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Mathematical anxiety
Mathematical anxiety is anxiety about one's ability to do mathematics
independent of skill.

Math anxiety
Math anxiety is a phenomenon that is often considered when
examining students problems in mathematics. Mark H. Ashcraft
denes math anxiety as a feeling of tension, apprehension, or fear
that interferes with math performance (2002, p. 1).[1] The rst math
anxiety measurement scale was developed by Richardson and Suinn in
1972. Since this development, several researchers have examined
math anxiety in empirical studies.[1] Hembree [2] (1990) conducted a
thorough meta-analysis of 151 studies concerning math anxiety. It
determined that math anxiety is related to poor math performance on
math achievement tests and that math anxiety is related to negative
attitudes concerning math. Hembree also suggests that math anxiety is
directly connected with math avoidance.
Ashcraft[1] (2002) suggests that highly anxious math students will
avoid situations in which they have to perform mathematical
calculations. Unfortunately, math avoidance results in less
competency, exposure and math practice, leaving students more
anxious and mathematically unprepared to achieve. In college and
university, anxious math students take fewer math courses and tend to
feel negative towards math. In fact, Ashcraft found that the correlation
between math anxiety and variables such as condence and motivation
are strongly negative.
According to Schar,[3] because math anxiety can cause math
avoidance, an empirical dilemma arises. For instance, when a highly
math-anxious student performs disappointingly on a math question, it

could be due to math anxiety, or the lack of competency in math

because of math avoidance. Ashcraft determined that by administering
a test that becomes increasingly more mathematically challenging, he
noticed that even highly math-anxious individuals do well on the rst
portion of the test measuring performance. However, on the latter and
more dicult portion of the test, there was a stronger negative
relationship between accuracy and math anxiety.
According to the research found at the University of Chicago by Sian
Beilock and her group, math anxiety is not simply about being bad at
math. After using brain scans, scholars conrmed that the anticipation
or the thought of solving math actually causes math anxiety. The brain
scans showed that the area of the brain that is triggered when
someone has math anxiety overlaps the same area of the brain where
bodily harm is registered.[4]

Performance anxiety
People's fear of math can be related to test taking and performance
anxiety. Some scholars have suggested a strong relation between math
anxiety and math performance.[5] Current research in math anxiety
concerns working memory.[6]

Anxiety rating scale

A rating scale for mathematics anxiety was written about in 1972 by
Richardson and Suinn.[7] Richardson and Suinn dened mathematical
anxiety as "feelings of apprehension and tension concerning
manipulation of numbers and completion of mathematical problems in
various contexts."[8] Richardson and Suinn introduced the MARS
(Mathematics Anxiety Rating Scale) in 1972. Elevated scores on the
MARS test translate to high math anxiety. The authors presented the
normative data, including a mean score of 215.38 with a standard
deviation of 65.29, collected from 397 students that replied to an
advertisement for behavior therapy treatment for math anxiety. [9] For
test-retest reliability, the Pearson product-moment coecient was
used and a score of 0.85 was calculated, which was favorable and

comparable to scores found on other anxiety tests. Richardson and

Suinn validated the construct of this test by sharing previous results
from three other studies that were very similar to the results achieved
in this study. They also administered the Dierential Aptitude Test, a
10 minute math test including simple to complex problems.
Calculation of the Pearson product-moment correlation coecient
between the MARS test and Dierential Aptitude Test scores was -0.64
(p < .01), indicating that higher MARS scores relate to lower math test
scores and "since high anxiety interferes with performance, and poor
performance produces anxiety, this result provides evidence that the
MARS does measure mathematics anxiety."[10] This test was intended
for use in diagnosing math anxiety, testing ecacy of dierent math
anxiety treatment approaches and possibly designing an anxiety
hierarchy to be used in desensitization treatments. [9] The MARS test is
of interest to those in counseling psychology

[11]

and the test is used

profusely in math anxiety research. It is available in several versions of

varying length [12] and is considered psychometrically sound.[13] Other
tests are often given to measure dierent dimensionalities of math
anxiety, such as the Fennema-Sherman Mathematics Attitudes Scales
(FSMAS). The FSMAS evaluates nine specic domains using Likert-type
scales: attitude toward success, mathematics as a male domain,
mothers attitude, fathers attitude, teachers attitude, condence in
learning mathematics, mathematics anxiety, aectance motivation and
mathematics usefulness.[14] Despite the introduction of newer
instrumentation, the use of the MARS test appears to be the
educational standard for measuring math anxiety due to its specicity
and prolic use.[15]

Math and culture

While there are overarching similarities concerning the acquisition of
math skills, researchers have shown that childrens mathematical
abilities dier across countries. In Canada, students score
substantially lower in math problem-solving and operations than
students in Korea, India and Singapore. Researchers have conducted
thorough comparisons between countries, and have determined that in

countries such as Taiwan and Japan, parents place more emphasis on

eort rather than ones innate intellectual ability in school success. By
parents placing a higher emphasis on eort rather than one's innate
intellectual ability they are helping their child develop a growth
mindset (Dweck, 2006).[16] People who develop a growth mindset
believe that everyone have the ability to grow their intellectual ability,
learn from their mistakes and become more resilient learners.
Moreover, parents in these countries tend to set higher expectations
and standards for their children. In turn, students spend more time on
homework and value homework more than American children. [17]
(Stevenson & Lee, 1990).

Math and gender

Another dierence in mathematic abilities often explored in research
concerns gender disparities. There has been research examining
gender dierence in performance on standardized tests across various
countries. Beller and Gafnis have shown that children at approximately
nine years of age do not show consistent gender dierence in relation
to math skills. However, in 17 out of the 20 countries examined in this
study, 13 year old boys tended to score higher than girls. Moreover,
mathematics is often labeled as a masculine ability; as a result, girls
often have low condence in their math capabilities.[18] These gender
stereotypes can reinforce low condence in girls and can cause math
anxiety as research has shown that performance on standardized math
tests is aected by ones condence[19] (Dar-Nimrod & Heine, 2006).
As a result, educators have been trying to abolish this stereotype by
fostering condence in math in all students in order to avoid math
anxiety.[20]

Mathematics and women

Related to this is gender and mathematics as younger female scholars
are thought to develop anxiety towards mathematics and sciences
when they become more interested in social relations in their teen
years. It is thought that women experience more anxiety in

mathematics as a group than men and this has also been suggested in
regards computer programming. See for instance Copper, Joel, &
Weaver D, Kimberlee. Gender and Computers: "Understanding the
Digital Divide" who explore computing and gender and especially have
done experiments relating gender and anxiety.[21] It has also been
suggested that in primary elementary years, if female students have an
anxious female math teacher, they are more likely to conrm the math
anxiety as a gender stereotype. Girls are more likely than boys to take
notice of their female teachers "negatives and fears about math",
which could negatively inuence their future pursuit of the subject. [22]
One method to help address this issue is ensuring that teaching
programs are reinforcing positive attitudes towards math, and helping
teacher candidates solidify their grasp on mathematics. [22]
When men and women take math exams, there is a stereotype that
women score less than men, saying they are not as good as men. The
researchers explain that it is not a biological but more of a social
eect. The researchers doing the experiment believe that gender
stereotype threat could be a key factor in explaining women and mens
dierence in performance on math exams. The gender stereotype
threat would be gender references on the exams and that they could
aect how a male or female answers the question and if they get it
correct or not. The gender references on the exam could also be called
gender labeling. The researchers did 2 experiments. In experiment 1,
they created an exam consisting of 1/3 of male, female, and neutral
questions. The results found that both male and female answered
male-labeled questions with better prociency than others. Even if the
questions were the same, the gender label aected the result. [23] Here
is a question they used on the exam, There are 12 car pools at the
plant where Mr. Holst works. Half of them contain 4 people, the other
half contain 5 people. How many workers at Mr. Holsts plant belong to
car pools?[23] The way they manipulated the questions was to change
Mr. Holst to Mrs. Holst or do not include a name at all to remain
neutral. The ones that performed well did best on male-labeled
questions while the ones that performed poorly did best on femalelabeled questions. In experiment 2, they tested university students
because gender dierences in test performance have been show to

increase with age. Their main focus was to see if a negative stereotype
towards women would aect their performance. The results showed
that there were more correct answers on gender stereotype situations
and men outperformed compared to women.[23] The results showed
that a brief written reference to gender in the questions aected
womens performance negatively, supporting their hypothesis. Based
on the results of this experiment, gender labeling on exams could
cause women to underperform on math exams. Stereotype threat can
interfere with performance, aecting men positively but women
negatively.

Math pedagogy
The principles of mathematics are generally understood at an early
age; preschoolers can comprehend the majority of principles
underlying counting. By kindergarten, it is common for children to use
counting in a more sophisticated manner by adding and subtracting
numbers. While kindergarteners tend to use their ngers to count, this
habit is soon abandoned and replaced with a more rened and ecient
strategy; children begin to perform addition and subtraction mentally
at approximately six years of age. When children reach approximately
eight years of age, they can retrieve answers to mathematical
equations from memory. With proper instruction, normally functioning
children acquire these basic mathematical skills and are able to solve
more complex mathematical problems with more sophisticated
training.[20] (Kail & Zolner, 2005).
High risk teaching styles are often explored to gain a better
understanding of math anxiety. Goulding, Rowland, and Barber [24]
(2002) suggest that there are linkages between a teachers lack of
subject knowledge and ability to plan teaching material eectively.
These ndings suggest that teachers that do not have a sucient
background in mathematics may struggle with the development of
comprehensive lesson plans for their students. Similarly, Laturners
research [25] (2002) shows that teachers with certication in math are
more likely to be passionate and committed about teaching math than
those without certication. However, those without certication vary in

their commitment to the profession depending on coursework

preparation.
Moreover, a study conducted by Kawakami, Steele, Cifa, Phills, and
Dovidio [26] (2008) examined attitudes towards math and behavior
during math examinations. The study examined the eect of extensive
training in teaching women to approach math. The results showed that
women who were trained to approach rather than avoid math showed a
positive implicit attitude towards math. These ndings were only
consistent with women low in initial identication with math. This study
was replicated with women who were either encouraged to approach
math or who received neutral training. Results were consistent and
demonstrated that women taught to approach math had an implicit
positive attitude and completed more math problems than women
taught to approach math in a neutral manner.
Johns, Schmader, and Martens [27] (2005) conducted a study in which
they examined the eect of teaching stereotype threat as a means of
improving womens math performance. The researchers concluded
that women tended to perform worse than men when problems were
described as math equations. However, women did not dier from men
when the test sequence was described as problem solving or in a
condition in which they learned about stereotype threats. This research
has practical implications; educating female teachers about stereotype
threat can reduce its negative eects in the classroom.

Common beliefs
In the United States, many people believe that only a few "gifted"
individuals have "what it takes" to learn math, and that hard work
cannot compensate for this. Studies have shown "When asked to
explain why some children do better in math than others, Asian
children, their teachers, and their parents point to hard work, their
American counterparts to ability."[28]
Women mathematicians in the United States have almost always been
a minority according to Margaret Murray. Although the exact dierence

uctuates with the times as she has explored in her book [Women
Becoming Mathematicians: Creating a Professional Identity in
Post-World War II America].[29] "Since 1980, women have earned over
17 percent of the mathematics doctorates.... [In The United
States]".[29] The trends in gender are by no means clear, but perhaps
parity is still a way to go. Thus parity will take more work to overcome
mathematical anxiety and this is one reason for women in mathematics
being role models for younger women.

Mathematical anxiety in schools

Causes
Students often develop mathematical anxiety in schools, often as a
result of learning from teachers who are themselves anxious about
their mathematical abilities in certain areas. Typical examples of areas
where mathematics teachers are often incompetent or semi-competent
include fractions, (long) division, algebra, geometry "with proofs",
calculus, and topology. In many countries, would-be math teachers are
required only to obtain passing grades of 51% in mathematics exams,
so that a math student who has failed to understand 49% of the math
syllabus throughout his or her education can, and often does, become
a math teacher. His or her fears and lack of understanding then pass
naturally to his or her students. As John Taylor Gatto[30] has
demonstrated at length, modern Western schools were deliberately
designed during the late 19th century to create an environment which
is ideal for fostering fear and anxiety, and for preventing or delaying
learning.
Math is usually taught as a right and wrong subject and as if getting
the right answer were paramount. In contrast to most subjects,
mathematics problems almost always have a right answer. Additionally,
the subject is often taught as if there were a right way to solve the
problem and any other approaches would be wrong, even if students
got the right answer. When learning, understanding the concepts
should be paramount, but with a right/wrong approach to teaching
math, students are encouraged not to try, not to experiment, not to

nd algorithms that work for them, and not to take risks. Teachers
benet children most when they encourage them to share their
thinking process and justify their answers out loud or in writing as they
perform math operations. [] With less of an emphasis on right or
wrong and more of an emphasis on process, teachers can help
alleviate students' anxiety about math.[31]
While teaching of many subjects has changed from rote memorization
to the current Constructivist approach, math is frequently taught with
a rote learning behaviorist approach. That is,
a problem set is introduced
a solution technique is introduced
practice problems are repeated until mastery is achieved
Constructivist theory says the learning and knowledge is the students
creation, yet rote learning and a right/wrong approach to teaching
math ensures that it is external to the student.

Solutions
There have been many studies that show parent involvement in
developing a child's educational processes is essential. A student
success in school is increased if their parents are involved in their
education both at home and school (Henderson & Map, 2002). [32] As a
result one of the easiest ways to reduce math anxiety is for the parent
to be more involved in their child's education. In addition, research has
shown that a parent's perception on mathematics inuences their
child's perception and achievement in mathematics (Yee & Eccles,
1988).[33] This means that if a parent makes it apparent that they do
not enjoy mathematics or that they are not good at mathematics, this
can inuence the way in which their child views mathematics.
Furthermore, studies by Herbert P. Ginsburg, Columbia University,
show the inuence of parents' and teachers' attitudes on "'the child's
expectations in that area of learning.'... It is less the actual teaching
and more the attitude and expectations of the teacher or parents that
count." This is further supported by a survey of Montgomery County,

Maryland students who "pointed to their parents as the primary force

behind the interest in mathematics.".[34]
Claudia Zaslavsky[34] contends that math has two components. The
rst component, commonly focused on in many schools, is to calculate
the answer. This component also has two subcomponents, namely the
answer and the process or method used to determine the answer.
Focusing more on the process or method enables students to make
mistakes, but not 'fail at math'. The second component is to
understand the mathematical concepts that underlay the problem
being studied. and in this respect studying mathematics is much
more like studying, say, music or painting than it is like studying
history or biology.
Amongst others supporting this viewpoint is the work of Dr. Eugene
Geist, Associate Professor at Ohio University Athens, Ohio and an
early childhood education specialist.[35] Dr. Geist's recommendations
include focusing on the concepts rather than the right answer and
letting students work on their own and discuss their solutions before
the answer is given. Emphasis is given that young people hate to be
wrong and hate situations where they can be embarrassed by being
wrong.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) (1989, 1995b)
suggestions for teachers seeking to prevent math anxiety include:

Accommodating for dierent learning styles

Creating a variety of testing environments
Designing positive experiences in math classes
Refraining from tying self-esteem to success with math
Emphasizing that everyone makes mistakes in
mathematics
Making math relevant
Letting students have some input into their own

evaluations
Allowing for dierent social approaches to learning
mathematics
Emphasizing the importance of original, quality thinking
rather than rote manipulation of formulas
Hackworth (1992)[36] suggests that the following activities can help in
reducing and mitigating mathematical anxiety:

Discuss and write about math feelings;

Become acquainted with good math instruction, as well
as study techniques;
Recognize what type of information needs to be learned;
Be an active learner, and create problem-solving
techniques;
Evaluate your own learning;
Develop calming/positive ways to deal with fear of
math, including visualization, positive messages, relaxation
techniques, frustration breaks;
Use gradual, repeated success to build math condence
in students

Math (and Statistics) Therapy is a combination of coaching and

counseling, provided for adults by people with credentials in both
counseling and math education. In Math Therapy the reasons for
anxiety are addressed, as well as the mathematical skills which are
lacking. New coping skills are introduced and practiced, so that fear,
distaste or other negative emotions do not block math (or statistics)
learning.
There are several anxiety reducing techniques that teachers can teach
their children and practice periodically throughout the year. Teachers

will need to learn these techniques and encourage the students to

practice them at home and to use them prior to testing or when feeling
anxious during math class.
Several studies have shown that relaxation techniques can be used to
help alleviate anxiety related to mathematics. In her workbook
Conquering Math Anxiety, 3rd edition, Cynthia Arem oers specic
strategies to reduce math avoidance and anxiety. One strategy she
advocates for is relaxation exercises and indicates that by practicing
relaxation techniques on a regularly basis for 1020 minutes students
can signicantly can reduce their anxiety.[37]
Dr. Edmundo Jacobsons Progressive Muscle Relaxation taken from the
book Mental Toughness Training for Sports, Loehr (1986) can be used
in a modied form to reduce anxiety as posted on the website
HypnoGenesis.[38]
Visualization has also been used eectively to help reduce math
anxiety. Arem has a chapter that deals with reducing test anxiety and
advocates the use visualization. In her chapter titled Conquer Test
Anxiety (Chapter 9) she has specic exercises devoted to visualization
techniques to help the student feel calm and condent during
testing.[39]
Studies have shown students learn best when they are active rather
than passive learners.[40]
The theory of multiple intelligences suggests that there is a need for
addressing dierent learning styles. Math lessons can be tailored for
visual/spatial, logical/mathematics, musical, auditory,
body/kinesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal and verbal/linguistic
learning styles. This theory of learning styles has never been
demonstrated to be true in controlled trials. Studies show no evidence
to support tailoring lessons to an individual students learning style to
be benecial.[41]
New concepts can be taught through play acting, cooperative groups,
visual aids, hands on activities or information technology. [42] To help
with learning statistics, there are many applets found on the Internet

that help students learn about many things from probability

distributions to linear regression. These applets are commonly used in
introductory statistics classes, as many students benet from using
them.[original research?][who?]
Active learners ask critical questions, such as: Why do we do it this
way, and not that way? Some teachers may nd these questions
annoying or dicult to answer, and indeed may have been trained to
respond to such questions with hostility and contempt, designed to
instill fear. Better teachers respond eagerly to these questions, and use
them to help the students deepen their understand by examining
alternative methods so the students can choose for themselves which
method they prefer. This process can result in meaningful class
discussions. Talking is the way in which students increase their
understanding and command of math.[43] Teachers can emphasize the
importance of original thinking rather than rote manipulation of
formulas. This can be done through class conversations. Teachers can
give students insight as to why they learn certain content by asking
students questions such as "What purpose is served by solving this
problem?" and "why are we being asked to learn this?"[44]
Reective journals help students develop metacognitive skills by
having them think about their understanding. According to Pugalee, [45]
writing helps students organize their thinking which helps them better
understand mathematics. Moreover, writing in mathematics classes
helps students problem solve and improve mathematical reasoning.
When students know how to use mathematical reasoning, they are less
anxious about solving problems.
However, there is still a large part of school math teaching which
consists of memorization, repetition, and mechanically performed
operations. Times tables are one example, wherein rote learning is
essential to mathematics performance. When a student fails to learn
the times tables at a young age, they can experience math anxiety
later, when all the students' classmates can remember the tables but
they cannot.
Children learn best when math is taught in a way that is relevant to

their everyday lives. Children enjoy experimenting. To learn

mathematics in any depth, students should be engaged in exploring,
conjecturing, and thinking, as well as in rote learning of rules and
procedures.[42]

See also
Cognitive science of mathematics
Dyscalculia
Educational psychology
Foreign language anxiety
Gilah Leder
Learning theory
Primary education
Pygmalion eect
Test anxiety
Stage fright

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