Chalmers University of Technology / Photonics Lab

Fiber Optic Communications

Quarter IV, march-may 2003
web page: http://www.elm.chalmers.se/fotonik/fiber/

Lecturers:
Magnus Karlsson, Per-Olof Hedekvist
Photonics Lab, Dept of Microelectronics
magnus@elm.chalmers.se, poh @elm.chalmers.se

Dan Anderson, Mietek Lisak

Dept of Electromagnetics
elfda@elmagn.chalmers.se, elfml@elmagn.se

Fiber Optic Communication E4/F4

Lecture 1: Introduction, Ray Description, p. 1

M. Karlsson, 18/3 2003

Chalmers University of Technology / Photonics Lab

Lecture 1 - outline

Course info
Fiber optic introduction

fiber basics
history
modulation formats
digital/analog modulation
ray optics description of fibers

Relevant chapters in the book:1-2.1

Fiber Optic Communication E4/F4

Lecture 1: Introduction, Ray Description, p. 2

M. Karlsson, 18/3 2003

Chalmers University of Technology / Photonics Lab

Course outline (1)

Undergraduate course in Fiber Optic Communication LPIV 2003
Lecture
1 18/3
2 21/3
3 25/3
4 28/3
5 1/4
6 4/4
7 11/4
8 29/4
9 6/5
10 9/5
11 13/5
12 16/5
13 20/5
14 23/5

Topic
Introduction, Optical fibers - geometrical description
Optical fibers - waveguiding, Maxwells equations
Optical fibers - dispersion, pulsebroadening, attenuation
Optical fibers - nonlinearities
Solitons, nonlinear phenomena
Light emitting diodes, semiconductor lasers
Photodetectors, receivers
Optical amplifiers
Optical amplifiers
Receiver performance
System design
Dispersion compensation
Multi-channel systems, WDM / OTDM
Coherent systems, Microwave Photonics

Lecturer
Magnus
Magnus
Magnus
Dan/Mietek
Dan/Mietek
Magnus
Magnus
P-O
P-O
Magnus *
P-O
P-O
P-O
P-O

* On 9/5 the ecture is held in Kollektorn, floor 4, MC2.

Fiber Optic Communication E4/F4

Lecture 1: Introduction, Ray Description, p. 3

M. Karlsson, 18/3 2003

Chalmers University of Technology / Photonics Lab

Course outline (2)

Home assignments:
Responsible: Thomas Torounidis, 1609
4 assignments
One assignment will appear on exam
Solved x assignments=potential upgrade
to grade x+1
Lab exercises (week 5-8):
Lab 1: Dispersion/Amplifiers
Lab 2: System Characterization

Fiber Optic Communication E4/F4

Lecture 1: Introduction, Ray Description, p. 4

M. Karlsson, 18/3 2003

Chalmers University of Technology / Photonics Lab

Introductury lecture
Contents:
History
Fiber basics
Analog/digital communications
Modulation formats
Ray description of light propagation

Fiber Optic Communication E4/F4

Lecture 1: Introduction, Ray Description, p. 5

M. Karlsson, 18/3 2003

Chalmers University of Technology / Photonics Lab

A definition of Fiber Optics

Utilization of electromagnetic waves in dielectric, circular
waveguides combined with optoelectronic devices
(LEDs, lasers, photodiodes, amplifiers, etc.)
Applications of fiber optics:

communication
medical applications
optical sensing
power distribution (e.g. in "nasty" environments)
welding, drilling...

Fiber Optic Communication E4/F4

Lecture 1: Introduction, Ray Description, p. 6

M. Karlsson, 18/3 2003

Chalmers University of Technology / Photonics Lab

The electromagnetic spectrum

Photon energy
1 keV

Frequency

1018 Hz

Wavelength
x-ray

1 nm

ultra-violet
1 eV

1015 Hz

visible

1 m

infrared
1 meV

1 THz

mm-waves

1 mm

microwaves
10-6

eV

1 GHz

n = frequency of light
( 200 THz in fiber optics)
l =wavelength
c = light velocity in vacuum
(3108 m/s)

1m
radio waves

10-9

eV

1 MHz

Fiber Optic Communication E4/F4

1 km

Lecture 1: Introduction, Ray Description, p. 7

M. Karlsson, 18/3 2003

Chalmers University of Technology / Photonics Lab

Fiber Optic Commnication Link

optical transmitter
information
source

optical
fiber

drive
electronics

optical
modulator

semiconductor
laser

optical
fiber

repeater
optical
transmitter

optical
receiver

electronics

optical
fiber

optical
amplifier

optical receiver
information
receiver

receiver
electronics

photodetector

optical preamplifier

electrical signal
optical signal

100 million km optical fiber employed world wide !!!

Fiber Optic Communication E4/F4

Lecture 1: Introduction, Ray Description, p. 8

M. Karlsson, 18/3 2003

Chalmers University of Technology / Photonics Lab

Optical Fibers
cladding, n2
core, n1

d
n1 > n2

Core: GeO2-doped SiO2

Cladding: SiO2
Single mode fibers: d 5 - 10 m
Multi mode fibers: d 50 - 200 m

Attenuation characteristics
- Minimum attenuation = 0.2 dB/km at 1.55 m ->
4% lost after 1 km !!!
- High carrier frequency 200 THz ->
Available bandwidth 35 THz !!!
(equivalent to 3.5 million HDTV-cannels, in one single
optical fiber !!!)

Fiber Optic Communication E4/F4

Attenuation (dB/km)

15 THz

20 THz

0.2

Lecture 1: Introduction, Ray Description, p. 9

1.3
1.55
Wavelength (m)

M. Karlsson, 18/3 2003

Chalmers University of Technology / Photonics Lab

Fiber manufacture

Fiber Optic Communication E4/F4

Lecture 1: Introduction, Ray Description, p. 10

M. Karlsson, 18/3 2003

Chalmers University of Technology / Photonics Lab

Fiber advantages
Low attenuation (0.2 dB/km)
Large bandwidth (35 THz)
Wavelength independent attenuation in the transmission window
The enormous capacity of an installed fiber can be utilized
in the future as the demand increases
Small geometry and low weight
Flexible
Easy to install
Low sensitivity to moisture
The fiber endpoints handle large differences in voltage
Immune to electromagnetic interference
No crosstalk between fibers
Damage can not cause sparking
Potentially low cost
Well suited for future broadband services
Fiber Optic Communication E4/F4

Lecture 1: Introduction, Ray Description, p. 11

M. Karlsson, 18/3 2003

Chalmers University of Technology / Photonics Lab

Optical communication history

1854
1880
1962
1966
1970
1970
1976
1977
1980
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1986
1988
1989
1990
1992
1995
1997
2001
2003

Water jet as an optical waveguide (John Tyndall)

The photo phone (Alexander Graham Bell)
First semiconductor laser (GE, IBM, Lincoln Lab)
First optical fiber, loss: 1000 dB/km (Corning Glass)
Fiber with an optical attenuation of 20 dB/km (Corning Glass)
AlGaAs-lasers operating at room temperature
First semiconductor lasers at 1.3 and 1.55 m
First generation commercial systems (0.85 m)
Second generation commercial systems (1.3 m)
0.16 dB/km ( theoretical limit) singelmode fiber
420 Mbit/s over 119 km fiber without repeaters (Bell Labs.)
Third generation commercial systems (1.55 m)
1.37 Tbitkm/s WDM system;10 channels @ 2 Gbit/s (Bell Labs.)
Semiconductor laser with 20 GHz bandwidth (Bell Labs.,GTE)
First erbium-doped fiber optical amplifier
Trans-Atlantic and trans-Pacific cable systems (565 Mbit/s)
Coherent semiconductor laser with sub-MHz spectral linewidth
2.5 Gbit/s repeaterless soliton transmission over 13 Mm (Bell Labs.)
Fourth-generation commercial systems (amplifiers+WDM)
Repeaterless (fiber amplifiers) trans-oceanic cable systems (5 Gbit/s)
Commercial WDM systems
1Tb/s OTDM transmision over 70 km (NTT)
10 Tb/s over 10 Mm

Fiber Optic Communication E4/F4

Lecture 1: Introduction, Ray Description, p. 12

M. Karlsson, 18/3 2003

Chalmers University of Technology / Photonics Lab

Progress in Lightwave communication (1)

Fiber Optic Communication E4/F4

Lecture 1: Introduction, Ray Description, p. 13

M. Karlsson, 18/3 2003

Chalmers University of Technology / Photonics Lab

A multi-disciplinary technology

Drive circuits

Optical fiber

Laser

Amplifier

Detector

Electronics Semiconductor physics Electromagnetic field theory Semiconductor physics Electronics

Circuit theory Quantum electronics
Wave propagation
Quantum electronics Circuit theory
Laser technology

Communication theory, modulation theory

Fiber Optic Communication E4/F4

Lecture 1: Introduction, Ray Description, p. 14

M. Karlsson, 18/3 2003

Chalmers University of Technology / Photonics Lab

Undersea systems

Fiber Optic Communication E4/F4

Lecture 1: Introduction, Ray Description, p. 15

M. Karlsson, 18/3 2003

Chalmers University of Technology / Photonics Lab

Undersea systems (2)

Fiber Optic Communication E4/F4

Lecture 1: Introduction, Ray Description, p. 16

M. Karlsson, 18/3 2003

Chalmers University of Technology / Photonics Lab

WDM-OTDM
Wavelength-division-multiplexing(WDM)
1

Laser 1

Optical fiber

Laser 2

Laser 3

Laser 4

M
U
...
X 1 2 3 4 N

Detector 1

Detector 2

D
E 3
M 4
U
X

Detector 3
Detector 4

Laser N

Detector N

Optical time-division-multiplexing (OTDM)

pulse source
(x GHz)

O-MUX

data encoders
(x Gbit/s each)

Fiber Optic Communication E4/F4

O-DEMUX

1,2...N

Nx Gbit/s
transmission
timing control

receivers
x Gbit/s
clock

Lecture 1: Introduction, Ray Description, p. 17

1,2...N

M. Karlsson, 18/3 2003

Chalmers University of Technology / Photonics Lab

Progress in Lightwave communication (2)

optical channels
256 carriers

100 carriers

research
in use
millions
of km's
10.000 km

repeaterless
distance

10 Gbit/s
1024 Gbit/s

bitrate
Fiber Optic Communication E4/F4

Lecture 1: Introduction, Ray Description, p. 18

M. Karlsson, 18/3 2003

Chalmers University of Technology / Photonics Lab

Direct detection digital and analog systems

Digital
Optical fiber

Laser

Detector

Analog
Optical fiber

Laser

Fiber Optic Communication E4/F4

Detector

Lecture 1: Introduction, Ray Description, p. 19

M. Karlsson, 18/3 2003

Chalmers University of Technology / Photonics Lab

Coherent fiber systems

Laser 2
Laser 3
Laser 4

Laser N

Demodulator

f2
f3
f4

fN

Amplitude, frequency, or
phase modulation

Fiber Optic Communication E4/F4

(fk - fLO)

M
U
X

f1 f2 f3 f4

Detector

... fN

fLO
Local oscillator
laser

Laser 1

Optical fiber

f1

Lecture 1: Introduction, Ray Description, p. 20

M. Karlsson, 18/3 2003

Chalmers University of Technology / Photonics Lab

Analog and digital signals

Conversion techniques:
pulse-position modulation
pulse-duration modulation
pulse-code modulation (PCM) (absence/
presence of pulse)
Binary PCM is, by far, the most used technique
Required bit-rate:

B (2f ) log2 (M )

Df = analog signal bandwidth, M = number of

quantized levels
B >> Df may seem as a disadvantage,
[example: telephone Df = 3.1 kHz, B = 64 kbit/s]
BUT:

Fiber Optic Communication E4/F4

SNR required in digital system ~ 25

dB (analog ~ 50 dB)
Transmitters/fibers more suitable for
digital format (distortion, dispersion)

Lecture 1: Introduction, Ray Description, p. 21

M. Karlsson, 18/3 2003

Chalmers University of Technology / Photonics Lab

return-to-zero non-return-to-zero
(NRZ)-signal
(RZ)-signal

Digital on-off keying

Spectrum
NRZ
time
0

frequency
0

0.5B

1.5B

2B

RZ (here = 0.5T)
frequency

time
0

pulse duration

0.5B

1.5B

2B

bit period
(bit-rate, B = 1/T)

NRZ (t = T): smaller bandwidth, clock extraction complicated

RZ (t < T): used in some advanced systems
(solitons, all-optical time-division multiplexing)
Fiber Optic Communication E4/F4

Lecture 1: Introduction, Ray Description, p. 22

M. Karlsson, 18/3 2003

Chalmers University of Technology / Photonics Lab

Modulation formats
Optical carrier wave: E (t) = eA cos(0 t + )
complex notation:

E (t) = eRe[Aej(0 t+) ]

often simply written as:

E (t) = eAej(0 t+)

OK for linear operation but not e.g. products: Re[X]. Re[Y] Re[X.Y]
Analog:

Amplitude modulation (AM)

Frequency modulation (FM)
Phase modulation (PM)

Digital:

amplitude-shift keying (ASK)

frequency-shift keying (FSK)
phase-shift keying (PSK)

Simplest technique: intensity-shift keying (or on-off keying) (OOK)

Fiber Optic Communication E4/F4

Lecture 1: Introduction, Ray Description, p. 23

M. Karlsson, 18/3 2003

Chalmers University of Technology / Photonics Lab

The dB units

decibel (dB) expresses power ratios as

P1
10 log10 ( )
P2

Optical power generates a photo-current in a detector

(idet ~ Popt -> Pel ~ P2opt)
Therefore:

dBopt dBel

(3 dB optical power difference <-> 6 dB electrical power difference)

dBm expresses the absolute power on a log scale relative

to 1 mW: PdBm = 10 log10 (PmW )
1 mW=0 dBm, 2 mW= 3 dBm, 4mW=6 dBm, 8mW=9 dBm
10 mW= 10 dBm, 20 mW=13 dBm
100 mW=20dBm, 400 mW=26

Fiber Optic Communication E4/F4

Lecture 1: Introduction, Ray Description, p. 24

M. Karlsson, 18/3 2003

Chalmers University of Technology / Photonics Lab

The Fourier transform

Our text-book uses the following definitions:
! +
! +
1

E(t) =
E()ejt d
E()
=
E(t)ejt dt
2

This means that various Fourier transformation rules may be different from other
books, e.g.:
derivative:

jw
t

frequency translation:

W
e j t f(t) F[w + W]

As a consequence of this, a travelling wave (in the positive z-direction) is described by:

E(z,t) = Re [E0e

j(bz w t)]

where b is a propagation constant.

Fiber Optic Communication E4/F4

Lecture 1: Introduction, Ray Description, p. 25

M. Karlsson, 18/3 2003

Chalmers University of Technology / Photonics Lab

Fiber basics
Condition for waveguiding: n1 > n2
A finite number of modes can propagate in the fiber.
Modes are solutions to Maxwell's equations +
boundary conditions.

2a

2b
n1
core

One mode ^ single-mode fiber

Several modes ^ multi-mode fiber

n2
cladding

protective coating

125 mm

10 mm

To change index of refraction dopants are added:

Examples: GeO2 - SiO2 core / SiO2 cladding
SiO2 core / B2O3 - SiO2 cladding

refractive index

Most commonly used fiber material is silica (SiO2).

1.46
F
1.44

Fiber Optic Communication E4/F4

GeO2

1.48

B2O3

5
10
15
dopant addition [mol %]

Lecture 1: Introduction, Ray Description, p. 26

20

M. Karlsson, 18/3 2003

Chalmers University of Technology / Photonics Lab

Fiber types
Single-mode step-index
fibers:
No intermodal dispersion
gives highest bandwidth
Small core radius ^
difficult to launch power,
lasers are used

Multi-mode step-index fibers:

Large core radius ^ Easy
to launch power, LEDs can
be used
Intermodal dispersion
reduces the fiber bandwidth

n2

r
2a: 5-12 mm
2b: 125 mm
Fiber Optic Communication E4/F4

Multi-mode gradedindex fibers:

Reduced intermodal
dispersion gives
higher bandwidth

n1 n

2a: 50-200 mm
2b: 125-400 mm
Lecture 1: Introduction, Ray Description, p. 27

2a: 50-100 mm
2b: 125-140 mm
M. Karlsson, 18/3 2003

Chalmers University of Technology / Photonics Lab

Ray-optics description of step-index fiber (1)

n0
(normally = 1)

qi

ray
unguided
qr

cladding, n2
core, n1
guided ray

n2 = n1(1-D) where D is the

index difference =
(n1- n2)/n1<< 1
D 1-3% for MM fibers,
D 0.1-1% for SM fibers

Apply Snell's law at the input interface:

n0 sin(qi) = n1 sin(qr)
For total internal reflection at the core/cladding interface we have
a critical, minimum, angle:
n1 sin(fc) = n2 sin(90) ^ sin(fc) = n2/n1
Relate to maximum entrance angle:
n0 sin(qi,max) = n1 sin(qr,max) = n1 sin(90-fc) =
2
n1 cos(fc) = n1[1 - sin (fc)] = (n12 - n22)
Fiber Optic Communication E4/F4

Lecture 1: Introduction, Ray Description, p. 28

M. Karlsson, 18/3 2003

Chalmers University of Technology / Photonics Lab

Numerical apereture

The numerical aperture, NA, is a measure of the light

gathering power of an optical system, originating from
microscopy.
For fibers it is defined as
N A = n0 sin i,max =

Fiber Optic Communication E4/F4

n21

n22

n1 2

Lecture 1: Introduction, Ray Description, p. 29

M. Karlsson, 18/3 2003

Chalmers University of Technology / Photonics Lab

Pulse broadening from intermodal dispersion

cladding, n2
fc

core, n1
qi,max

fastest ray path

slowest ray path

DT

d(t)
t

DT = n1/c [Lslow - Lfast] = n1/c [L/sin(fc) - L] = L n1/c [n1/n2 - 1] = L n12/(n2c)D

If we assume that the maximum bit-rate (B) is limited by a maximum
allowed pulse broadening equal to the bit-period : TB = 1/B >DT
we find: B L < (n2c)/(n12D)

Fiber Optic Communication E4/F4

Lecture 1: Introduction, Ray Description, p. 30

M. Karlsson, 18/3 2003

Chalmers University of Technology / Photonics Lab

Pulse broadening from intermodal dispersion, cntd.

Example:

Silica core without cladding (air): n1 = 1.5, n2= 1

^ BL < 4.108 [bits/(s m)] = 0.4 Mbit/(s km)
A large index-step gives small bandwidth !!!
Typical communication fiber: D 0.5%

^ BL < 40 Mbit/s.km

These are, however, conservative estimates since all rays

are treated equally!
A wave-optics treatment will give better performance.

Fiber Optic Communication E4/F4

Lecture 1: Introduction, Ray Description, p. 31

M. Karlsson, 18/3 2003