Element of Life

Atomic Structure

Proton
Neutron
Electron

Relative Mass

Relative Charge

1
1
0

+1
0
-1

Rutherford discovered the layout of the atom by firing alpha-particles at gold

leaf particles.

The number of protons is a key number, it identifies every element. It is

called the atomic number.

Number of Protons + Number of Neutrons = Mass.

Number of Protons = Number of Electrons.

Relative Atomic Mass (Ar) = Average mass of an atom compared to 1/12 the
mass of an atom of Carbon.

Number of neutrons in an element can vary, which is why we have isotopes,

for example there is chlorine-35 and chlorine-37.

Chlorine 37 has an atomic mass of 37, and chlorine 35 has a mass of 35. The
Relative Atomic mass of chlorine is said to be 35.5, because this is an average
of the isotopes.

75% of chlorine atoms are Cl-35, and the other 25% are Cl-37

Working out the number of protons and neutrons examples:

Protons

Neutrons

Electrons

Br

35

44

35

Br

35

46

35

Cl

17

18

17

Cl

17

20

17

79
81
35
37

Bromine has two isotopes. 50% of bromine is

out the average mass:

79

Br, and the other 50% is

81

Br. Work

Balancing equations- Key Steps!

List out the different atoms in the formula.
Count the number of atoms on the left hand side, then on the right hand side.
Note which atoms are not balanced.
Select on atom to balance (it is usually the one that is an odd number). You
can only balance by putting numbers in front of the elements!
5. Update the atom count.
6. If it is still unbalanced, you may need to try balancing the elements again.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Groups one and two- The Alkali Metals

Weak bonds between atoms (reason for it being soft and easy to cut.

Never found native in nature.

Much of the ground beneath us is made out of elements from the s-block, for
example magnesium and calcium.

There are similarities between the groups because of their electron

configuration, but differences are because of their different masses.

React vigorously with water to form a metal hydroxide and hydrogen.

Metal + Water

Metal Hydroxide + Hydrogen

M(s) + H2O

M(OH)2 + H2

Remember Squeeky pop!!

React with oxygen to form Metal Oxide.

The strongest hydroxides and oxides are those closest to the bottom of the
group.

The elements towards the bottom of the group are more reactive, because
the one outer electron is further away from the positive nucleus, so the force
needed to take the electron away is comparatively less than the elements
toward the top of the group.

The hydroxides and oxides form alkaline solutions in water.

The hydroxides and oxides can be neutralized with acid to form salts.

MO(s) + 2HCl(aq)
M(OH)2(s) + H2SO4(aq)

MCl2(s) + H2O(l)
MSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)

The neutralizing effect used to neutralize field acidity.

The general formula of group 2 carbonates is

MCO3

MO(s) + CO2

When you heat the carbonates they decompose to form the metal oxide, and
carbon dioxide.

The carbonates become harder to decompose as you go down the group. The
thermal stability of the elements increases as you go down the groups.

The solubility of the elements in hydroxides (OH -) increases as you go down

the group. This is common where the negative ion has a single charge (1-)

The solubility of the elements in carbonates (CO 32-) decreases as you go down
the group. This is common where the negative ion has a double charge (2-).

Ionisation of Potassium
Notice that as the electrons are ionised from the outside inwards, the energy
required increases, this is due to the electrons being closer to the nucleus (positive
charge) for each successive energy level. Every time an electron is pulled off, the
charge on all the other electrons is not shielded as much.

The Periodic Table of The Elements

Elements in the same block show similar behaviours. For example, all the nonmetals are in the p-Block and all the reactive metals are within the s-Block.
o

The elements in the same group show more specific similarities, for example
group two contain similar properties, as was investigated previously.

Horizontal rows are called periods. There are few similarities in the elements
across the periods. However there are trends that are common to each
period.

Elements change from metallic to non-metallic across a period, and become

more metallic, or more non-metallic down a group.

Physical properties of the periodic table

o

The arrangement of the periodic table is in order of atomic number.

As you move along the table, the atomic radius of the elements
decrease; this is because the electron shells are within the same
energy level, but there re more protons as you move along the group,
so the pull on the electrons is stronger, making the radius decrease.

There is a periodic trend in the first ionisation energy required. The

energy increases up to group eight, due to the extra protons for the
same period, it then decreases as you go back to group one, because
there is one extra energy level, meaning the electrons are further away
from the proton, and there is more shielding of the positive charge of
the nuclues.

Below is the graph showing the melting point across the periods within
the periodic table. Notice the peaks which correspond to the group 4
elements.This is called a periodic trend.

Periodicity Graphs
The atomic size decreases as you go across the periods. This is due to the increase in the number
of protons; as the number of protons increases, the pull on the energy levels increase, so the
atomic size decreases.

The first ionisation of the elements

increases as you go along a period, as
there are more protons acting on the
energy level. It then decreases as you
move onto the next period, due to the
extra energy level.

The melting and boiling points increase

along the period in the transition metals
(due to their metallic structure) and then
decrease in the gases.

Relationships between the position of an element in the periodic

table and its electron structure
o

The group in which the element is found is how many electrons are in the
outer energy level. For example group one elements have one outer electron,
and group seven elements have seven outer electrons.

As you move along the period, the atomic number increases, therefore the
number of protons and electrons increases. This means that as you move
from left to right along a period an electron is added to the outer energy
level.

All elements within the same period have the same number of energy levels.

Ionisation Energy

The above graph shows the ionisation energies of sodium. Notice that where
the jumps in the graph occur is where electrons are being taken from the
next energy level.

The equations for the ionisation of the electrons for sodium are:

After each successful ionisation, the following one becomes harder, this is
because there is less shielding of the protons positive charge, and when
electrons are being taken from the second shell, they are closer to the proton
charge.

The general equation for ionisation energies is:

After each ionisation, a 1+ charge is added to the ion, and there is an extra
electron added to the equation.

Mass Spectrometer
The abundance of isotopes are determined using a Mass Spectrometer.

The Process
1. Atoms vaporised, and sent into spectrometer.
2. Heated tungsten wire produces electrons, which knock electrons from the
sample, providing ions with a positive charge.
3. Particles are accelerated using an electric field.
4. A Magnetic field is placed 90o to the tube, the particles move; they are
deflected.
5. The larger particles are deflected least, and the lighter particles most.
6. The number of ions hitting the detector is measured, and the magnetic field is
changed so that the different isotopes can hit the detector. This gives an
abundance of each separate isotope.
The results
o

The mass spectrometer is used to measure the abundances of the isotopes of

an element.

The results are in the form of a line graph, with the mass/charge on the xaxis, and the abundance up the y-axis.

The Graph shows the abundance of

and

35

Cl within the gas was 75%,

Cl was 25%.

37

Light, Spectra and Electrons

o

Most of our knowledge of the atomic structure has come from the area of
science known as spectroscopy- the study of how light and matter interact.

Chemists use two theories to describe light. The wave theory and the particle
theory. Both can be used, depending on which property of light is being
referred to. That is, the method which best describes the situation is chosen.

Wavelength is the measure of distance travelled by the wave in one cycle. The
frequency is how many cycles the wave goes through every second.

Wave a has a longer wavelength than b, but because they both travel at
the speed of light; the frequency of b is twice that of a.

This can be summarised as:

So if the wavelength is halved the frequency is doubled, and vice-versa.

The particle theory of light

o

In some situations, light can be best described using the particle

theory.

The theory was proposed by Albert Einstein in 1905, and it regards

light as a stream of energy called photons. The energy of the
photons, determines whereabouts the light is in the electromagnetic
spectrum.

Both the wave theory and the particle theory are linked by a formula:

The energy contained in the photon is equal to the frequency of the

radiation multiplied by Plancks constant 6.63x10-34JHz-1.

For a photon of infrared ray with energy of 6x10 -20J, the frequency
could be worked out by dividing the energy by Plancks constant. So
6x10-20/6.63x10-34JHz-1= 9x1013Hz.

Energy levels
o

If an atom is given energy, ionisation can take place; this is where the
atom loses an electron.

If there is not enough energy to ionise the atom, there may be enough
to shift the electrons up an energy level. This is called promotion.

A promotion to another energy level requires a specific energy. When

the electrons move back down a level (demotion) they emit this
specific energy as light.

The ionisation energy, and the promotion energy required can be

worked out by the light that is emitted (the energy can be worked out
by multiplying the frequency of light by Plancks constant).

Spectroscopy

When atoms are given energy, their electrons jump up levels. The energy that
is needed to cause the electrons to jump energy levels is specific.

The atoms are excited, meaning they gain energy.

After the atom electrons have been promoted, they get demoted again, that
is they move back down the energy levels. When being demoted, the atoms
emit the specific amounts of energy.

This energy is in the form of light. When the light is viewed through a
spectroscope, the light emitted is split up into an emission spectrum. The
spectrum consists of a series of lines; the colour of these lines is specific to
the wavelength.

The frequency is related to the energy:

E=hv
o

So, we can determine the energy that the electron emits during the
demotion.

Elements can be identified by their light emissions. An absorption spectrum is

when the light absorbed is analysed, and an emission spectrum is when the
light produced is analysed.

Bohrs theory of the Hydrogen Atom

o

Bohrs theory uses the idea of quantisation of energy. The main points of
Bohrs theory were:

The electron in the H atom is only allowed to exist in certain definitive

energy levels.

A photon of light is emitted or absorbed when an electron changes

from one energy level to another.

The energy of the photon is equal to the difference between the two
energy levels.

The frequency of the emitted or absorbed light is related to the energy

energy by: E=hv.

The uv emission spectrum of hydrogen can be related to the Lyman series. As

the separate electrons demote, the energies are emitted. The spectrum lines
become closer together the further from the nucleus. This is because the
energy levels are closer together further from the n energy levels they are.

When different elements are placed in a Bunsen burner flame, the flame
becomes a different colour due to the specific energy level transitions. This is
the same principle in the neon lights; the electricity causes the elements to
give out certain light colours.

The Different series of Spectrograms

o

Electrons that have been demoted from a high energy level to n=1 will emit
more energy than one that has been demoted to n=2.

The light energy emitted by electrons moving to the n=1 is within the
ultraviolet part of the spectrum, as it contains more energy, The ultraviolet
emission is studied using the Lyman series.

The electrons being demoted to n=2 produce visible light, that is studied
using the Balmer series.

The energy levels after this are within the infrared spectrum and are studied
using the Paschen and Bracket series.

Where all the lines on the spectrograph become one is where ionisation has
taken place, and the electron is no longer restricted to specific energy values.
The frequency at where the lines converged can be used to determine the
ionisation energy, using E=hv.

Nuclear Fusion

Fusion is an important type of reaction in which light nuclei are fused together
to form heavier nuclei.

High amounts of energy (millions of degrees Celsius) are required to

overcome the positive charges on the two nuclei.

Fusion is common within the stars, where heat energy is abundant.

Examples of Fusion reactions within the sun:

The atomic numbers and mass numbers must balance within a nuclear
reaction.

When the universe was born, there was a lot of hydrogen.

The hydrogen and dust are attracted to each other by gravity, forming huge
areas of dust and gas called nebulas.

The pressure in these nebulas causes extremely high temperatures.

The high temperature allows the hydrogen nuclei to fuse with each forming
helium.

The nuclear fusion occurs fastest in the larger stars, as the temperature is
greater.

Most of the energy within stars is from the fusion of hydrogen to form helium;
however there are other fusion reactions to form heavier elements.

Small stars only convert hydrogen into helium.

Medium sized stars like our sun (when hydrogen is depleted) convert helium
into oxygen and carbon.

Heavyweight stars convert helium into carbon and oxygen, followed by the
fusion of carbon and oxygen into neon, sodium, magnesium, sulphur and
silicon. Later reactions then convert these elements into calcium, iron, nickel,
chromium, copper and others.

In a heavyweight star; layers of elements are formed, with the denser

elements closer to the centre. The element at the centre of the star is iron;
this is because when iron nuclei fuse they dont produce energy, but absorb
energy. Eventually the centre of the star becomes unstable, and causes the
star to explode. These explosions are called supernovae, the most violent
events in the universe.

After the explosions, the dust and gas is attracted together and the process of
the star begins again.

Ionising Particles
1. Some isotopes of elements are unstable. They break down spontaneously to produce
ionising radiation and are described as radioactive.
2. Some isotopes give off radiation very quickly, for others the process takes thousands of
years.
3. There are three different kinds of radiation alpha, beta and gamma.
4. All three types of radiation are capable of ionising atoms, so we refer to them as ionising
radiation.

Radiation Type of Radiation

Mass (AMU) Charge Shielding material

Alpha

Particle

+2

Paper, skin, clothes

Beta

Particle

1/1836

-1

Plastic, glass, light metals

Gamma

Electromagnetic Wave

Dense metal, concrete, Earth

The atoms all want to be within the stable isotopes area, which is near to
where n/p=1 for small particles and n/p=1.5 for larger ones. Radiation
occurs in the isotopes to allow them to get into the stable area.

Nuclear Equations
1. Nuclear equations are used to summarise the
processes which produce alpha and beta
particles. They include the mass number, the
atomic number, the charge and the chemical
symbol for each particle involved.

Alpha Decay
1. Alpha decay is most common in elements with a mass
number that is larger than 83, The isotope produced from alpha decay will have a mass
number four units lower and a nuclear charge that is 2 units lower.

23892U

23490Th+ 42He

Beta Decay
1. During beta decay, the mass number remains constant, but the proton number increases
by one unit, because a neutron is converted into a proton and an electron.

146C

147N + 0-1e

Gamma Decay
1. Gamma decay is the emission of energy from the nucleus which is changing from a high
energy level to a lower one. Gamma rays are a high frequency radiation.

Half-lives
1. Unstable isotopes never stop emitting radiation.

2. Each different isotope decays at a different rate, and is not affected by temperature or
pressure.
3. Radioactive decay depends on how much material there is; the amount of radiation is
proportional to the mass of the element.
4. The half-life is unique to every isotope, and it is the amount of time it takes for half of the
element to be decayed. The half life is always the same.

Chemical Bonding
Ionic Bonding
Most metal atoms have three or fewer outer electrons. A noble gas configuration is
reached if these are lost to form positively charged ions (cations).

Most non-metal atoms have more than three outer shell electrons. To become stable,
they must become negatively charged ions (anions).
There are limits to how many electrons an atom can pick up. If one electron is gained,
the atom becomes an anion with a negative charge. This will repel any more electrons
wanting to join the energy level, and so atoms gaining two or three electrons are rare.
It is also hard to remove three or more electrons from an atom, as the ionisation energy
increases after each electron is removed.

When metals bond with non-metals, electrons are transferred from the metal atoms to
the non-metal atoms. The metal atoms become cations with a positive charge, and the non
metals become anions with a negative charge. Opposites attract, and the atoms are held
together by an electrostatic attraction.

 Electron dot cross diagrams are used to represent the way the atoms bond together.
Example:

Each sodium atom loses one electron and each chlorine atom gains an electron. The
formula for sodium chloride is NaCl, however this doesn't mean that sodium and chlorine are
only found in pairs; they are found in lattices.
The electrostatic force is spread evenly around each sodium cation and chlorine anion. A
sodium cation will therefore be able to attract chlorine anions in all directions, and viceversa.
The chloride cation can attract six sodium anions, therefore the structure formed is a
lattice.

Any sodium ion within the structure will be surrounded by 6 chloride ions. It will be
repelled by the other sodium ions, and so the layers will form with alternating sodium and
chloride ions.
Covalent bonding
Non-metallic elements bond with each other by sharing electrons. This is called
covalent bonding. Shared electrons count as the outer electron for both elements.

In this case the Hydrogen is found in pairs, as there are no charges involved in holding
the atoms together, so there is no interaction with the other hydrogen atoms.

 Electron pairs which form covalent bonds are called bonding pairs.

Electrons not involved are called lone pairs.

When one pair of electrons form a covalent bond, it is called a single covalent bond.
When two pairs of electrons form a covalent bond, it is called a double bond, for example
when carbon dioxide is formed.

When three pairs of electrons form the bond, it is called a triple covalent bond.

Two of the bonds in the CO are formed by atoms contributing an electron to the
shared pair. In the third bond, both of the electrons come from oxygen, this is
called a dative bond.

Polar and non-polar bonds

The atoms in a covalent bond are held together by the nuclei which are exerting a pull on
the shared pair of electrons, which are located between the two atoms.

When both atoms that have bonded are the same, the pull on the electrons is the same,
so the electron pair is exactly in between the two of the atoms. These are known as nonpolar bonds.
Different atoms can attract the electrons unequally, so the electron pair will be closer to
one atom than the other.
The atom with the greatest proton pull will have the electrons closer to it. The amount of
protons and the distance from the proton will affect the force of attraction. These sort of
bonds are called polar bonds.
The electron pulling power of an atom is known as its electronegativity. Atoms with
strong forces of attraction for the shared pair of electrons are said to have a high
electronegativity.
The lower down the group you go; the less the electronegativity is, and the further along
the period you go; the higher the electronegatvity the atom has. The electronegativity trend
is the same as the first ionisation energy.

We can use the difference in electronegativity values to predict how polar a covalent
bond will be. In a Carbon-Fluorine bond; fluorine has a electronegativity of 4, and carbon has
an electronegativity of 2.6, so the pair of electrons will be closer to the fluorine atom.
This can be written as:
Cd+ -- Fd The fluorine has got a slightly negative charge, as the electrons are closer, and carbon
has a slightly positive charge, as the electrons are further away.

 If the electronegativity is high enough, the electron will be taken fully by the element with
the highest electronegativity resulting in ionic bonding.
Metallic Bonding

The strong forces which act between the separate atoms within a metal are known as
metallic bonds.
The diagram below explains why metals act as they do:

The positive ions are arranged in a regular spaced lattice shape. The outer shell
electrons move freely through this lattice. The free electrons are often described as a cloud
or sea of electrons.
Each positively charged ion is attracted to the sea of negative electrons.
The electrostatic attraction binds the entire structure together as one unit.
In the model above, a particular electron does not belong to one of the positive ions, but
is attracted to all of them. These electrons are described as delocalised.
The strength of the metallic bonding depeneds upon the number of electrons. Therefore
magnesium (two outer electrons) has stronger metallic bonding than sodium (one outer
electron).
This strong electrostatic attraction is why metals have high boiling/melting points, and
are dense strong materials.
They are good conductors of electricity due to the delocalised electrons that are mobile.

hapes of Molecules

Dot and cross diagrams can be used to describe the layout of molecules.
However it has its limitations as it only shows the two dimensional layout of
the atoms, and not the three dimensional shape.

All electrons have a negative charge; like charges repel, so the electrons are
arranged so that they are as far away as possible from each other. This is
what determines the shape of molecules.

It is not only the shared electrons that affect the shape of the molecule, but
the lone pairs also affect the shape, in fact they have a greater effect as their
negative charge is stronger than that of the shared electrons.

Balloons can be used to represent the layout of different molecules:

The various shapes of the molecules are as follows:

o

Triangular Planar.

Tetrahedral.

V-shaped.

Linear.

Pyramidal.

Triangular Planar
o

Boron tri-fluoride (BH3) has a dot and cross diagram as below:

The bonding electron pairs around the central Boron atom have the same
repulsion, and so an equilateral triangle is formed around the central Boron
molecule. This means that the angle between the fluorine molecules is 120 o.

Tetrahedral
o

Methane (CH4) has a dot and cross diagram as below:

The four bonding electron pairs around the central carbon atom in this
molecule have the same negative repulsion, and so they are formed so that
they are as far apart as possible. The angle found between the molecules in
109.5o.

V-shaped
o

Water (H2O) has a dot and cross diagram as below:

In this molecule around the central oxygen atom, the shared pair of electrons
repel each other, but the two lone electrons also repel the two shared pairs
and so a v-shape is formed, with an angle of 104.4o in between the atoms.

Linear
o

Beryllium chloride (BeCl2) has a dot and cross diagram as below:

As there are only two bonding pairs of electrons, they are found directly
opposite each other.

Pyramidal
o

Ammonia (NH3) has a dot and cross diagram as below:

The lone pair of electrons around the central Nitrogen atom repel the three
bonding electron pairs forming a pyramid shape, with an angle of
107o between each atom.