PUSAT TUISYEN SKOR MINDA

REVISION NOTES (Science PMR)

The composition of Air
General composition of air is as follows.
Components
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Inert gases + other
substances
Water vapour, dust and
microorganisms

Percentages
78
21
0.03
O.97
Varies

Air is a mixture of gases because

The mixing of its component are done without any chemical reactions
The components can be easily separated by physical ways
The component gases maintains its different properties in mixture and when separated
too.
The composition of air varies from one place to another. For example forest area contains
more oxygen compared to industrial area.
Energy + Carbon Dioxide +
Water Vapour
5.2 The properties of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
The properties of oxygen
soluble in water
not soluble in sodium hydroxide solution
does not react with lime water
is a neutral gas (no changes with hydrogen carbonate indicator and litmus paper)
soluble in alkaline pyrogallol solution
supports combustion (glowing splinter lights up)

The properties of Carbon dioxide

more soluble in water than oxygen
very soluble in sodium hydroxide solution
reacts with lime water (turns cloudy)
is acidic (hydrogen carbonate changes from red to yellow and litmus paper changes from
blue to red)
not soluble in alkaline pyrogallol solution
does not support combustion

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Oxygen is needed for Respiration
Glucose + Oxygen

Respiration

Inhalation (breathe in) obtains oxygen for respiration and exhalation (breathe out)
removes carbon dioxide and water vapour from the body.
The energy obtained through respiration is used for the activities carried out by the body.

The Differences between Inhaled and Exhaled Air

Inhaled Air
Contains more
oxygen
Contains less water
vapor
Temperature varies
according to the
surrounding

Exhaled Air
Contains more
carbon dioxide
Contains more
water vapor
Temperature of the
body

5.4 Oxygen is needed for Combustion

Fuel

Air

Heat

Allows combustion
(Without any of these, combustion would not occur)
Examples of substances that can burn easily are
Organic substances (ex: alcohol)
Substances containing alcohol
Hydrocarbons (compounds containing hydrogen and carbon)

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Products of combustion depending on the type of fuel used:

Carbon + Oxygen

Carbon Dioxide + energy

Hydrocarbon + Oxygen

Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy

5.5 Air Pollution

happens when air contains pollutants that are harmful to living things and non living
things

Sources of Air pollutants

Construction activities
Power Generating stations
Motor Vehicles
Industrial Activities
Smoking
Open Burning
Agricultural Activities

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Effects of Air Pollution

Causes
Asbestos
Particles
Lead
Carbon
monoxide
Sulphur
dioxide
Soot and
Dust

Acid rain

Haze
Excessive
carbon
dioxide
Cigarette
smoke (tar,
nicotine
and carbon
monoxide)

Effects
Lung cancer
Mental disabilities in
children
Blood carries less oxygen
Eye irritation and
respiratory problems
Make buildings dirty,
close up stomata
(difficulty for respiration
and photosynthesis)
Corrodes and quickens
rusting, makes soil less
fertile and kills aquatic
animals
Reduces the rate
photosynthesis
Greenhouse effect and
global warming
Causes cancer

How to prevent and control air pollution

Role of society (prevent CFC Products and open burning)
Education (educate the public by having forums and campaigns)
Using Modern Technology (use Catalytic converters or fix filters on the smoke ducts of
chimneys)
Law Enforcement (take legal action against owners of pollutants)
Replanting
Save electricity
Stop smoking
5.6 The Importance of Clean Air

Guarantees good health

Benefits future generations

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Survival of human beings and other living organisms

FORM 2
The World through Our Senses
1.1 Sensory Organs and the Functions
Sensory organ
Skin
Nose
Tongue
Ears
Eyes

Sense
Touch
Smell
Taste
Sounds
Light

Word Check:
Sensory organs organs that detect stimuli
Stimuli (stimulus) reaction by the body due to changes in the environment
Sense ability of the organs to detect stimuli
The Pathways for Response in Human Beings
Stimulus
Sensory organs are stimulated by the receptors
Nerve impulses are sent to the nerves
Brain receives impulses from the nerves and interprets and decides how to respond
Brain initiates nerve impulses
The nerves carry the nerve impulses to the effectors
The effectors responses

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1.2 The Sense of Touch

Parts of the
Human Skin
Pain receptor
Heat receptor

Functions

Detects the slightest pain

Detects an increase in
temperature
Cold receptor Detects the decrease in
temperature
Pressure
Detects any forceful
receptor
pressure against the skin
Touch
Detects any touch and
receptor
identifies the texture of
an object
The sensitivity of the skin depends
The number of receptors present (more receptors makes skin more sensitive)
The thickness of the epidermis (thicker epidermis makes skin less sensitive)
1.3 The Sense of Smell
Word Check:
Nostrils holes in the nose
Nasal cavity hollow space in the nose
Mucus warm liquid moistens air before it enters the lungs
The Pathways for Smell Detection
The presence of chemicals in inhaled air
Air enters the nasal cavity
Air dissolves in the mucus
Smell receptors are stimulated
Impulses are sent to the brain
Brain detects the smell

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Tate and Sense

Word check:
Saliva chemical substance produced by the tongue
Taste buds taste buds are the taste receptors present on the tongue
The Pathways for Taste Detection
Saliva acts on the food that we chew
Taste receptors are stimulated
Nerve impulses are initiated and travels to the brain
Brain detects the taste
1.4 The Sense of Hearing
The Pathway in the Mechanism of Hearing
Sound waves are directed into the auditory canal to the eardrum
Eardrum vibrates and transfers the vibration to the ossicles which transfers to the oval window
Fluid in the cochlea vibrates and stimulates the receptors
Nerve impulses are initiated
Nerve impulses are sent to the brain through the auditory nerve
Brain interprets the sound

Parts of the ear which are not related to hearing

Semicircular canals helps maintain body balance
Eustachian tube helps balance the air pressure on both sides of the eardrum

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The Sense of Sight

The Function of each part of the Human eye
Parts
Ciliary
body
Suspensory
ligaments
Aquenous
humour

Functions
Allows changes in the focal
length of the lens
Holds the lens and connects
it to Ciliary body
Refract light and focus
image on retina and
maintain shape and pressure
of the eyes
Conjunctiva Protects the cornea
Pupil
Allow light to enter the eye
Cornea
Allow light to enter and
focuses it onto retina
Iris
Control the size of the pupil
and the amount of light
entering the eye
Eye lens
Bends and focus light to
form image on the retina
Vitreous
Jelly like material that
humour
maintains the shape of the
eye and refracts light on the
retina
Sclera
Protects and maintains the
shape of the eye
Choroid
Supply nutrients and oxygen
to the eye
Retina
Detects light stimuli and
send nerve impulses to the
brain
Yellow spot Most sensitive to light,
detects the images of objects
formed and changes them
into nerve impulses
Blind spot
Not sensitive to light, no
receptor cells here and it is
the spot where the optic
nerve leaves the eyeball
Optic nerve Sends impulses from the
retina to the brain

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The Pathway in the Mechanism of Sight

Light enters the eye through pupil
Lights are refracted by the cornea, aqueous humour, eye lens and vitreous humour
Inverted and smaller image is formed on the retina
Photoreceptors are stimulated to initiate impulses
Optic nerve sends the impulses to the brain
Brain converts the inverted image into an upright image
Light and Sight
Properties of Light

Is a form of energy
Travels in straight line
It is reflected when it hits an opaque surface
It is refracted when it travels from transparent material to another

Word check:
Reflection happens when light hits an opaque surface
Refraction happens when light travels from one transparent material to another
Common defects of vision and ways to overcome them
Common
defects
Shortsightedness
Longsightedness
Astigmatism
Colour
blindness
Presbyopia

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Ways to overcome the

defects
Wear glasses with
concave lenses
Wear glasses with convex
lenses
Wear glasses with
cylindrical lenses
Cannot be corrected
Wear glasses with bifocal
lenses

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Stereoscopic and Monocular Visions

Stereoscopic
Vision
Both eyes at the
front and are used
to look at the
object

Monocular Vision

Eyes are at the

sides of the head
and only one eye is
used to look at the
object
The visual fields of The visual fields of
both eyes overlap
both eyes do not
(smaller)
overlap (wider)
More accuracy to
No accuracy to
estimate position
estimate position
and distance
and distance

Sound and Hearing

Properties of Sound

It is produced by vibrations
Needs medium to travel (solids, liquids or gases according to the rate sound travels
through it)
Do not travel in vacuum

1.5 Plants Responses to Stimuli

Plants respond to
Light
Gravity
Water
Touch
Types of responses
Positive tropism parts of the plant grows towards the stimulus
Negative tropism parts of the plant grows away from the stimulus
Types of tropisms
Phototropism plants response to light
Geotropism plants response to gravity
Hydrotropism plants response to water
Thigmotropism plants response to touch

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Interdependence among Living Organisms and the Environment

Word Check:
Species a group of similar organisms
Population the number of a species in a habitat
Community different populations in a habitat
Ecosystem various communities that interacts with non living things in the environment
Biological control the use of natural predators to control the population of pest species
Chemical control the use of chemicals to control the population of a pest species
A balanced ecosystem is a ecosystem that
Stable
Does not change much over a period of time
Have continuous supply of basic needs
Interaction between Living Organisms
Types of
interaction
Competition
- Intraspecific
competition
- Interspecific
competition
Symbiosis

Commensalisms

-Mutualism
-Parasitism
Prey predator

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Explanation
Living things compete
for their basic needs
- Competition among the
same species
- Competition among
different species
Relationship between 2
organisms of the same
species that live and
interact with each other
- One organism
(commensal) benefits
while the other (host) do
not benefit
-both organisms benefit
- One organism
(parasite) benefits while
the other (host) is
harmed
Predators are the ones
that kill the other
animals (carnivores)
Prey are the one get
killed (carnivores,
omnivores or herbivores)

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Word Check:
Food chain shows the feeding relationship between living organisms
Food web- shows a combination of food chains
Producers green plants (able to produce their own food)
Consumers animals that eats other living things [primary (animals that eats green
plants), secondary (animals that eats the primary consumers) and tertiary (animals that
eat the secondary consumers)]
Decomposers living things that breaks down dead animals and plants into simpler
substances

Energy flow in a food Web

Sunlight is the main source of energy
Energy flows from primary consumers to secondary consumers and finally to the tertiary
consumers.
Some energy is lost in the process through respiration, excretion and defecation.
Therefore the amount of energy decreases along the food chain
4.4 Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants make their own food
Carbon dioxide + water
Sunlight

Chlorophyll

Glucose + oxygen

Conservation and Preservation

Word Check:
Preservation steps to maintain living things and their environment in their original and
balanced state
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Conservation proper usage of natural resources to protect living organisms in the

habitat

Aims of Conservation and Preservation

To protect living things from destruction and extinction
Natural resources are not depleted
Promising ecosystem for the future generations
Natural habitats are preserved
4.6 Role of Human Beings in a Balanced Nature
Steps to preserve and conserve the environment
Maintain forest reserves and rehabilitation centres
Law enforcement
Reduce, reuse and recycle
Public awareness
Deforestation
Build marine parks
Word Check:
Electrostatics study of static electricity change through friction/ rubbing
Electrostatic force reaction when charged objects are brought together (same charges
would repel and different charges would attract)
Electroscope equipment used to test charges (+ve or -ve)
2 materials are rubbed together

Positively
charged when
losses electron

Electricity
Word Check:
Electricity a form of energy

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Negatively
charged when
receives
electron

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Electric current the rate of flow of electrons (charges) from the positive to the negative
terminal (measured using Ammeter)
Electrons the electrical charges that flows and causes the electrical current
Electric voltage the force that pushes electrons through a wire (measured using
Voltmeter)

Word Check:
Conductor materials that allows heat or electricity to pass through them
Insulator materials that do not allow heat or electricity to pass through them
Resistance (ohms) the characteristic of a conductor that opposes the electric current (the
flow of electrons)
Resistor reduces the current flow through a circuit (fixed resistor has fixed resistance
and variable resistor has variable resistance)
Resistance
The higher the resistance, the lower the voltage
The lower the resistance, the higher the voltage
Factors affecting resistance

Length (the longer the higher)

Diameter (the smaller the surface area of conductor the higher the resistance)
Type of the conductor (good conductor has low resistance and vice versa)

Current, Voltage and Resistance

R = Resistance in ohm
V = Voltage in volts
I = current in Amperes
R = V/ I

Series Circuit and Parallel Circuit

Series Circuit
Has one path for

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Parallel Circuit
Has more than 2

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electric current
The current that
flows are the same

The total voltage

supplied is shared
among the bulbs in
the circuit
Effective
resistance = sum of
resistance in each
bulb

paths for electric

current
The current
supplied by the
source is equal to
the current that
flows in the circuit
Each bulb uses the
total voltage
supplied
Effective
resistance decrease
when number of
resistors increases

Word Check:
Magnet material that produces a magnetic field
Magnetic field area surrounding the magnet on which the magnetic force acts
Magnetic substances materials that are attracted to magnet
Non magnetic substances materials that are not attracted to magnet
Properties of magnetic field lines

Begins at north pole and ends at south pole

They do not cross each other

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