CELL:THE UNIT OF LIFE

1.Cells were first discovered by Robert Hooke--Dead cells.

2.Unicellular organisms--The organisms composed
of only a single cell. eg- ameoba,bacteria etc.
3.Multicellular organisms--organisms made of more
than one cell.eg-plants and animals.
* Features of unicellular organismsunicellular organisms are capable of-1.
independent existence.
2.performing the essential functions of their life.
CELL AS THE STUCTURAL N FUNCTIONAL UNIT
OF LIFE
1.All living organisms are made up of cells.Thus,
cell is the structural unit of life.Every type of cell
organelle performs a special function,such as
making new material in the cell,cleaning up the
waste material & so on.A cell is able to live &
perform all its functions because of these cell
organelles.The organelles constitute the basic unit
called cell.
2.features of unicellular organisms + anything less
than a complete structure of cell does not ensure
independent living.Hence.cell is the fundamental
structural & functional unit of all living
organisms.
4.Anton Von Leeuwenhoek first saw & described a
live cell.
5.Robert Brown discovered the nucleus.

CELL THEORY
In 1838 ,Mathias Schleiden,a german
botanist,examined a large no. of plants &
observed that all plants are composed of
different kinds of cells which form the
tissues of the plant. At the same
time,Theodore Schwann(1839),a british
zoologist,studied diff. types of animal
cells & reported that cells had a thin
outer layer known as plasma membrane.
He concluded on the basis of his study on
plant tissues that the presence of cell
wall is the unique feature of the plant
cells.
On the basis of this Schwann & Schleiden
together formulated the cell theory:The
bodies of plants and animals are
composed of cells and products of
cells.
Drawback:they couldnt explain as to how
new cells were formed.
Rudolf Virchow countered this drawback &
first explained that cells divided and new
cells are formed from the pre-existing
cells.He modified the cell theory .Cell
theory as understood today is:
1.All living organisms are composed of cells and
products of cells.
2,all cells arise from pre-existing cells.
AN OVERVIEW OF CELL

1.Prokaryotic cells-cells that lack a membrane bound

nucleus and cell organelles are called prokaryotic.
Eg- a bacterial cell
2.eukaryotic- cells that have a membrane bound
nucleus and cell organelles are called eukaryotic.eganimal & plant cells.
3.The human cheek cells have an outer membrane
as the delimiting structure of the cell.inside each cell
is a nucleus.the nucleus contains the chromosomes
which inturn contain the genetis material ,DNA.
PARTS OF CELL:
1.NUCLEUS:it is a dense membrane bound structure
present in the center of the cell.
2.PLASMA MEMBRANE: each cell is bound by a
thin,delicate and elastic living membrane, called the
plasma membrane.it is a semipermeable
membrane,provides a definite shape to the cell &
allows the entry n exit of required substances.
3.CYTOPLASM: A jelly-like matrix occupying the
volume of the cell.The cytoplasm is the main arena of
cellular activities in both plant n animal cells.Varios
chemical reactions occur in it to keep it in the living
state.
*these are the main parts of a cell
SIZE OF A CELL,SHAPE & FUNCTION:
Cells differ greatly in size,shape & activities.
1.Mycoplasma(pleuro pneumonia like organisms) is
the smallest cell-0.3 micrometer in length ,while a
bacterial cell could be 3 to 5 microm.Acetabularia is
the largest cell of plants.

2.The largest isolated single cell is the egg of an

ostrich(170x135 mm).among multicellular
organisms,human RBCs are about 7.0 microm in
diameter.Nerve cells are the longest cells.
3.cells may be disclike,polygonal,columnar,cuboid.thread-like,or
irregular.
*relationship b/e size & function.:the size of the cell
is independent of the size of the organism.i.e.,the
elephants or whales do not possess large cells and
not even the cells of rats are small.The only thing to
be kept in mind is that the size of the cell only
depends upon the rate of duration of growth or the
function it performs.
PROKARYOTIC CELLS
Characteristics of prokaryotic cells
1.Pokaryotic cells-bacteria,blue-green
algae(cyanobacteria),mycoplasma & PPLO.
2They are generally smaller & multiply more rapidly
than the eukaryotic cells.
3.Bacterial cells vary greatly in shape & size.They
may be-bacillus(Irodshaped),coccus(spherical),vibrio(comma-shaped)&
spirullum(spiral).
4.All prokaryotes have a cell wall surrounding the cell
membrane.The fluid matrix filling the cell is the
cytoplasm.There is no well defined nucleus.
5.The genetic material is basically naked,not
enveloped by a nuclear membrane.

6.The bacterial cells have genomic DNA(the single

chromosome/circular DNA) along with small circular
DNA outside the genomic DNA.These smaller DNA
are called plasmids.
Functions of plasmids:1.the plasmid DNA confers
certain unique phenotypic characters to the
bacteria.One such character is the resistance to
antibiotics. 2.This plasmid DNA is used to monitor
bacterial transformation with foreign DNA..
7.A specialized differentiated form of cell membrane
called Mesosome is the characteristic of
prokaryotes.They are essentially infoldings of cell
membrane.
Structure of bacterial cells./cell envelope
1.The bacterial cells have a complex cell envelope.
The cell envelope consists of a tightly bound three
layered structure: i.e., the outermost glycocalyx
followed by the cell wall and then the plasma
membrane.Each layer of the envelope performs a
distinct function ,they act together as a single
protective unit..
2.bacterial cells can be divided into 2 groups on the
basis of the differences in the cell envelope & the
manner in which they respond to the Gram stain,asGram positive & gram negative.
Those who take up the gram stain are called gram
positive bacteria.eg-coccus shaped bacteria & those
that do not are called gram negative.eg-Bacillus.
3.Glycocalyx differs in composition n thickness
among diff bacteria.In some , it could be a loose

sheath called the slime layer and in the others it

may be thick and tough,called the capsule.
4.In the bacterial cells the cell wall determines the
shape of the cell & provides a strong structural
support to prevent the bacterium from bursting or
collapsing.
5.The plasma membrane is semi permeable in nature
& interacts with the outside world.
6.Mesosomes are the infoldings of the plasma
membrane.Its a special membranous structure which
is formed by the extensions of plasma membrane
into the cell.These extensions are in the form of
vesicles(round),tubules and lamellae(II to d cell wall).
*Functions of Mesosome:1.help in cell wall
formation.2.DNA replication & its distribution to the
daughter cells.4respiration 5.secretion processes
6.increase the surface area of the plasma membrane
& enzymatic content.
[In some prokaryotes like the Cyanobacteria,there
are other membranous extensions intothe cytoplasm
called cromatophores which contain pigments.]
Based on motility.
Bacterial cells may be motile or non-motile.If
motile,they have thin filamentous extensions
from their cell wall called flagella.
Bacterial flagellum is composed of 3 partsfilament,hook & basal body.The filament is the
longest portion & extends from the cell surfsce to
the outside.
Besides flagella,Pilli & Fimbriae are also the
surface structures of the bacteria but do not play

any role in motility.The pilli are elongated tubular

structures made of a special protein.The fimbriae
are small bristle like fibres sprouting out of the cell.
They help the bacteria to attatch to rocks in
streams & also to host tissues.
RIBOSOMES N INCLUSION BODIES:
Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis.In
prokaryotes,the ribosomes are associated with
plasma membrane of the cell.
They are about 15nm x 20nm in size & are made of
two subunits-50S & 30S units which together form
the 70S prokaryotic ribosomes.
Several ribosomes may attatch to a single mRna &
form
a
chain
called
polyribosomes
or
polysome.The ribosomes of a polysome translate
the mRna into proteins.
Inclusion bodies ::Reserve material in prokaryotic
cells are stored in the cytoplasm in the form of
inclusion
bodies(these
are
the
temporary
stuctures).These are not bound by any membrane
system & lie free in the cytoplasm.eg-phosphate
granules,cyanophycean granules & Glycogen
granules.
P.S.:Gas vacuoles are found in blue green & purple
& green photosynthetic bacteria.

EUKARYOTIC CELLS
The eukaryotic cells possess an organized nucleus
with a nuclear envelope and membrane bounded
cell organelles.In addition ,they have a variety of
complex locomotory & cytoskeletal
structures.Their genetic material is organized into
chromosomes.

 The eukaryotes include all the protists,plants

,animals,n fungi.

All eukaryotic cells are not identical.Plant & animal

cells are diff from each other.

Now well discuss the 2 main membranes of these

cells:
CELL MEMBRANE:
FUNCTIONS:
It provides a definite shape to the cell.
Provides protection of the internal contents of
the cel.
Is semi-permeable i.e.,allows the entry & exit
of required subst.
1.chemical studies on the cell membrane in human
RBCs enamled the scientists to deduce the structure
of Plasma membrane.
**FLUID MOSAIC MODEL OF PLASMA MEMBRANE
The cell membrane is composed of lipids that are
arranged in a bilayer.The lipids are arranged
within the membrane with the polar
head(hydrophilic) towards the outer sides & the
non-polar tails(hydrophobic) towards the inner
part.

This ensures that the non-polar tail of saturated

hydrocarbons is protected from the aqueous
environment.The lipid component of the
membrane mainly consists of
phosphoglycerides.

The ratio of protein & lipids varies in diff cell

types.Depending on the ease of
extraction,membrane proteins can be classified as
integral or peripheral.Peripheral proteins lie on
the surface of membrane while the integral
proteins are partially or totally burried in the
membrane.
According to this fluid mosaic model(proposed by
Singer & Nicholson), the quasi-fluid nature of
lipid enables lateral movement of proteins within
the overall bilayer.This ability to move within the
membrane is measured as its Fluidity. The fluid
nature of the membrane is also imp from the
points of view of functions like cell
growth,formation of intercellular
junctions,secretion,endocytosis,cell division,etc.
2.Passive transport : Many molecules can move
briefly across the membranewithou any requirement
of energy & this is called passive transport. Neutral
solutes may move across the membrane by the
process of simple diffusion along the concentration
gradient i.e.,from higher conc to lower conc. Water
may also move across this membrane from higher to
lower conc. Movement of water by diffusion is called
Osmosis.
3.ACTIVE TRANSPORT: As the polar molecules cannot
pass through the non-polar lipid bilayer,they require
a carrier protein of the membrane to facilitate their
transport across the membrane. A few ions or
molecules are transported across the membrane
against their concentration gradient ie., from lower to
higher conc..Such transport is an energy dependent

process,in which ATP is utilized & this is called active

transport.eg:Na+/K+.

CELL WALL:
In plant and fungal cells ,there is a rigid, fully
permeable cellulose containing non-living
layer called the cell wall.
It provides shape to the cell& protects the cell
from damage & infection,it also helps in cell
to cell interaction & provides barrier to
undesirable macromolecules.
Algae have cell wall made up of
cellulose,galactans,mannans & minerals like
calcium carbonate.
In plants it consists of
cellulose,hemicellulose,pectins & proteins.
The cell wall of a young plant cell,the primary
wall is capable of growth, which gradually
diminishes as the cell matures & the
secondary wall formed on the inner(towards
membrane) side of the cell.
The middle lamella is a layer mainly of
calcium pectate(chemical nature of cell wall)
which holds or glues the diff neighbouring
cells together.The cell wall and the lamellae
may be traversed by plasmodesmata which
connect the cytoplasm of neighbouring cells.
ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
Each of the membranous organelles is distinct in
terms of its structure & function, many of these
are considered together as an endomembrane

system because their functions are are

coordinated.It comprises of: the endoplasmic
reticulum,golgi apparatus,lysosomes &
vacuoles.
Since the functions of the mitochondria
,chloroplast & peroxisomes are not
coordinated with ER,GA n vacuoles, these are
not considered as a part of the
endomembrane system.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
A network or reticulum of tiny tubular stuctures
scattered in the cytoplasm is called the ER. The
ER divides the intercellular space into 2 distinct
compartments:luminal(inside
ER)&
extra
luminal (cytoplasm) compartments.
Its of 2 types:
1.RER:The ER bearing ribosomes on their surface is
called RER. RER is frequently observed in cells
actively involved in protein
synthesis &
secretion.They are extensive & continuous with the
outer membrane of the nucleus.
2.SER:The ER in the absence of ribosomes appear
smooth & are called SER.The SER is the major site
for synthesis of lipids..In animal cells lipid-like
steroidal hormones are synthesized in SER.
The main function of ER is to provide channels for
the transport of materials(especially proteins)
between various regions of the cytoplasm & the
nucleus.

GOLGI APPARATUS
They are the membrane-bound,fluid filled
vesicles,vacuoles & stacks of many flattened
cisternae.They are usually seen near the
nucleus.
Camillo Golgi( 1898)first observed densely
stained reticular stuctures near the nucleus.These
were later named Golgi bodies after him.
They consist of many flat,disc-shaped sacs or
cisternae
of
0.5
microm-1.0microm
diameter.These are stacked II to each other.Varied
no of cisternae are present in a Golgi complex.
The golgi cisternae are concentrically arranged
near the nucleus with distinct convex cis or the
forming face & concave trans or the maturing
face. The cis & trans faces of the organelle are
entirely different but interconnected.
FUNCTIONS OF GA::
1.It principally performs the function of packaging of
materials,to be deliverd either to the intra-cellular
targets or secreted outside the cell.
2.Golgi apparatus is an imp site for the synthesis of
glycoproteins & glycolipids.
3.Matrix of connective tissue is formed in GA.
4.Transfer of the packaged material to the body
parts.
5.they are involved in the formation of lysosomes.
Q.Why the golgi apparatus
association with the ER?

remains

in

close

Ans.Materials to be packaged in the form of vesicles

from the ER fuse with the cis face of the golgi
apparatus & move towards the maturing face.A no.
of proteins synthesized by the ribosomes on the ER
are modified in the cisternae of the golgi apparatus
before they are released from its trans face.
LYSOSOMES
These are membrane bound vesicular structures
formed by the process of packaging in the golgi
apparatus.
They are rich in almost all types of hydrolytic
enzymes(hydrolaseslipases,proteases,carbohydrases)
optimically
active at the acidic Ph.
These enzymes are capable of digesting
carbohydrates,proteins,lipids & nucleic acids.
VACUOLES
The vacuole is the membrane bound space found
in the cytoplasm.It contains water,sap,excerory
product & other materials not useful for the cell.
The vacuole is bounded by a single membrane
called tonoplast.
In plant cells,vacuoles can occupy up to 90%of the
volume of the cell.In animal cells they are smaller
in size & less in in no as compared to the plant
cells.
Function of tonoplast:In plants the tonoplast
facilitates the transport of a number of ions &
other materials against the concentration
gradients into the vacuole,hence their conc. Is
significantly higher in the vacuole than in the
cytoplasm.

 In amoeba the contractile vacuole is imp for

excretion.
In protists,food vacuoles are formed by engulfing
the food particles.
MITOCHONDRIA
They are small rod-shaped or spherical organelles
present in large number in the cell.
The no. of mitochondria is variable depending
upon the physiological activity of the cells.
Typically it is sausage-shaped or cylindrical having
a diameter of about 0.2microm-1.0microm &
length 1.0micm-4.1microm.
STRUCTURE OF MITOCHONDRIA:
Each mitochondrion is a double membrane bound
structure with the outer membrane & the inner
membrane dividing its lumen distinctly into two
aqeous compartments.i.e., the outer compartment
& the inner compartment.
The inner compartment is called thr matrix .The
outer membrane forms the continuous limiting
boundary of the organelle.
The inner membrane forms a no. of infoldings
called the cristae towards the matrix. The cristae
increase the surface area.The 2 membranes have
their own specific enzymes associated with the
mitochondrial function.
The matrix also possesses single circular DNA
molecule,a few RNA molecules,ribosomes(70S) &
the components required for the
FUNCTIONS OF MITOCHONDRIA:
1.they are the sites of aerobic respiration.

2.they produce cellular energy in the form of

ATP,hence they are called thepower houses of the
cell.
3. The matrix also possesses single circular DNA
molecule,a few RNA molecules,ribosomes(70S) & the
components required for the synthesis of proteins.
*the mitochondria divide by fission.Do practice the
diagram given in ncert(pg135)
PLASTIDS
1.These are the coloured pigments present in plant
cells.they are found in all plant cells &
euglenoids.They bear some specific pigments thus
imparting specific colours to the plants.
2.Based on the type of pigments plastids can be
classified into :
Chloroplasts:these chloroplasts contain chlorophyll
& carotenoid pigments which are responsible for
trapping light energy essential for photosynthesis.
Chromoplasts:They are of diff colours.They are
mostly present in flowers & fruits..Their function is
to provide diff colours to flowering parts of a plant.
In the chromoplasts fat soluble carotenoid
pigments like carotene,xanthophylls & others
are present. This gives a part of the plant
yellow,orange or red colour.
Leucoplasts: These are the colourless plastids of
diff
shapes
and
sizes
with
stored
nutrients.:Amyloplasts
store
carbohydrates(starch)
eg:potato;Elaioplasts
store oils & fats
& the Aleuroplasts stores
proteins.
MORE INFO. ABOUT THE CHLOROPLASTS:

1.Majority of the chloroplasts of the green plants

are found in the mesophyll cells of the leaves.The
chloroplasts are lens-shaped,oval,spherical,discoid
or even ribbon-like organelles having variable
length(5-10mm) & width(2-4mm).Their no. varies
from 1 per cellof the chlamydomonas,a green
algae to 20-40 per cell in the mesophyll.
2.Like mitochondria,the chloroplasts are also
double-membrane bound..Of the two,the inner
membrane of the chloroplast is relatively less
permeable.The space limited by the inner
membrane of the chloroplast is called the
stroma.
3.A number of organized flattened membranous
sacs called the thylakoids are presnt in the
stroma.The thylakoids are arranged in stacks like
the piles of coins called grana or the intergranal
thylakoids.In addition there are flat membranous
tubules called the stroma lamellae connecting the
thylakoids of the different grana.The membrane of
the thylakoids enclose a space called a lumen.
4.The stroma of the chloroplast contains enzymes
required for the synthesis of carbohydrates &
proteins.It also contains small,double-stranded
circular DNA molecules & ribosomes.Chlorophyll
pigments are present in the thylakoids.
5.The ribosomes of the chloroplasts are
smaller(70S)than the cytoplasmic ribosomes(80S).
RIBOSOMES
Ribosomes are extremely small,round bodies
present either in free state in the cytoplasm or
attatched to the surface of endoplasmic
reticulum.They are composed of RNA & proteins.

 They were first observed under the electron

microscope as dense particles by George
Palade(1953).They are composed of RNA &
proteins & are not surrounded by any membrane.
The eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S while the
prokaryotic ribosomes are 70S.Here S(Svedbergs
Unit) stands for the sedimentation coefficient.;it
indirectly is a measure of density & size.
CYTOSKELETON
An elaborate network of filamentous
proteinaceous structures present in the cytoplasm
is collectively reffered to as the cytoskeleton.
FUNCTION:The cytoskeleton in a cell are involved
in many functions such as mechanical
support,motility,maintenance of the shape of the
cell.
Read the notes on types of cytoskeleton from ur
bio ntbk.
CILIA & FLAGELLA
Cilia & flagella are hair like outgrowths of the cellmembrane.
Cilia are small structures which work like
oars,causing the movement of either the cell or
the surrounding fluid.
Flagella are the thin long filamentous extensions
responsible for cell movement.The flagella in
prokaryotic cells is structurally diff from that of
eukaryotic cells.
STRUCTURES
A slender cylindrical stalk extension of P.M.
containing cytoplasmic matrix.

 Parallel groups of peripheral microtubules

embedded in the matrix,9 of them are in pairs &
arranged in a circle surrounding two single centre
ones.This arrangement is known as 9+2
structure.
Microtubules(9+2) are derived from a basal body
situated just below the point at which the
flagellum protrudes from the surface of PM.
In prosection the basal body shows a ring of 9
triplets of microtubules but lacks 2 central single
microtubules(9+10 arrangement). Both the cilium
& flagellum emerge from centriole like structure
called the basal bodies.
CENTROSOME
Centrosome is an organelle usually containing two
cylindrical structures called centrioles.They are
surrounded by amorphous pericentriolar materials.
CENTRIOLES
These are non-membranous organelles found in
animal cells,also found in flagellated plant
cells,algae & motile cells of some primitive land
plants.
STRUCTURE & NUMBER:
Both the centrioles in a centrosome lie
perpendicular to each other in which each has an
organization like the cartwheel.
They aye basically cylindrical in shape & occur in
pairs at right angles to each other near on pole of
the nucleus.
It seems to be made of 9 triplets of microtubules
arranged in a circle just like a basal body.

 The central tubules of basal bodies are absent.

The space b/w & around triplets is filled with
amorphous electron dense material.
FUNCTIONS: At interface,centrioles duplicate &
each daughter cell receives one pair of centrioles.
During cell division,one pair of centrioles separate
& migrate to the opposite pole of the cell.There
they may function as centres for the organization of
spindle.
Involved in the organization & development of cilia
& flagella.
When these centrioles move towards the peripheral
microtubules,they turn into basal bodies which give
rise to cilia & flagella.
NUCLEUS
All the components of cell including plasma
membrane are called as protoplasm.It contains a
major control structure called nucleus.Nucleus as
a cell organelle was first described by Robert
Brown in 1831.
PARTS OF A NUCLEUS/STRU.:
Inside nucleus the mass of thread like tangled
structures is called chromatin.It is composed of
chromosomes which are having genetic material
DNA & proteins.
The Interphase nucleus(nucleus of cell when it is
not dividing) has highly extended & elaborate
nucleoprotein fibres called chromatin,nuclear
matrix & one or more spherical bodies called
nucleoli(sing:nucleolus).Nucleolus is a highly
dense & rounded organelle inside the nucleus.It
acts as a platform for protein synthesis.

 The nuclear envelope consists of parallel

membranes with a space b/w them called
perinuclear space, forms a barrier b/w the
materials present inside the nucleus &that of the
cytoplasm.
The outer membrane remains continuous with the
ER & also bears ribosomes on it.At a no. of places
the nucleur envelope is interrupted by minute
pores called the nuclear pores which are formed
by the fusion of its two membranes.These nuclear
pores are the passages through which movement
of RNA & protein molecules takes place in both
directions b/w the nucleus & the cytoplasm.
Inside nuclear membrane a colourless dense sap
is present,it is called nucleoplasm. The nuclear
matrix or the nucleoplasm contains nucleolus
&chromatin.
The content of nucleolus is continuous with rest of
the nucleoplasm as it is not a membrane bound
structure.It is a site for active ribosomal RNA
synthesis.Larger & more numerous nucleoli are
present in cells actively carrying out protein
synthesis.
Functions of nucleus:
Many vital roles are performed as well as
controlled by the nucleus of the cell,so it is
sometimes called as the control centre of the
cell/director of cell.
It controls all the activities of the cell.
It has a direct role in sexual as well as asexual
reproduction.
Nucleus takes part in cell division.

Read about chromosomes frm ncert n

MICROBODIES ALSO FROM NTBK N BOOK.N DO
PRACTISE ALL THE DIAGRAMS.