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MLLER,
M. DEICKE,
& RIK W.
DE DONCKER
HE AIM OF WIND TURBINE SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT is to continuously increase output power. A few
years ago, the rated output power of
26
Nominal
Power
in (kW)
Rotor
Control
Speed
Control
Rotor
Diameter
(m)
DeWind D6
1,250
Pitch
Variable
64
AN BONUS
2,000
CombiStall
Const
76
Nordex N80
2,500
Pitch
Variable
80
Enron EW1.5s
1,500
Pitch
Variable
70
Enercon E-66
1,800
Pitch
Variable
70
Enron EW3.6
3,600
Pitch
Variable
100
Pro&Pro MD70
1,500
Pitch
Variable
70
Vestas V80
2,000
Pitch
Variable
80
Modern high-power wind turbines are capable of adjustable speed operation. Key
Grid
advantages of adjustable speed generators
(ASGs) compared to fixed-speed generators (FSGs) are:
PGen
They are cost effective and provide
simple pitch control; the controlPmech
ling speed of the generator (frequency) allows the pitch control
ASG
time constants to become longer,
reducing pitch control complexity
Compensation
and peak power requirements. At
lower wind speed, the pitch angle is
1
usually fixed. Pitch angle control is
performed only to limit maximum Fixed speed Danish concept.
output power at high wind speed.
They reduce mechanical stresses; gusts of wind can
be absorbed, i.e., energy is stored in the mechanical
inertia of the turbine, creating an elasticity that re1.2
duces torque pulsations.
They dynamically compensate for torque and power
Pel
1.0
pulsations caused by back pressure of the tower. This
back pressure causes noticeable torque pulsations at a
0.8
rate equal to the turbine rotor speed times the number of rotor wings.
0.6
They improve power quality; torque pulsations can
be reduced due to the elasticity of the wind turbine
0.4
system. This eliminates electrical power variations,
i.e., less flicker.
0.2
Wind Speed
They improve system efficiency; turbine speed is ad0
justed as a function of wind speed to maximize output
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
power. Operation at the maximum power point can be
Turbine Speed n/nN
2
realized over a wide power range. Fig. 2 illustrates
typical output power-speed curves as a function of tur- Electrical output power as a function of turbine speed. Pabine speed and wind speed. As a result, energy effirameter curves are plotted for different wind speeds. Maxiciency improvement up to 10% is possible (Fig. 3).
mum power point tracking (red curve) can be realized with
They reduce acoustic noise, because low-speed operation is possible at low power conditions.
a speed variable system.
27
Profit:
Speed
Variation
Reference: Stall,
Constant Speed
Wind Speed
In addition, most ASG-based wind turbines can offer island-operation capability. Island operation is difficult to
realize with the Danish concept.
PGen
Pmech
3~
SG
=
Gear Box
4
Direct-in-line wind turbine system.
Grid
PGen
DFM
s*PGen
3~
s*PGen
=
=
5
28
3~
Converter
Filter
v Sj = r S i Sj +
Sj
dt
j = {1,2,3}
(1)
jXsis
jXsIs
vb
vs
vs
Synchronous Machine-Type
Equivalent Circuit
vm
Induction Machine-Type
Equivalent Circuit
i R
is
Xs
vb
XR
v R
s
vM
vs
is
is
IM
Xs
vs
i R
i R
is
iM
XM
is
DFIG.
(4)
v Rj = rR i Rj +
Rj
dt
v 1 sin v 2 sin 3
2
vd =
3
v 3 sin + 3
j = {1,2,3}
(2)
Tel =
d j
p 3
.
ij
d
2 j =1
(5)
yields
v = vd + j vq
(6)
v S = rS i S +
v 1 cos + v 2 cos 3
2
vd =
3
+v 3 cos + 3
S
dt
+ j S S
(7)
v R = rR i R +
R
dt
+ j R R
(8)
P/Pr
P/Pr
1
PG
PG
0.75
0.75
PS
PS
0.5
0.5
0.25
0.25
PR
0.3
PR
PGC
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
Slip
0.7
PGC
0.8
-0.25
0.9
1.1
1.2
1.3
n/n0
-0.25
(3)
In these equations, all quantities are referred to the
stator, i.e., transformed rotor quantities (superscript ) are
used. Transforming these equations from three-phase to
two-phase components and subsequently rotating all variables into a synchronous reference frame (dq) according to
8
Induction machine type equivalent circuit and vector diagram of the DFIG.
29
S = L S i S + Lm i R
(9)
R = Lm i S + LR i R
(10)
3
*
Tel = p Im S i S ,
2
(11)
with R = S mech , the rotor slip frequency.
The synchronous reference frame can be linked to the
stator or rotor flux of the machine. However, a reference
frame linked to the stator voltage space vector v S is a convenient alternative because the DFIG operates as a generator
maintaining or being fed with constant stator voltage [4].
Hence, stator voltage and stator current are either given (line
operation) or controlled (island operation) variables.
Two interpretations of the DFIG dynamic equations are
possible, depending on the state variables selected in the
TABLE 2. COMPARISON OF LOSSES
OF DIFFERENT TURBINE SYSTEMS
30
Inverter
Danish
Concept
Direct Line
ca. 3.5 %
ca. 3 %
DFIG
ca. 3.5%
ca. 0.75%
V S = j S LS I S + V b
(12)
V b = j S L m I R .
(13)
S mech R
=
.
S
S
(14)
VDC
+ QG Set
PG Set
Decoupling VRdq
Rotation VR
Control of
Grid Side
Converter
PWM
PWM
VSr
+ IRdq
IGC
IR
Rotation
VSr
r
Position
Encoder
Generator
model. A synchronous machine model is obtained when selecting the flux linked to the rotor currents [or back-electromotive force (EMF) voltage] as a state variable.
Selecting the air-gap flux (or magnetizing current) as a
state variable invariably leads to an induction machine type
model. This can be demonstrated easily for steady state.
Both models give valuable insights on how the DFIG
works and can be controlled.
In steady-state and neglecting-stator resistance, the
stator voltage (7) reduces to
VS
ISdq
+
Calculation
of Angle of
Voltage Vector
Rotation
IS
PG
Calculation of
Active and
Reactive Power
VS
Filter
QG
IN
9
Vector controller block diagram for DFIG.
IT IS ANTICIPATED
THAT THE POWER
RATING OF
WIND TURBINES
WILL INCREASE.
(15)
with a SR , the voltage-transformation
ratio between stator and rotor. This ratio is selected such that the voltage rating of the four-quadrant converter
matches the stator voltage at maximum
speed to avoid transformers in the rotor circuit.
The active power delivered to the rotor by the
four-quadrant converter and the mechanical power delivered to the shaft of the generator can be calculated according to the well-known IM equations
PR = s PS
(16)
Pmech = (1 s ) PS .
20
40
60
80
100
IG1 [A]
IG2 [A]
IG3 [A]
Time [ms]
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
2
1.8
Rotor Current
1.5
1.2
1
0.8
0,7 NSyn
0,8 NSyn
0,9 NSyn
1,0 NSyn
1,1 NSyn
1,2 NSyn
1,3 NSyn
0.5
0.2
0
0.2
0.1 0.2
100
200
300
400
500
IR1 [A]
IR2 [A]
IR3 [A]
Time [ms]
Active Power
800
PG [kW]
PG,Set [kW]
600
400
200
100
200
300
400
0.8
0.9
0,7 NSyn
0,8 NSyn
0,9 NSyn
1,0 NSyn
1,1 NSyn
1,2 NSyn
1,3 NSyn
0.5
0.2
0
0.2
500
Time [ms]
0.7
1.2
1
0.8
0.1 0.2
0
1.5
0
200
0.3
2
1.8
Active Power in P.U.
IR [A]
To guarantee stable operation and enable independent control of active and reactive power of the DFIG, a
model-based feed-forward controller is developed using
the dynamic model equations mentioned above. A block
diagram is shown in Fig. 9. Fundamentally, the proposed
controller is a vector controller, because the synchronous
reference frame in which the machine equations are described is linked to the stator voltage space vector v s and
not to the stator or rotor flux vector, as is common in
field-oriented controllers for drives.
Grid Current
1000
800
600
400
200
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1000
PG [kW]
0.3
0.7
0.8
0.9
10
11
(bottom).
decoupling.
IG [A]
(17)
31
Magnitude [dB]
40
20
0
90
Angle []
90
180
270
80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60
Frequency [Hz] (Field Coord.)
200
300
t /s
20
100
200
300
t /s
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
20
90
180
270
80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100
Frequency [Hz] (Field Coord.)
_______ 0,7 NSyn
_______ 0,8 NSyn
_______ 0,9 NSyn
_______ 1,0 NSyn
_______ 1,1 NSyn
_______ 1,2 NSyn
_______ 1,3 NSyn
2000
1500
1000
500
0
360
80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60
Frequency [Hz] (Field Coord.)
100
200
400
500
600
300
t /s
(c)
400
500
600
100
200
300
t /s
(d)
100
200
300
t /s
(e)
400
500
600
Output Power kW
80 100
(b)
600
Pitch Angle
500
(b)
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
2
4
40
90
400
80 100
(a)
Magnitude [dB]
(a)
1950
1900
1850
1800
1750
1700
1650
360
Angle []
32
80 100
20
80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60
Frequency [Hz] (Field Coord.)
Simulation Results
400
500
600
13
12
Summary
Acknowledgment
Measurements were made on a wind turbine system having a doubly fed Concycle generator produced by SEG,
Germany. The rated power is 1.5 MW, and the rated
speed is nr=1,800 rpm. Typical results are illustrated in
Fig. 13. The top trace shows variation of wind speed as a
function of time (elapsed time 0-600 s). Fig. 13(b) shows
generator speed.
The main turbine controller aims at controlling speed
using pitch control [Fig. 13(c)]. Up to the time instant
t=350 s, the pitch control is not very active because maximum power is not reached. Hence, the main controller
seeks to maximize output power according to the maximum efficiency curve shown in Fig. 4. Beyond 350 s, one
can see wind speed going up to approximately 15 m/s. Fig.
13(d) shows that the wind turbine controller now limits
the torque command at 100%. The actual output power
delivered to the grid is shown in Fig. 13(e) and matches the
command value perfectly.
Notice that in this constant, maximum power mode,
the pitch controller sets the blades to keep speed within
bounds. At the time instance t=450 s, the elasticity of the
variable-speed DFIG wind turbine system is demonstrated. For a short while, wind speed rapidly reaches 17
m/s. The pitch controller is not capable of following this
fast gust of wind. Hence, the speed of the turbine blades is
allowed to increase storing energy into the turbines inertia. During this transient, output power remains practically constant, avoiding power surges into the power grid.
33