t);
z=-y;
psk=0;
fori=1:n
if (x(i)==1)
psk=[psk y];
else (x(i)==0)
psk=[psk z];
end
end
demod=0;
ptr=10;
fori=1:n
ifpsk(ptr)>0
demod(i)=1;
else
demod(i)=0;
end
ptr=ptr+length(t);
end
subplot(5,1,1);
stem(x);
title('message signal');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
subplot(5,1,2);
plot(y);
title('carrier signal 1');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
subplot(5,1,3);
plot(z);
title('carrier signal 2');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
subplot(5,1,4);
plot(psk);
title('modulated signal');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
subplot(5,1,5);
stem(demod);
title('demodulated signal');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');

48

OUTPUT FOR QUADRATURE PHASE SHIFT KEYING:

OUTPUT FOR QUADRATURE PHASE SHIFT KEYING:

49

PROGRAM FOR QUADRATURE PHASE SHIFT KEYING:

clc;
clearall;
closeall;
input=randsrc(1,10,[1,0]);
k=1;
fori=1:10
for j=1:50
m(k)=input(i);
k=k+1;
end
end
figure(1);
subplot(3,1,1);
plot(m);
title('INPUT BITS');
xlabel('Time(s)');
ylabel('Amplitude(v)');
grid;
axis([1,500,0,2]);
k=1;
l=50;
fori=1:10
if rem(i,2)~=0
if(input(i)==1)
for j=1:100
msgodd(k)=1;
k=k+1;
end
else
for j=1:100
msgodd(k)=-1;
k=k+1;
end
end
end
if(input(i)==1)
for j=50:150
msgeven(l)=1;
l=l+1;
end
else
for j=50:150
msgeven(l)=-1;
l=l+1;
end
end
end
subplot(3,1,2);
plot(msgodd);
title('MESSAGE ODD');
xlabel('Time(s)');
ylabel('Amplitude(v)');
grid;
50

51

axis([1,500,-1.5,1.5]);
subplot(3,1,3);
plot(msgeven);
title('MESSAGE EVEN');
xlabel('Time(s)');
ylabel('Amplitude(v)');
grid;
axis([1,500,-1.5,1.5]);
n=1:100;
s=sin(2*pi*2*n/50);
c=cos(2*pi*2*n/50);
k=1;
fori=1:5
for j=1:100
c1(k)=s(j);
c2(k)=c(j);
k=k+1;
end
end
fori=1:500
qo(i)=msgodd(i)*c1(i);
qe(i)=msgeven(i)*c2(i);
qpsk(i)=qo(i)+qe(i);
end
figure(2);
subplot(3,1,1);
plot(qo);
title('INPHASE BITS');
xlabel('Time(s)');
ylabel('Amplitude(v)');
grid;
axis([1,500,-1.5,1.5]);
subplot(3,1,2);
plot(qe);
title('OFFSET QUADRATURE PHASE BITS');
xlabel('Time(s)');
ylabel('Amplitude(v)');
grid;
axis([1,500,-1.5,1.5]);
subplot(3,1,3);
plot(qpsk);
title('OFFSET QPSK WAVEFORM');
xlabel('Time(s)');
ylabel('Amplitude(v)');
grid;
axis([1,500,-1.5,1.5]);

52

53

RESULT:
Thus theMATLAB programs for PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF DIGITAL
MODULATION SCHEMES (ASK, FSK, PSK, QPSK) was simulated.

54

OFDM Transmitter

OFDM Receiver

55

EX.NO:8

ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DIVISION

MULITIPLEXING(OFDM)TRANSCEIVER

AIM:
To write the program for Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing(OFDM)transceiver and simulate it using MATLAB.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

MATLAB software
Personal Computer

ALGORITHM:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Start the program.

Get the values of G, Kmax, Kmin and Fs.
Run the program.
Encode by format.
Plot the graph.
Stop the program.

THEORY:

OFDM TRANSMITTER
In an OFDM schemes , a large number of orthogonal ,overlapping, narrow band sub
channel or sub carriers,transmitted in parallel, divide the available transmission bandwidth.
The separation of the sub carriers is theoretically minimal such that there is a very compact
spectral utilization. The attraction of OFDM is mainly due to how the system handles the
multipath interference at the receiver. Multipath generated two effects :frequency selective
fading and intersymbol interference.
OFDM RECEIVER

The design of OFDM receivers is open , there are only transmission standards. With
an open receiver design, most of the research and innovations are done in the receiver. For
example the frequency sensitivity drawback is mainly a transmission channel predicting
issues, something that is done in the receiver.

56

OUTPUT:
TRANSMITTER

57

PROGRAM:
OFDM TRANSMITTER:
%DVB-T 2K Transmission
%The available bandwidth is 8 MHz
%2K is intended for mobile services
clearall;
closeall;
%DVB-T Parameters
Tu=224e-6; %useful OFDM symbol period
T=Tu/2048; %baseband elementary period
G=0; %choice of 1/4, 1/8, 1/16, and 1/32
delta=G*Tu; %guard band duration
Ts=delta+Tu; %total OFDM symbol period
Kmax=1705; %number of subcarriers
Kmin=0;
FS=4096;

%IFFT/FFT length

q=10; %carrier period to elementary period ratio

fc=q*1/T; %carrier frequency
Rs=4*fc; %simulation period
t=0:1/Rs:Tu;

%Data generator (A)

M=Kmax+1;
rand('state',0);
a=-1+2*round(rand(M,1)).'+i*(-1+2*round(rand(M,1))).'; A=length(a);
info=zeros(FS,1);
info(1:(A/2)) = [ a(1:(A/2)).']; %Zero padding
info((FS-((A/2)-1)):FS) = [ a(((A/2)+1):A).'];

58

59

%Subcarriers generation (B)

carriers=FS.*ifft(info,FS); tt=0:T/2:Tu;
figure(1);
subplot(2,1,1);
stem(tt(1:20),real(carriers(1:20)));
subplot(2,1,2);
stem(tt(1:20),imag(carriers(1:20))); figure(2);
f=(2/T)*(1:(FS))/(FS); subplot(2,1,1);
plot(f,abs(fft(carriers,FS))/FS); subplot(2,1,2);
pwelch(carriers,[],[],[],2/T);
% D/A simulation
L = length(carriers);
chips = [ carriers.';zeros((2*q)-1,L)]; p=1/Rs:1/Rs:T/2;
g=ones(length(p),1); %pulse shape figure(3);
stem(p,g);
dummy=conv(g,chips(:));
u=[dummy(1:length(t))]; % (C) figure(4);
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(t(1:400),real(u(1:400))); subplot(2,1,2);
plot(t(1:400),imag(u(1:400))); figure(5);
ff=(Rs)*(1:(q*FS))/(q*FS); subplot(2,1,1);
plot(ff,abs(fft(u,q*FS))/FS); subplot(2,1,2);
pwelch(u,[],[],[],Rs);
[b,a] = butter(13,1/20); %reconstruction filter
[H,F] = FREQZ(b,a,FS,Rs);
figure(6);
plot(F,20*log10(abs(H)));
uoft = filter(b,a,u); %baseband signal (D)

60

61

figure(7);
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(t(80:480),real(uoft(80:480))); subplot(2,1,2);
plot(t(80:480),imag(uoft(80:480))); figure(8);
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(ff,abs(fft(uoft,q*FS))/FS); subplot(2,1,2);
pwelch(uoft,[],[],[],Rs);

%Upconverter
s_tilde=(uoft.').*exp(1i*2*pi*fc*t);
s=real(s_tilde); %passband signal (E)
figure(9);
plot(t(80:480),s(80:480)); figure(10);
subplot(2,1,1);
%plot(ff,abs(fft(((real(uoft).').*cos(2*pi*fc*t)),q*FS))/FS);
%plot(ff,abs(fft(((imag(uoft).').*sin(2*pi*fc*t)),q*FS))/FS);
plot(ff,abs(fft(s,q*FS))/FS);
subplot(212);
%pwelch(((real(uoft).').*cos(2*pi*fc*t)),[],[],[],Rs);
%pwelch(((imag(uoft).').*sin(2*pi*fc*t)),[],[],[],Rs);
pwelch(s,[],[],[],Rs);

62

63

OFDM RECEIVER:
%DVB-T 2K Reception
clearall;
closeall;
Tu=224e-6; %useful OFDM symbol period
T=Tu/2048; %baseband elementary period
G=0; %choice of 1/4, 1/8, 1/16, and 1/32
delta=G*Tu; %guard band duration
Ts=delta+Tu; %total OFDM symbol period
Kmax=1705; %number of subcarriers
Kmin=0;
FS=4096;

%IFFT/FFT length

q=10; %carrier period to elementary period ratio

fc=q*1/T; %carrier frequency
Rs=4*fc; %simulation period
t=0:1/Rs:Tu;
tt=0:T/2:Tu;

%Data generator
sM = 2;
[x,y] = meshgrid((-sM+1):2:(sM-1),(-sM+1):2:(sM-1)); alphabet = x(:) + 1i*y(:);
N=Kmax+1;
rand('state',0);
a=-1+2*round(rand(N,1)).'+i*(-1+2*round(rand(N,1))).'; A=length(a);
info=zeros(FS,1);
info(1:(A/2)) = [ a(1:(A/2)).'];
info((FS-((A/2)-1)):FS) = [ a(((A/2)+1):A).']; carriers=FS.*ifft(info,FS);

64

OUTPUT:
RECEIVER

65

%Upconverter
L = length(carriers);
chips = [ carriers.';zeros((2*q)-1,L)]; p=1/Rs:1/Rs:T/2;
g=ones(length(p),1);
dummy=conv(g,chips(:));
u=[dummy; zeros(46,1)];
[b,aa] = butter(13,1/20);
uoft = filter(b,aa,u);
delay=64; %Reconstruction filter delay
s_tilde=(uoft(delay+(1:length(t))).').*exp(1i*2*pi*fc*t);
s=real(s_tilde);

%OFDM RECEPTION
%Downconversion
r_tilde=exp(-1i*2*pi*fc*t).*s; %(F) figure(1);
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(t,real(r_tilde));
axis([0e-7 12e-7 -60 60]); grid on;
figure(1);
subplot(2,1,2);
plot(t,imag(r_tilde));
axis([0e-7 12e-7 -100 150]); grid on;
figure(2);
ff=(Rs)*(1:(q*FS))/(q*FS); subplot(2,1,1);
plot(ff,abs(fft(r_tilde,q*FS))/FS); grid on;
figure(2);
subplot(2,1,2);
pwelch(r_tilde,[],[],[],Rs);

66

67

%Carrier suppression
[B,AA] = butter(3,1/2);
r_info=2*filter(B,AA,r_tilde); %Baseband signal continuous-time (G)
figure(3);
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(t,real(r_info));
axis([0 12e-7 -60 60]); grid on;
figure(3);
subplot(2,1,2);
plot(t,imag(r_info));
axis([0 12e-7 -100 150]); grid on;
figure(4);
f=(2/T)*(1:(FS))/(FS); subplot(2,1,1);
plot(ff,abs(fft(r_info,q*FS))/FS); grid on;
subplot(2,1,2);
pwelch(r_info,[],[],[],Rs);
%Sampling
r_data=real(r_info(1:(2*q):length(t)))... %Baseband signal, discrete-time
+1i*imag(r_info(1:(2*q):length(t)));

% (H)

figure(5);
subplot(2,1,1);
stem(tt(1:20),(real(r_data(1:20)))); axis([0 12e-7 -60 60]);
gridon;
figure(5);
subplot(2,1,2);
stem(tt(1:20),(imag(r_data(1:20)))); axis([0 12e-7 -100 150]);
gridon;
figure(6); f=(2/T)*(1:(FS))/(FS); subplot(2,1,1);

68

69

plot(f,abs(fft(r_data,FS))/FS); grid on;

subplot(2,1,2);
pwelch(r_data,[],[],[],2/T);

%FFT
info_2N=(1/FS).*fft(r_data,FS); % (I)
info_h=[info_2N(1:A/2) info_2N((FS-((A/2)-1)):FS)];

%Slicing
for k=1:N,
a_hat(k)=alphabet((info_h(k)-alphabet)==min(info_h(k)-alphabet));
end;
figure(7)
plot(info_h((1:A)),'.k');
title('info-h Received Constellation')
axissquare;
axisequal;
figure(8)
plot(a_hat((1:A)),'or');
title('a_hat 4-QAM')
axissquare;
axisequal;
gridon;
axis([-1.5 1.5 -1.5 1.5]);

70

71

RESULT:
Thus the Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) Transceiver was simulated in
MATLAB.

72

73

EX.NO:9
SIMULATION OF MICROSTRIP ANTENNA

AIM:
To design and test the Microstrip antenna using MATLAB.

REQUIREMENTS:
MATLAB Software, PC.

ALGORITHM:
1. Enter the dielectric constant value, the resonant frequency value in GHz, height of
the micro-strip antenna in mm and width of the micro-strip antenna in cm.
2. Effective dielectric constant of micro-strip is Calculated and displayed.
3. Increase in length of micro-strip in cm is Calculated and displayed.
4. Length of micro-strip in cm is Calculated and displayed.
5. Effective length of micro-strip in cm is Calculated and displayed.
6. The program is run and output is visualized in the command window.
THEORY:
Micro strip radiation can be transmitted through space or through the atmosphere in a
microwave beam from a microwave antenna and the microwave energy can be collected with
a microwave antenna.
Microwave antennas are used for transmitting and receiving the microwave are used
for transmitting and receiving the microwave radiation. Microwave antenna are usually
essential parts of microwave telecommunication systems. Microwave antennas are as
antennas typically comprise an open ended wave guide and a parabolic reflector or horn and
they typically transmit a predetermined frequency in a predetermined direction. Microwave
antennas are usually equipped with a reflector having a structure of predetermined shape on
which is placed a micro of reflecting microwaves. The structure and the mirror are supported
by a frame mainly formed of tubes welded together or of welded or viveted compartments.

74

OUTPUT:
Enter the dielectric constant value=25
Enter the resonant frequency value in ghz:15
Enter the height of the Microstrip antenna in mm:20
Width of the Microstrip in cm=
w = 0.2774
ereff = 13.4077
The effective dielectric constant of the Microstrip=
ereff =
13.4077
increase in length of the Microstrip in cm=
inclen =
2.8865
Length of the Microstrip in cm=
len =
-5.5000
Effective length of the Microstrip in cm=
leff =
0.2731

75

PROGRAM:
clc;
clearall;
er=input('Enter the dielectric constant value=');
fr=input('Enter the resonant frequency value in ghz:');
h=input('Enter the height of the microstrip antenna in mm:');
c=30;%10^9cm/sec
%--------------width calculation------------w=((sqrt(2/(er+1))*c)/(2*fr));
display('Width of the microstrip in cm=');
display(w);
%----------dielectric constant calculation---------wbyh=w/h;
ereff=((er+1)/2)+((er-1)/2)*(1+12*1/wbyh)^-0.5
display('The effective dielectric constant of the microstrip=');
display(ereff);
%---------increase in length calculation-------------a=((ereff+0.3)/(ereff-0.258));
b=((wbyh+0.264)/(wbyh+0.813));
inclen=0.412*h*a*b;
display('increase in length of the microstrip in cm=');
display(inclen);
%----------length-----------len=(c/(2*fr*sqrt(ereff)))-(2*inclen);
display('Length of the microstrip in cm=');
display(len);
%------------effective length of microstrip---leff=len+(2*inclen);
display('Effective length of the microstrip in cm=');
display(leff);

76

77

RESULT:
Thus the Microstrip antenna was designed and tested by using MATLAB.
78

79

EX.NO:10

PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF SIMULATED CDMA

SYSTEM

AIM:
To evaluate the performance of CDMA using MATLAB.

REQUIREMENTS:
MATLAB Software, PC.

ALGORITHM:
1. Pseudo noise sequence is generated by using the maximum length sequence shift
register of length = 3 and length of PN sequence is 7.
2. Random digital is generated by using maximum length sequence.
3. The spread message is modulated by using primary phase shift keying technique
and it is transmitted over AWGN channel.
4. The received message is demodulated and despread using correlation of the same
PN sequence.
5. Bit Error Rate (BER) is calculated.

80

81

PROGRAM:
clc;
clearall;
N=128;
M=32;
snr_db=0:15;
K=[0 10];
r1=(pi/4)*(exp(-K(1))/(K(1)+1))*((1+K(1))*besseli(0,K(1)/2)+K(1)*besseli(1,K(1)/2))^2;
r2=(pi/4)*(exp(-K(2))/(K(2)+1))*((1+K(2))*besseli(0,K(2)/2)+K(2)*besseli(1,K(2)/2))^2;
fori=1:length(snr_db)
snr=10^(snr_db(i)/10);
p_awgn(i)=(sqrt(snr));
p_ray(i)=(sqrt((pi/2)*(snr/(((2-pi/2)*snr/N)+(M-1)*snr/N)+1)));
p_rician1(i)=(sqrt((r1*snr)/((M*(1-r1)*snr)/N+1)));
p_rician2(i)=(sqrt((r2*snr)/((M*(1-r2)*snr)/N+1)));
end
figure(1);
semilogy(snr_db,p_awgn,'-*',snr_db,p_ray,'-^',snr_db,p_rician1,'-+',snr_db,p_rician2,'-+');
title('signal to noise ratio of AWGN,RAYLEIGH,RICIAN CHANNEL');
xlabel('10*log10SNR');
ylabel('Average error probability');
legend('AWGN','RAYLEIGH','K=0 RICIAN','K=10 RICIAN');
clearall;
snr_db=0:15;
p_ray1=ray(128,8);
p_ray2-ray(128,64);
p_ray3=ray(128,128);
figure(2);
semilogy(snr_db,p_ray1,'-+',snr_db,p_ray2,'-*',snr_db,p_ray3,'-^');
title('BER in rayleigh fading(number of users=8)');
xlabel('10*log10SNR');
ylabel('Average error probability');
legand('M=8 rayleigh','M=64 rayleigh','M=128 rayleigh');
clearall;
snr_db=0:15;
p_rician1=rician(128,8);
p_rician2=rician(128,64);
p_rician3=rician(128,128);
figure(3);
semilogy(snr_db,p_rician1,'-^',snr_db,p_rician2,'-*',snr_db,p_rician3,'-+');
title('BER in rician fading channel K=0(number of users=8)');
xlabel('10*log10SNR');
ylabel('Average error probability');
legand('M=8 rician','M=64 rician','M=128 rician');
clearall;
snr_db=0:15;
p_rician1=rician(128,64);
p_rician2=rician(128,128);
p_rician3=rician(128,256);
figure(4);
semilogy(snr_db,p_rician1,'-^',snr_db,p_rician2,'-*',snr_db,p_rician3,'-+');
title('BER in rician fading channel K=0(number of users=64)');
xlabel('10*log10SNR');
ylabel('Average error probability');
legand('M=64 rician','M=128 rician','M=256 rician');

82

OUTPUT:

83

RESULT:
Thus the performance evaluation of CDMA system was done by using MATLAB.
84