Introduction to Contaminant Hydrogeology:

BASIC GEOLOGY
CONCEPTS
Luanne Vanderpool
U. S. EPA Region 5 Tech Support
NARPM
Baltimore, May 23, 2007

Geology
The study of the origin, history, composition,
and structure of the earth.

Basic Geology Concepts

Lithology: Study of Earth Materials
Rocks and Soil

3-Dimensional Distribution of Earth

Materials
Stratigraphy
Structure

Geology of Ground Water Occurrence

Maps and Cross Sections
How we portray the materials
3

Earth Materials
Unconsolidated materials
Soil
Sediment
Dirt
Regolith

Consolidated materials
Rocks: Particles of various sizes and shapes
welded together by heat, pressure or
chemical reactions into a solid mass
4

Consolidated Rock Types

Igneous Rocks
Sedimentary Rocks
Metamorphic Rocks

Rock Types

Igneous Rocks
Formed by cooling and crystallization of
lava and magma (melted matter)
Examples
Basalt, Granite, Gabbro

Basalt

Basalt

Granite

Rock Types

Sedimentary Rocks
Formed by the consolidation of loose
particles (mud, sand, boulders, shell and
coral fragments)
Conglomerate, Sandstone, Siltstone, Shale

Formed by precipitation from solution

Limestone, Dolomite, Evaporites

Composed of parts of living things

Limestone, Coal
10

Conglomerate

11

Conglomerate
and
Sandstone

12

Close-up View of Sandstone

13

Shale

5 cm

14

Rock Types

Metamorphic Rocks
Formed by heat and pressure changing
the original (parent) rock into a completely
new rock
Slate, Schist, Gneiss
Quartzite, Marble

15

Slate
5 cm

16

Schist

17

Outcrop of Gneiss

18

Quartzite

19

Marble

20

The Rock Cycle

TARY
N
E
M
I
D
SE
ROCKS
erosion
&
deposit
ion
temp
e
& pre rature
ssure

g
meltin

ture
pera
tem ssure
e
& pr

me
ltin

er
o
de sion

po &
sit
io n

IGNEOUS
ROCKS

The rock cycle

portrays the
interrelationships
among the three
rock groups.

ME
T
RO AMOR
C KS
PHI
C

21

Questions to Ask
What is the Regional Ground Water
Setting?
Is the geology of the site typical for the
area?
Are there local features (fractures, sand
lenses) at the site that may control flow?
What, Where, How deep?

Do I have one or more geologic cross

sections for the site?
22

Weathering
The weathering
process fractures and
dissolves rock and
creates soil
Two types of
weathering
Physical
Chemical

23

Weathering
Granite in various
stages of weathering

24

What is Soil?
To an Agronomist: the weathered upper
layers of earth material capable of
supporting plant life
Geologist: the weathered upper layers of
earth material covering rocks
Hydrologist/Engineer: surficial material
that will disaggregate (fall apart) when
subjected to gentle mechanical force.
25

Basic Soil Concepts

Grain Size
Sorting and Grading
Porosity
These terms are also used to describe
rocks.

26

Grain Size
Grain size refers to the physical dimensions of
particles of sedimentary rock or soil.
Gravel: > 2 mm
Sand: 1/16 - 2 mm
Silt: 1/256 - 1/16 mm
Clay: < 1/256 mm

Conglomerate
Sandstone
Siltstone
Shale/Mudstone

27

Grain Size Examples

28

Sorting and Grading

Soils of mixed grain size may be
described by their sorting or
grading.
A well sorted soil has particles of
similar size
A poorly sorted soil has particles
with a variety of sizes
But to an engineer
A poorly sorted soil is well graded
A well sorted soil is poorly graded

WELL-SORTED SAND
POORLY-GRADED SAND

POORLY-SORTED SAND
WELL-GRADED SAND
29

Porosity
Soil and rock contains voids: spaces,
cracks, pores
The voids are filled with fluid (air, water)
Porosity measures the amount of voids

30

Porosity

Primary

Secondary
Fractures in Granite
Caverns in Limestone

31

Lithology
Physical make up of
soil and rocks

Stratigraphy
Geometric and age
relationships

Structure
Features produced by
deformations

Knowledge of lithology, stratigraphy and structures

leads to understanding of distribution of aquifers
and confining units.
32

Water-Bearing Rocks
Sands and Gravels
Sandstone
Limestone and
dolomite
Basalt
Other

33

Stratigraphy
Sedimentary rock
(and layered igneous
rocks) have
stratification or
bedding.
Contacts between
layers or strata are
called bedding planes
Ground water may
move more easily
along bedding planes
34

Basic Structure Concepts

Structural Geology is the study of the
3-dimensional distribution of rock
bodies and the processes which
deform (fold, break) them.
Folds
Fractures
Faults
Joints
35

Folds

36

Folds

37

Fractures - Faults
Faults are fractures along which there has been
displacement of the material on either side of the
fault.
Fractures and
faults can be
a significant
pathway for
ground water
flow.
38

Fractures: Joints
Joints are fractures along which there has been no
displacement.

39

Ground Water Regions

Alaska

1
40

Ground Water Regions

1. Western Mountain
Ranges
2. Alluvial Basins
3. Columbia Lava Plateau:
4. Colorado Plateau and
Wyoming Basin
5. High Plains
6. Nonglaciated Central
Region
7. Glaciated Central Region
8. Piedmont and Blue Ridge

9. Northeast and Superior

Uplands
10. Atlantic and Gulf
Coastal Plain
11. Southeast Coastal Plain
12. Alluvial Valleys
13. Hawaiian Islands
14. Alaska
15. Puerto Rico and Virgin
Islands
2
41

Maps and Cross Sections

Contour maps
Geologic maps
Cross sections

42

Contour Maps

Topographic maps
show variations in
the elevation of a
land surface.
43

Topographic Map
Tightly spaced contour
lines describe steep
changes in elevation,
Areas of very few
contours portray flat
areas

44

Geologic Map
A geologic map is a
special map that
shows the distribution
of different kinds of
rocks or sediments
and structural
features (e.g. faults).

45

Geologic Maps
A geologic map
has a legend that
identifies rock
types and relative
ages of rock units.

46

Cross Sections
A cross section or
profile is a vertical
slice
A topographic profile
is a slice through a
topographic map.

47

Geologic Cross Sections

A geologic cross section is a vertical view of
strata.

48

Geologic Cross Sections

By interpreting the sequence of events which
produced the strata it is possible to gain
insight into the geologic history of a region.

49

Least You Need to Know

Geology (lithology, stratigraphy, structure)
forms the framework for where ground
water is found.
thus controlling where groundwater
contamination is found.

Effective site investigations consider and

use site geology to select groundwater
sampling locations.
Understanding of site geology impacts
remediation cost and effectiveness
50

Questions to Ask
What is the regional ground water setting?
Is the geology of the site typical for the
area?
Are there local features (fractures, sand
lenses, clay units) at the site that may
control flow?
What, Where, How deep?

Do I have one or more geologic cross

sections for the site?
51

Basic Geologic Concepts

Case Study
Thermalkem Site

Thermalkem
Site Location

North
Carolina

Site

u
So

r
a
hC

a
n
i
ol

Gabbro

Mica Gneiss
Thermalkem Site

Geologic Map of Thermalkem Site

ThermalKEM
Facility
Rock Hill , SC

ThermalKEM
Rock Hill, SC
Fracture Trace Map

KEY
Approximate
Locations
of Bedrock
Lineaments

57

58

LOG OF
GROUNDWATER
MONITORING WELL
MW-102

GROUND SURFACE
ELEVATION 529.0

Silty Clay
4.0

Silt and
9.0
Fine Sand
10.0

Frac. Rock
13.0
Sandy Clay

Silty
Sand19.0

Cement
Grout

Sandy22.0
Clay
Bedrock

ThermalKEM
Rock Hill, SC

23.3
24.0

Open
Hole

Gabbro
34.0

'34.0

Site

ThermalKEM
Rock Hill, SC
Cross-Section
Location Map

Monitoring
Well
Along F-F

F'

GEOLOGIC CROSS-SECTION LINE F- F'

Geologic Cross-Section,
F-F,
ThermalKEM Facility, Rock
Hill , Thermalkem
SC

Site
F
540

F
PW2A

520

OB
SA SA

500

OB-12
SA

MW-114 MW-113B MW-115B

OB

OB

OB

SA

SA

SA

Saprolite

540
520

OB
OB

500

SA
SA

480

480
BR

460
440

BR

460

Bedrock

440
0

30
FEET

Screened (intake) interval

60