Communicating as Professionals

(Cengage, Melbourne)
Mohan, McGregor, Saunders & Archee (2008)
Chapter 11
Academic writing
Contents
The audience for academic writing
Academic communication
Becoming a member of an academic community
Referencing systems
The problem of plagiarism
Authordate system of referencing
Quoting verbatim
Academic genres
Academic essays and research papers
Literature review
Thesis
Posters
Case Studies
Reflective Journals
Introduction
If you are enrolled in a course at a university or college, you will spend much of your
time listening to lectures, discussing ideas with other students, presenting your views
formally in tutorial groups, reading books and journals, and writing papers for your
teachers.
Of all these activities it is possibly through writing that you best crystallise your
ideas, discover new fields of knowledge and realise your intellectual potential. It is
certainly through writing that you will offer those ideas to others for their comments and
review.
This Chapter will help you understand some of the common conventions of
academic writing and will show you some techniques that will enhance your writing
skills.
The audience for academic writing
In business and industry we write to persuade, to explain, to instruct, to justify ourselves.
Typically we sell or share our ideas or services. We hope that our knowledge or insights
are good enough to influence others and be implemented, with suitable rewards coming
to us as a result.
As a student in an academic context, by contrast, we write:
for our teachers, to represent our views and experience and to convince them that
we have approached or achieved learning objectives
for our fellow students, with whom we may write collaborative projects

for ourself, using writing to explore and reinforce what we have read, work out
our viewpoints, apply our knowledge and find solutions to our problems.

Academic communication
Before we begin to discuss the different academic genres and give some guidelines for
effective writing, it may be useful to consider the broader issue of academic
communication. Despite the advances in mediated learning, the lecture remains a central
focus of academic life. And although many lecturers provide copies of their lecture notes
and slides either in hard copy or online, these written forms of communication are usually
significantly enhanced during the face-to-face lecture. One of the basic challenges for
you in academic writing, therefore, is to develop effective note-taking skills.
Dont attempt to write everything. Write only enough to enable you to listen to
the lecturers argument and be critical of it. Highlight keywords and underscore
important points. If you can develop an outline, you can be more confident that you are
making sense of the information. It will be easier for you to analyse the material if you
have completed the required reading before the lecture. Some students use a two-column
approach, comparing the notes from their reading with those taken during the lecture.
Make sure you record references and suggested reading in case you need to follow up on
them for an assignment or further research.
Ask questions in the lecture if this is permitted. If you are attending large lectures,
questioning may be discouraged. If so, take your questions and queries to the tutorial or
post them for discussion online.
Become aware of the broader implications of your studies. Keeping journals,
diaries, scrapbooks and press clippings related to your study will help you build up files
of information to supplement lecture notes and notes from texts.
Becoming a member of an academic community
One of the most significant learning outcomes of higher education is enculturation into a
professional community. That means acquiring the traits that signify you as, for example,
an accountant, engineer, lawyer or manager. Part of the challenge is learning how to
communicate in the ways that are appropriate for your group as well as learning strategies
for your own personal growth and your broader role in society.
When you begin working, a common way to learn how to write reports is to
review existing reports. In the academic community too, you are expected to build your
knowledge on existing knowledge. As an undergraduate your primary aim is to become
proficient in the skills expected of your discipline area and to demonstrate that you can
communicate your knowledge in the ways expected in your field. That means that you
are expected to read existing material, analyse it, compare one author with another,
question its validity and relevance, and synthesise your ideas using evidence you have
gathered from your reading.
Referencing systems
Many students have trouble understanding the academic conventions of referencing.
When writing an essay, you are expected to present your ideas in your own words. If you
want to use ideas put forward by a published expert as support for your argument, you
may present them verbatim as a quotation or paraphrase those ideas. Paraphrasing means

using your own words to restate the central idea. Students frequently argue that their own
words are not as good as the experts, and that may well be the case. But, because you
are usually using the idea as part of your own argument, it is better to argue in your
words. If the experts exact words are really significant, then you may present them as a
direct quotation. However, a collection of lengthy direct quotations is not likely to attract
high grades in any discipline area.
It is also important to follow the referencing conventions agreed on by your discipline
area. In this book we use the authordate or Harvard system of referencing, but different
professional communities prefer other referencing styles.
Referencing is important for a number of reasons:

If you use the work of others, you must give them credit for it. If you dont, it is
considered plagiarism, a serious form of academic misconduct.
Referencing indicates that you have read and understood key publications.
Referencing helps you to keep track of the arguments of different experts in your
field.
Referencing helps others find the citations you list.
Referencing correctly signifies that you know the conventions of your given
discipline.
Referencing also signifies that you respect the way that knowledge is shared and
extended.

The problem of plagiarism

Any work written by a student for assessment or by anyone for publication is deemed to
have copyright. Strictly speaking, there are laws against adapting or copying anything
written or produced by another person. However, these laws are only invoked when
writers believe that they stand to suffer financially or professionally from such
borrowing. Instead, small extracts are considered fair use if you give credit for their
work by accurately referencing.
In an academic context, plagiarism is the term assigned to the unethical use of
anothers work. It is penalised because those who practise it are regarded as cheats; they
are exploiting the efforts of others, obtaining academic rewards under false pretences, and
their own learning is defective.
Some students attempt to submit other peoples ideas or data as their own because
they think they will thus be thought of as original or creative. Such people may not
understand the conventions of referencing or they may not realise that their teachers have
read widely in their subject and usually recognise borrowed material when they see it.
Students are frequently asked to sign honesty declarations and attach them to their
assignments in an attempt to impress on them the importance of learning through writing.
In addition, assignments may be subjected to scanning applications that detect common
forms of plagiarising.
We therefore urge you to give full acknowledgement to any specific information,
opinion, scheme, graphic or program from another author and that includes unpublished
authors like your classmates. Written work that presents a vigorous argument and an
independent point of view, but which also gives full acknowledgement to material from
other writers, is all the more valued by academic teachers.

Authordate system of referencing

The main reason for citing sources is not to avoid accusations of plagiarism, but to enable
readers to follow up the sources of your reading so that they can either check on your
accuracy or read your sources for their own interest or learning. In this book we briefly
outline one common style of referencing to show you the basic principles. However, we
strongly suggest that you also consult more detailed style guides such as the Style manual
or the websites we list in this chapter.
One of the most commonly used systems of referencing, and the one employed in this
book, is the authordate or Harvard system. Other popular systems are the MLA (Modern
Languages Association) system and the APA (American Psychological Association)
system (an example of the APA system is given in Chapter X, pages xxxx). Guidelines
for using these referencing systems are available on many university websites and
through popular search engines.
In the authordate system, after you quote or paraphrase from another author, place
the name of the author, the year of publication, and if appropriate the page number(s) of
the reference in brackets.. The full publishing details of the book or article appear in
alphabetical order of authors surnames in the bibliography or reference list at the end of
the work.
The examples below show how to reference within the text of your essay. You will
note that if the author is named before the quotation or paraphrased material, the brackets
will contain only the date of publication and page reference:
Some communication theorists adopted the idea from social psychology that people
will attribute the cause of human action in systematic ways (Littlejohn 1992, p. 139).
Often referred to as attribution theory, the explanation suggested that human beings
make judgements systematically and follow a process of inference drawing and
decision-making which is predictable. Wilson, Hantz and Hanna explained, when we
think we understand the motives behind a persons actions, we feel more confident
about our expectations of that person (1995, p. 91).
As you see, only surnames are used. Initials are added only when they are required to
distinguish between authors of the same surname or where the reference is to a personal
communication (for example, in a personal letter or interview) not included in the
bibliography:
Most technical writers consider a technical background important for applicants
wishing to prepare user manuals in electronics or computing (A. W. Hardman, pers.
comm., 2005).
If the author of the source is not given, the publication or the organisation authorising
the publication is cited as the author:
Employers continue to note the poor communication skills of middle management
personnel (The Bugle, 6 June 2006, p. 15).

Bibliographies and lists of references

At the end of your essay you will need to present a bibliography or list of references. The
difference between references and a bibliography is that a bibliography includes lists of
work consulted but not necessarily cited. References contain only the sources cited within
the work. Other titles used for reference lists include Select bibliography or References
and further reading.
As you research, you should compile all the necessary detail for your bibliography,
and we suggest that you learn how to use referencing software such as EndNote to
facilitate the process. Now it will simply be a matter of providing a complete list of books
and articles used and arranging them in alphabetical order according to the author at the
end of the essay. The usual sequence of citations for a bibliography is based on the
following:

Books: authors surname and initial(s) or given name(s), year of publication, title of
book (in italics), edition (if not the first), publisher, place of publication.
Journal articles: authors surname and initial(s) or given name(s), year of publication,
title of article (in single quotation marks), title of journal (in italics), volume, number,
page numbers of article.

The reference list contains the works in alphabetical order by author. Note that all the
information needed to find the work is provided.
Mohan, T., McGregor, H., Saunders, S. & Archee, R. 2004, Communicating as
professionals, Thomson Learning, Melbourne.
For more complex sources, consult the relevant style guide. Always check with a style
guide or manual in your specific field to get the details of their preferred referencing
style. In some cases it doesnt matter which one you choose, so long as you follow a
standard, recognisable style that indicates that you respect the basic principles of
referencing.
Can you combine referencing systems? Not usually, because it becomes too complicated.
The one exception is that you may wish to use some footnotes in an article which uses the
authordate system, to refer to personal conversations or to make comments on the text in
a short statement that you feel needs to be separated from the text. In this case, the usual
procedure is to use a symbol, placed after the sentence introducing the reference and at
the foot of the same page. The most common symbol for this use is the asterisk (*).
Referencing online documents
You need to acquaint yourself with the styles of referencing material that you access
through the Internet. The Style manuals citation style for electronic sources (2002,
pp. 2301) suggests including the following information:

name(s) of author(s)
date of creation or revision of the document
title of document
version number, if applicable
description of document, if applicable
date of viewing
URL.

For example:
Australian Government Publishing Service, 2002, Style manual for authors,
editors and printers, [Online] viewed 30 October 2006,
<www.noie.gov.au/projects/egovernment/Better_Information/style_manua
l.html>.
Given the extremely fluctuating nature of the Internet, any attempt to relocate
information in transitory cyberspace may be doomed to failure. We thus suggest that if it
is possible to do so, the author should keep a copy of the electronic document and
perhaps make it available online through an online service such as a personal website, or
home page. The backup copy would be indispensable if the original document could not
be found at some later date. Thus, online documents should have at least two locations:
their original, and the archive location.
Quoting verbatim
Using the actual words of other writers or speakers can strengthen the authenticity of
your writing and also provide the reader with a variety of style and tone, especially if you
choose quotations that are lively and colourful. Some points of usage are:

Use single inverted commas (quotation marks) to enclose the words of your
quote.
If the original author has quoted within the quotation, use double inverted
commas. But try to avoid such complications; they can be difficult to read.
If the quotation is lengthy, separate it from your paragraph, indent and use singleline spacing; dont use inverted commas.
If you wish to use quoted words as part of your own text, make sure they fit
grammatically into your sentence.
You may wish to omit words or phrases from your quotation because they are not
necessary to the point you are making. In this case use an ellipsis (...).
Sometimes you may wish to insert some of your own words into a quotation in
order to make it grammatical or to clarify a point. In this case you place square
brackets ( [ ] ) around your words to distinguish them from those of your source.
Such bracketed material is usually no more than a word or a short phrase.
Avoid over-quoting. An essay that consists of a series of direct quotations strung
together with only a minimum of your own ideas looks patchy and may fail to
express a central and original viewpoint. Use quotations selectively and sparingly.
Be sure to provide complete citation, including the page numbers.

At tertiary level, it is usually preferable for you to express another writers ideas in
your own words or to summarise the writers position. For this, inverted commas are not
necessary, but acknowledgement is. It is in the non-acknowledgement of paraphrasing
that most plagiarism occurs.
Case study 11.1

The following paper appears on the Planet Paper website

www.planetpapers.com/Assets/615.php)
Changing Use of Language
Written by: colcame

I chose to find the entomology of a word that most people can usually not go through a day without using at
least once, computer. With the explosion of the personal computer in the last ten years, most households in
America own at least one. However, the meaning of the word "computer" has changed in the last century.
The word itself is found in text as far back as 1646 when Sir T. Brown said, "The calendars of these
computers." The use of "computer" in this sense, as defined by the OED, is one who computes; a calculator,
reckoner; a person employed to make calculations in an observatory, in surveying, etc.
Then, around 1897, the use of "computer" began to change. In the January 22 edition of Engineering, this
usage appeared: "This was... a computer made by Mr. W. Cox. He described it as of the nature of a circular
slide rule." This usage began the change of the definition. In the supplement to the OED, "computer" is now
defined as a calculating machine; an automatic electronic device for performing mathematical or logical
operation.
The word "computer" stems from the verb "compute" which came from the French comput-r and the Latin
computa-re. It was formed by adding com - together and putare - to clear up, settle, reckon. Together,
"compute" means to estimate or determine by arithmetical or mathematical reckoning; to calculate, reckon,
count. Then from the word "compute", the suffix "er" was added giving us the definitions we have for
computer today.
2) In an effort to further understand language, the field of psycholinguistics formed to study the psychological
side of language. Language has many different functions such as communication, expressing emotion,
explaining ideas, to create relationships, and recording ideas. Without the use of language, it would be
nearly impossible to explain the history of anything. Language allows for the communication that is
necessary for survival. It is not only humans who benefit from language either. Bees use a complex system
of a dance and buzz to show the hive where to find food, and birds use different chirps to communicate.
One psycholinguistic, Hockett, said that all languages have some aspects that are the same at some level
which he called Linguistic Universals. One aspect of Linguistic Universals is the broadcast transmission,
which says that language is public and that anyone around the message will pick it up. Another aspect of
language is that it is rapid fading, or if you don't get it right away, you won't get it at all. Hockett also said that
language is arbitrary. An object could actually be called anything anyone wants to call it. In all, Hockett came
up with nine aspects that all languages have in common.
In order to understand language, Chomsky believed that there were four levels needed. The first of his four
levels was the Lexicon. He described the Lexicon as a mental dictionary. It allows for recognizing words in
context, knowing how to pronounce the word in its context, and how the word is used in different parts of
speech.
Chomsky's second level was called the Phonemic level. This described the phonemes or the smallest unit of
sound in the language. For every language there are a countable number of sounds that make it up. For

example, the Chinese language has no sound for the English L or R. The English language is made up of 40
to 50 distinct sounds while the Hawaiian language has only eleven.
His third level needed for understanding language is the Morphemic level. This level consists of
morphemenes, which are the smallest unit of meaning of an utterance. This explains the usage of prefixes
and suffixes such as the use of an "s" to make a word plural.
The last level Chomsky used to understand language was the Syntactic level. This level consisted of the
syntax or the structure of the utterance. This level was used to explain the understanding of how a sentence
was put together. Chomsky said that there were two parts to every sentence, the surface structure and the
deep structure. The surface structure contains the words that are used to create the utterance and syntax.
The deep structure was the meaning of the utterance. Chomsky said that a sentence can consist of two
different surface structures and still have the same deep structure. The meaning of the sentence is
transcendent of the words used to make it. So, for a sentence such as, "The horse raced past the barn fell",
is still understood as "The horse that was raced past the barn fell."

I think that the levels of linguistic approach to understanding language does help explain and
breakdown language. It makes sense that all these parts are necessary to understand the usage
of language in general. Chomsky's four levels for understanding language breakdown and map
out language pretty good. Hockett's Linguistic Universals do show the aspects that language has
in general. Together, the two theories do seem to show an appropriate framework.

Discussion
1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of having model papers as an aid
to writing?
2. How effective is this paper as an essay on Changing Language?
3. What would you recommend to improve this paper as an academic paper?

Academic genres
In this chapter we give special attention to the academic essay because much of what we
say here about essay writing applies to academic writing in general. Its the genres or
forms that vary. Students need to become aware of the different expectations that each of
the disciplines imposes on them. A report for an engineering subject on a management
topic could differ in a number of ways to one submitted for a business studies elective in
management. An essay for a humanities subject on an environmental topic would require
quite a different approach to one submitted in a science faculty. Part of the learning
process for each field of study is to learn the conventions for communicating within your
discipline area.
Most academic writing requires us to:

understand and explain ideas

come forward with new information and insights
explain complex ideas skilfully, accurately and authoritatively
acknowledge and identify the opinions of others as distinct from your own

analyse and evaluate information in a critical and constructive manner

assess new information in relation to your own knowledge and involvement
be able to express clearly a variety of views and put them in a logical sequence
be prepared for critical and informed reaction from the reader.

Essentially, this type of writing enables us to discover more about a subject. It also
requires us to exercise a certain amount of self-discipline. We need to know and
understand the ideas and facts we wish to convey and we need to plan the order in which
we will express these. Understanding the conventions of the different genres will help us
to express those ideas in an appropriate way.
Academic essays and research papers
An academic essay is the presentation of an argument that is based on rigorous research
and scholarship. The purpose and the scope of the essay will determine its length. Essays
may be short or long; they may require considerable research or only a careful analysis of
material already known. Regardless of these details, the following strategies should help
you develop an acceptable academic essay.
Define the topic
An academic essay pivots on a topic statement: a clear presentation of the central
message of the composition. This sentence should be written as clearly and concisely as
possible and should appear at the outset of the essay. In this way, the writers intended
aim and method of approach to a topic, idea or problem is outlined and stated for the
reader. Some possible topic statements are:
Australian education is at a point of crisis.
The development of bar codes revolutionised business.
If the thesis or topic question has been set by someone else, be sure that you
understand what it means. Is the terminology clear to you? If not, a useful first step is to
check in encyclopedias and dictionaries, or in some cases to speak to the lecturer or
supervisor who has prescribed the topic. Let us have a look at a sample assignment:
Discuss the implications of imposing censorship on the Internet.
First we might need to ask: How should I define the Internet? How has it developed?
What impact does it make on our lives? What is censorship? Does it mean banning all
Internet programs or selecting among those to be censored? Censored for whom?
Children? If so, at what ages? What kinds of programs? Sex? Violence? Politics? All of
these questions would help you to define the scope of your topic
Keywords in essay questions
We should pause here to examine the exact meanings of the verbs used as instructions in
the setting of essay or report topics. You need to understand these words clearly and take
them very seriously; otherwise you are in danger of misunderstanding the topic and going

off on the wrong track. Exhibit 11.1, adapted from Bate and Sharpe (1996), provides a
list of the verbs most commonly used in essay topics, with their meanings.
EXHIBIT 11.1 Verbs most commonly used in essay or report topics
Analyse
Argue
Comment
Compare
Contrast
Criticise
Define
Describe
Discuss

Enumerate
Evaluate
Examine
Explain
Illustrate
Outline
Prove
Relate
Review

Break the subject into its parts and show how they relate to each other
and to other subjects.
Systematically support or reject a position by presenting evidence.
Express your view or interpretation of a statement contained in the
question. Support your view with argument and/or experience.
Express similarities and differences between two or more objects, systems,
ideas, arguments.
Demonstrate differences between two or more objects, systems, ideas,
arguments.
Make judgements, both favourable and/or unfavourable, using fair
argument and balanced evidence.
Give clear, concise meanings of terms used in your writing. Show how the
item you are defining differs from others. If necessary, use some
elaboration or examples.
Use words to show appearance, function, events or systems. Present the
different aspects of a problem. You are not being asked to make
judgements.
Present a subject and give points of view about it, your own and those of
other writers. Give a range of information, evidence and opinion. There
may be argument and analysis but the main quality is the range of opinion
canvassed.
Present material in list or outline form, usually without comment.
Make judgements using argument, opinion and evidence. Similar to
criticize but places more emphasis on establishing standards of quality and
excellence.
Similar to analyse, with a little more emphasis on judgement and
appraisal.
Assign or interpret meanings clearly by analysing events or systems,
giving reasons, describing how things developed. Your focus is on the
how and why of an issue, not so much on evaluation or criticism.
Use a figure, picture, diagram or concrete example to explain or clarify a
problem or situation.
Systematically list main points and subordinate points while omitting
details.
Confirm or verify by logical reasoning and evidence.
Show how things are connected to each other, how they correlate or cause
one another.
Examine a subject critically, dealing with a number of explanations or
theories, or listing and relating a series of events that are being used as
evidence for a theory.

Summarise

Give a brief statement or account that covers the main points in sequence,
without critical comments.
Source: Adapted Bate & Sharpe 1996, p. 5.

Concept maps and outlines

As we pointed out in Chapter 10, there is no one correct way of going about the task of
writing. Your own style determines to some extent how you proceed. Some students are
happier jotting down ideas till they have exhausted possibilities, then reshaping the
material to get a coherent composition. Others prefer a more structured approach.
Concept maps and outlines are two ways to help you get started on writing an essay or
other assignment.
Developing a concept map
There is some merit, especially in preparing long essays and papers that require some
evidence of serious research, in adopting the approach known as concept mapping or
mind mapping.
Suppose you are asked to write an essay, a short thesis or a formal report on the
subject Export opportunities for Australia in the twenty-first century.
You might begin by writing the topic in the centre and these questions on the edges of
a paper or board:
Who? What? When? Where? Why? How?
Write brief answers below each question. Keep going till you run out of ideas. Leave
your work and come back to it later to see if you can generate any further ideas. Then try
to create links between the ideas. Which are the major ideas and which are secondary?
Map the information by circling or underscoring the major points and linking to the subpoints by lines. The visual stimulation of having your ideas presented as a map helps
you to see the relationships between them and the holes in the picture.
If you are involved in collaborative writing in, say, a tutorial group or syndicate, your
team can contribute ideas to each question. Have them stand around the white-board with
marker pens poised, generating ideas from each others notes.
Of course, you can also generate concept maps on your computer. Sites such as
www.mind-map.com and freemind.sourceforge.net are helpful.
You are, of course, likely to generate a lot more notes on the concept map than youll
ever need for one paper. But thats just the point: you can now choose the direction of
your report from the questions and answers youve generated. Youll see that some of the
questions and answers are more relevant than others; they are the ones to develop.
Youll also note that the subject of the essay has been expressed very generally. To
say anything useful in 2000 words youll need to focus on a theme that incorporates the
essence of the subject and provides you with the basis of an argument.
Case Study 11.2
The following concept map was developed by a group of commerce students who were
given the topic of export opportunities for Australia.

Discussion
1. Based on this concept map, what are some of the themes that could be
explored for the essay?
2. Develop an outline for an essay on Export Opportunities.
3. Where would you look for information on the topic? Find at least 3 texts, 3
journal articles and 3 government reports.
Developing an outline
Perhaps when you were doing Case Study 11.2 you selected the theme Australia is well
placed right now to develop export markets in Asia and the Pacific. You might have
developed an outline for this theme with the following points, divided into main and
minor headings (see Exhibit 11.2).
EXHIBIT 11.2 Sample Essay outline
1 Australias stability makes us popular with potential trading partners in Asia and the
Pacific:
a. our political stability industrial peace
b. our economic stability low inflation.
2 We can therefore take advantage of the growth of Asian economies:
a. primary products and consumer items to supply their large populations
b. engineering and architectural expertise to help build their industries
c. vocational and tertiary education to strengthen their knowledge bases
d. tourism, communications (radio and TV) and the arts to promote cultural
exchange.
3 Our government is placing emphasis on economic and political links with Asia:
a. recent trade agreements
b. playing a strong part in APEC
c. close diplomatic links with China and Japan.
4 But our government can do more to help industry gain export advantages:
a. with export incentive schemes
b. by strengthening overseas trade centres and delegations to Asian countries
c. by continuing to cultivate friendships in Asia.

There are three things to notice in this exhibit:

1 All the ideas come, directly or indirectly, from the concept map.
2 Once the theme has been identified, every point in the outline relates closely to the
theme.
3 The theme is a direct interpretation of the topic, so you cant be accused of ignoring
the subject you were asked to treat.
4 The outline gives you a structure for your essay.
Note-taking
Suggestions for research are provided in Chapter 5; however, the following hints should
help you to build your note-taking into the writing process. The concept of note-taking
may seem out of date in the age of electronic cut and paste, but the principles are
essentially the same. Using the concept map or outline method leads to a methodical
procedure for developing a composition. An outline also guides you in selecting and
recording information to include in your work. We suggest that you set up a computer file
(or folder if you have lots of sub-topics) for each topic, and each time you come to a
reference related to that topic, make an entry in the file.
For example, in the essay on Australian exports if you have a file labelled tourism,
communications and the arts to promote cultural exchange (see 2 d in Exhibit 11.2, page
xxx), you might find:
1 an article from the Internet showing how the tourist industry has expanded during the
past three years
2 an Austrade report on the Asian trade links with Optus and its profits during the same
period
3 a newspaper article about the success of the Australian Chamber Orchestra in a
Tokyo season.
Each of these items would appear in the same file and is therefore handy to provide
useful evidence for any claims made in the essay. Each would be carefully identified,
including page numbers and date of internet access, so that when you reference it in the
essay, the source can be accurately acknowledged.
Your notes include your own views on what you are reading. If two sources give
contradictory information or opinions and you favour one, say why. Or if financial
information offered in a cited article seems thin, give your view of the unreliability of the
author. These comments can be added to the file in as much detail as you require. But
keep your entry brief.
The use of files for note-taking also enables you to organise and arrange the files so
that they follow the course of the outline. Thus when you are writing the essay, your
notes can be cut and pasted to your master document according to your outline. This
helps you to work up a smooth, coherent style.
Be wary of entering too many notes and quoting long sections of the original. This is
both time-consuming and confusing; you end up with a wilderness of material. Better to
paraphrase, quote vital figures and quote only brief but telling statements.

Keep a master reading-list in a bibliography file as you proceed with your research,
adding to it as you go. Make sure every entry contains full source details, so that these
can be included later in the essays bibliography. Most bibliography applications, such as
EndNote, provide a framework for efficient referencing. However, be aware that for
each item, book, article or website you need to provide sufficient information so that a
reader can find that citation and the specific reference within it.
Note that this master reading-list includes all the books and other documents you read
even if you dont refer to them in the essay. They can still form part of your essay
bibliography, unless of course they turn out to be totally irrelevant to the topic.
Case Study 11.3
Notes for an essay on the influence of immigration on Sydney life from 1950 to the
Present
Length: 2000 words
Origin of arrivals. Immigration programs for permanent immigrants. marital status and
sex and age of settler arrivals. Socio-economic background and occupation. Englishspeaking and non-English-speaking people. opulation increase. Ethnic composition of
different suburbs. Housing, employment and education. Industrial and social welfare
policies. Effect on consumer goods. Multicultural issues. Effect on the media in terms of
changes in newspapers, radio and TV. How do Sydney media cater for the new arrivals?
First and second generations. Which immigrants prefer an urban environment? In what
way does Sydney attract particular groups? Problems of migrant workers. Migrant
pressures on trade unions? Illegal immigrants.
Overall communication problems. Problems of migrant women. cultural differences.
Australian attitudes to migrants. Child-minding arrangements. Differences in income.
Impact of various migrant groups such as English, German, Italian, Greek, Maltese,
Lebanese, East European, Asian, etc. Refugees significance of these arrivals. Migrants
and Australian institutions such as churches, education, medical services, police, the law,
media, welfare services, political parties, trade unions. Effects on churches and religion in
relation to migrants.
What is needed most for new immigrants? Importance of interpreters and multilingual
information. Community facilities. More social welfare needed? Issue of discrimination
what evidence is there? A multicultural society for the future? Cosmopolitan elements in
Sydney where? Different lifestyles. Bilingual teaching. Individual and family
experiences. Areas of potential conflict. Problems of integrating. Influence of culture on
Sydney life. Problems of migrant children in schools. Effect of immigration on
educational system.
Role of and use of interpreters. Particular cultures and how they influence integration.
Have Australian people been adequately prepared for immigrants? Are Australians
hostile to immigrants? What do Australians expect of immigrants? Assimilation.
Problems of language. Is Sydney a particularly cosmopolitan city? What evidence is there
with shops, restaurants, buildings, architecture, food, consumer goods, etc.? Migrant
hostels. How have migrants improved Sydney economically? In what ways is
immigration in Sydney different from that in other capital cities?

Discussion
1. How effective are these notes for developing an academic essay?
2. What would improve them?
3. What needs to be done next?
4. Discuss possible outlines for the topics presented.
What are major topics?
What are sub-topics?

During your research you need consistently to look for material that is specifically
related to your discussion, rather than merely providing a reservoir of information. Ask
yourself the following questions:
1 Are there any facts or opinions with which you were particularly impressed? Did
these seem to be especially important? Why? How do they relate to the theme of your
essay?
2 Did any of the information spark questions of your own? What were those questions?
3 Were there any views that were inaccurate, vague or misleading? In what ways? What
comment can you make about them?
4 Were there elements of contradiction, inconsistency or lack of clarity in any of the
writers facts and opinions? How significant were these? What is your reaction to
them?
5 Can you compare and contrast the viewpoints of different writers? Comparing a valid
and informed argument presented by one author with one that is weak may be a useful
way of substantiating your own views, when they coincide with the more effective
argument.
In general, your lecturer will specify the length of the finished essay. Take this
seriously. It is a guide to the level and depth of research expected, and also to the
lecturers patience in reading and marking. Some lecturers penalise essays that are too
short (these suggest a paucity of research and argument) or too long (these suggest an
inability to edit and focus on the essential points).
Parts of an academic essay
Abstract
An abstract is an overview of the composition. It can be written before the development
of the document as a way of expressing your ideas in a nutshell. If you are presenting
your paper at a conference or seminar, you would be asked to submit an abstract well in
advance so that the organisers could see what your paper was going to discuss and
program it in an appropriate section. This preliminary abstract can also be used as a guide
while you are writing the paper. Of course, the abstract may change as your ideas develop
and evolve.

An abstract or summary can also be composed after the paper has been written, and
its function is to summarise all the key ideas presented in the paper but in a very
condensed form.
As in most writing tasks, function determines form. Most abstracts and summaries
present the thesis statement, the central ideas and the conclusion. Detail and examples
should be omitted. A rule of thumb is that an abstract should be no more than ten per cent
of the length of a publication.
Introduction
The introduction has several functions to perform:

It tells the reader what the paper is saying.

It shows that the topic is relevant.
It interests the readers and shows that the paper will meet their needs.
It orients the readers to the rest of the paper.
It establishes the credibility of the author.

How can a writer accomplish these aims? Some effective strategies include opening
with a thought-provoking sentence that either supports or challenges a common
assumption. Show how in this paper you will be developing an argument to defend your
statement. Tell the reader why this is an important issue and how you will be proving
your case. Through strong and confident writing convince them that your argument is
worth reading.
Sections
Each section should address a key part of your argument. There are two main strategies
open to you. You can begin each section with a topic statement and then defend it with
your evidence or you can build up your case piece by piece and then draw a conclusion.
Different disciplines lean towards different styles.
Remember that each of your points needs to be backed up with well-documented
evidence from your research.
Each section also needs to be linked to the previous section and to the following section
so that a reader is quite clear about how the argument is being developed. In a lengthy
paper, connecting sentences help to orient readers. For example: In the previous section,
the key role of the Treasurer in setting monetary policy was established. In this section,
the role of banks is explored.
Be sure to balance your treatment of topics. If topics are of equal value in the
argument, they should appear equal through the number of pages devoted to them and the
depth of the research.
Conclusion
The function of a conclusion is to bring the paper together so that the reader is satisfied. It
should affirm that the thesis has been defended and the objectives met. The key points are
often summarised. As a rule of thumb, you should not introduce any new material in the
conclusions section. The tone should be confident, the concluding statement memorable.

Case Study 11.4

Extracts from an essay on leadership
Introduction
A leader is described by the Oxford English dictionary as one who leads or conducts; a
commander; leading article. Leadership itself has a much broader scope of meanings
relating to personal characteristics and the methods a leader may employ to attain various
functions at a particular point in time. To achieve effective leadership the appropriate
personal characteristics of the leader must be consolidated with his functions. This
consolidation should be directed towards achieving the desired aims of the group or
organisation with whom the leader is working.
Conclusion
Leadership is not merely concerned with the performance of the task-function of a leader.
It consolidates this role with the adaptation of the leaders personal characteristics to
fulfill the expectations of his followers. For leadership to be effective, the leader and his
followers must work in harmony to achieve the desired results.
Discussion
1. Read the extracts and comment on their effectiveness
2. Discuss the purpose of an introduction
3. Discuss the purpose of a conclusion
4. What is the relationship of the conclusion to the introduction?
5. .Suggest any improvements or alterations that you think may be necessary

References or bibliography
Details on the format and procedures for references are provided earlier in this chapter.
At this point, it is appropriate to discuss the function of references in an essay.
Your lecturers will consult your bibliography to assess the quality and extent of your
research. They will note the number of references that you cite within the text of the
paper. They are assessing how well you have synthesised the work of others into your
own work and how you have supported your own arguments with published evidence.
Referencing techniques facilitate this assessment.
Readers who are serious researchers will immediately consult your bibliography to
note the authors whose work is familiar to them and to see if there are new or interesting
works for them to read. They rely on your citations to check the thread of your argument
and to read further if they wish to extend an idea. Be careful not to mislead your readers
by providing irrelevant texts in your bibliography. As part of a community of scholars,
you strive to make your referencing accurate to help other researchers.
Referencing also gives tribute to all of the scholars who have contributed to your
growing knowledge. It is a simple way of thanking them for their efforts to publish their

ideas so that they can be shared and extended by others. It also gives them some small
reward for their work.
Title
The title is the ultimate summary of your paper. It should be as informative as possible. It
should give a clear indication of the topic and the content. Avoid being wordy or cute.
Humorous titles may provide some respite to beleaguered teachers, but the price in
credibility may be too high.
Headings
Most academic work requires writers to choose appropriate headings to describe the
contents of each section of their composition. However, each discipline area has its own
conventions about the use of subheadings. The function of headings and subheadings is to
guide readers through your document, helping them to see the overall structure, and
identifying where they might find specific parts of your discussion. In a long document,
these headings and subheadings become a table of contents. They make reading easier
because they provide visual cues regarding the contents of each section and they also
provide visual rest spots that refresh a reader. The headings may also be supplemented
with identifying numbers or letters. (See Exhibit 13.7, page 352, for example.)
First draft of the essay
Most academic essays need at least two drafts, perhaps more. You will find that there can
be substantial differences in the assessment and feedback comments made by your
lecturers to first drafts of essays that you have submitted, and the feedback to essays that
have been through two or three drafts. Refer to Chapter 11 for suggestions for revising
and editing.
Think about the revision process as a learning process. Each revision helps you to
become more connected to your topic and more articulate in expressing your own ideas.
Your voice becomes stronger and more confident with each draft.
The essay in final form
The evolution of your drafts gives you confidence in the essay you will hand in. When
you have written the final product, use the following checklist.
Checklist for academic essays
1 Does the essay clearly meet the requirements of the set assignment? Have you
addressed these requirements in the introduction, expanded on them in the body and
confirmed them in the conclusion?
2 Is there any material that needs to be eliminated? Perhaps it is repetitious or
irrelevant? Interesting or unusual pieces of information are not always pertinent to the
main question. Too many diversions will distract the reader from the main point.
3 Have you shown the importance of each issue raised and related it logically to the rest
of the material? Careful attention to paragraph planning and development will result
in your work being read smoothly and coherently.
4 Wherever you present any specific evidence, do you indicate what it proves and make
direct statements so that the reader can understand this?

5 Have you offered interpretations of information rather than merely stated it? If you
have discussed any contradictions between different writers or within the one authors
work, have you explained your reasons for doing so? Have you offered an opinion or
assessment as to which may be better?
6 Have you been scrupulous in acknowledging all sources of information, whether as
quotations or as paraphrasing? In other words are you quite guiltless of plagiarism?
7 Are you satisfied with the style and presentation of your paper? Are there errors in
expression, sentence structure or paragraphing? Does the introduction command
attention and develop interest? Is each idea presented in a balanced and logical
fashion? Have you provided linking comments to guide your reader? Do the closing
paragraphs tie the essay together and clearly state the conclusions that have been
reached? Have you highlighted the importance of these conclusions and satisfied your
reader?
8 Have you paid close attention to presentation instructions given on the assignment
sheet? These are likely to be different from one situation to another.
9 Most universities have a style manual that provides instructions for students on line
spacing, margins and font sizes. Common sense suggests that an assignment should
be neatly printed on one side of standard paper in a font size that is easy to read. It is
wise to have margins that allow for binding in a folder and for comments from the
marker.
Other academic genres
Reports are discussed in depth in Chapter 13. In this chapter we will briefly discuss
several other common academic writing tasks.
Literature review
Literature reviews are sometimes set as independent assignments, but most often they
form the introductory sections of longer research projects and theses. The objective of a
literature review is to demonstrate familiarity with the work of significant authors in your
topic area. It helps to show that you know the established theories or research and can
analyse and critique them. They are focused compositions because you are investigating a
research question that you have identified.
In your literature review you are expected to show both the consistent themes that run
through all the texts, and also the divergent viewpoints. You should try to identify areas
that have not been sufficiently covered by other authors or areas of controversy. These
gaps in knowledge form the basis for further research.
The way that you analyse the published literature demonstrates both your research
skills and your professional competence. Question whether the author has clearly defined
their topic and constructed a valid argument. Is their research valid and reliable? Is their
viewpoint objective? Is their writing professional? Is the paper in a reputable publication?
The review is written in a discursive style, and you may choose different ways to
approach the task. You may want to present the evidence and draw conclusions. You may
want to pose a problem and draw from your literature to suggest a solution. You may
want to use the literature to argue your thesis statement. (We discuss the thesis statement
in the next section.)

The composition should be organised into themes that you have chosen to develop
your argument. It is not considered good form to begin each paragraph with the name of
an author and their assertions. Instead you should make a topic statement and show how
the authors work supports or contests it.
An annotated bibliography is an outline form of literature review. Each item is
presented and a brief analysis follows. You could group your literature into nominated
sections.
Thesis
A thesis is a major work usually undertaken at postgraduate level but also at the
conclusion of undergraduate work or honours programs. It is a document that gives
evidence of substantial research and scholarship in a specific discipline. There are usually
quite stringent guidelines for the completion of theses, so in this section we will give only
an overview, so that you will understand what is expected when you begin thesis work.
A thesis expands on a thesis statement or hypothesis. These are statements or
assertions that the writer investigates and defends through systematic research and clear
and logical argument. A thesis statement generally consists of two parts: the
identification of your topic and what you are saying about your topic. The OWL website
at Purdue University in the USA (owl.english.purdue.edu) is one of the many good online
writing sites. It suggests that in an analytical thesis statement you need to show what you
are analysing, the component parts and your approach to the analysis. If you are
explaining a process, be sure to outline the categories you are examining. If you are
arguing, clearly state your claim or assertion. Defining a clear thesis statement is an
ongoing process. The one you write at the beginning of your research may be refined and
revised periodically throughout your writing.
Both processes of researching the topic and arguing the positions are critical in
assessing the quality of a thesis. A student needs to show that they have critically
analysed the relevant literature in their topic area and synthesised the viewpoints into a
theme that is pertinent to their thesis. They should develop and execute a research plan to
support the existing knowledge they discovered in the literature with some new
knowledge gleaned through experimentation, interviews, case studies or observations.
They then analyse the results of this research and draw conclusions that provide us with a
new insight into the topic. They may suggest areas that could be explored by the next
generation of researchers. Chapter 5 gives a detailed discussion of research techniques.
The writing style for theses also varies from discipline to discipline. Some fields
require short, crisp sentences while others prefer well-developed and eloquent prose.
However, in all areas each paragraph develops an idea and leads on to the next idea. Each
word is chosen because it has a specific function to perform. The writing is precise,
polished and professional.
Poster
Posters have become a common way to present the results of research work at
conferences and seminars and also for assessment at university or college. A poster is like
a mini-paper with the emphasis on mini. It presents a clear, succinct and precise summary
of the project that can be read by a wide audience in a short period of time.
The format of poster presentations varies according to the requirements of the
conference or assignment and the logistics of the venue where they will be displayed. At

a conference, posters are often displayed in a well-frequented space. Participants can

peruse the posters at their own rate to familiarise themselves with the research. At
nominated times, the authors may stand by their posters to answer questions and discuss
their work. During this time, the presenters may be permitted to have an e-poster as well
as their traditional poster, and they can have additional material available on a computer
to show interested viewers. Sometimes, the authors will also present a very brief
summary as an oral presentation during the conference.
Since the viewers need to be able to get an overview of the research project quickly
and frequently from a distance, posters need to be carefully designed. A poster should
contain the following information:

a title
the authors name, affiliation and contact details
a summary of the work
some explanatory text
diagrams, photos and other graphic material.

Some additional material could be included, such as:

models, exhibits, objects

audiovisual displays
take-away handouts (the summary or a CV)
a container filled with business cards.

Posters should also have considerable visual appeal. They need to be conceptually
appreciated from a distance of two metres, so the font should be at least 20 points and
bold. The sections of the poster need to be arranged so that the sequence of reading is
obvious, important details are highlighted, and details simplified.
Simplicity is the key to a successful poster. Keep your message as simple as possible.
Ask yourself key questions and then design your poster to clearly and simply answer
those key questions. Consider which medium best satisfies the needs of the message. Is a
picture worth more than a thousand words? Is a graph or table a more efficient way to
summarise your data? Which colours are most appropriate?
Use headlines and pointers to focus attention on key points. Graphics should probably
take up more than half of the poster. Readers eyes should be directed through the poster
in a natural progression. Guide them across rows and down columns. You can use
arrows, hands, numbers or lines to help keep the viewers on track.
The text should be clear and concise. Short simple sentences are preferred. Use as
little technical jargon as possible. Remember that others may not be expert in your field
of research but may be interested in your findings for their own work.
The size of posters varies and you would probably be given explicit instructions from
the conference organisers. It is usually best to keep to a standard size and consider the
logistics of transporting the poster to the exhibition venue. Some authors seek help from
graphic designers, but anyone should be able to prepare a reasonable poster. Posters can
also be quite expensive, so students usually need to consider economical ways to present
their work.
We have presented a sample of a poster layout in Exhibit 11.3 on the following page;
however, you should use your imagination to design and create a poster that presents

your work in an impressive way. It is important to satisfy the criteria of the exhibition or
assignment as well as highlight the key elements of your research.
EXHIBIT 11.3 Typical layout of poster

Case studies
Case studies are frequently used to help students see how theories operate in practice. By
examining a story about an example organisation or incident, and being sure to include
the details that are specifically relevant to the theories being studied, students can more
easily understand the implications of applying their academic work in other contexts. As
a student you may be asked to analyse a case that has been written by an academic, or
you may be required to present your own case study of a typical or nominated
organisation or event.
Case studies provide an opportunity to demonstrate that you can apply what you have
learned throughout your studies to challenges you probably have not met firsthand.
Because case studies are presented as narratives, you can role-play the different
characters who are making decisions and feel their worry, confusion, determination and
confidence. As a classroom activity, cases help students to appreciate different points of
view and different ways to approach and solve problems. Often case studies are analysed
by syndicates who exhaustively work through case problems and then report orally to a
larger group.
An assignment set by your lecturer or tutor will often provide guidelines about how to
write your case analysis, but there are also some generic suggestions to ensure that you
achieve a high standard. Dont forget the basics of introduction, body and conclusion.
The introduction should provide an overview of the case and show how you will analyse
it. Each section of the body should concisely but comprehensively analyse the relevant
issues under review. The conclusion should summarise the key issues and draw these
together into a summary statement. If appropriate, you should make clear
recommendations drawn from the evidence presented in the case. It is wise to ensure that
these recommendations are well written and presented in a logical order, because they
demonstrate your ability to make decisions based on careful analysis and your command
of the underpinning theories.
Reflective journals

As a student you may be asked to reflect on an experience and submit that reflection as
an assignment. This presents a challenge to both you and your teacher in identifying what
makes a good reflection, what you should think about and how you should write it.
Reflection is part of the learning process. We have an experience, we reflect on it,
draw some tentative theories about what occurred and what we could do to improve our
performance. We then test those theories in action, and the learning cycle continues. So
in a reflection we should be trying to make sense of the diverse issues we have observed.
We are trying to relate what we already know to a new context or to new information. We
are trying to think outside the square, being sure that we consider broad contextual issues
as well as key technical issues.
Questioning is a fundamental activity in reflection. Why did a person react in a given
way? Who were the leaders in an activity? When did things start to go wrong? What was
the context for the event and how did it affect the outcome? Why was I angry, upset,
determined or convinced?
A reflective journal is a useful tool to enhance your own learning. It is particularly
helpful to students during internships or other unstructured learning experiences because
it demands that you document your thinking in a somewhat structured way. As a general
rule of thumb, the structure for a reflection is first to provide an overview of the
experience, then detail key issues under review, relate the known to the unknown and
draw conclusions. It is appropriate to write reflections in the first person, and while you
are expected to examine your emotions and feelings, it is not considered appropriate to
record defamatory comments about others.
Conclusion
As we take on different responsibilities in our lives, we are challenged to develop the
writing skills that are appropriate for those roles. To succeed in tertiary study, we need to
learn the writing conventions that are appropriate for the different discipline areas and
fields of study. As we advance in our academic work, we are expected to refine and
extend our writing skills so that we can become competent academic communicators.
Comments on Case Studies
Case Study 11.1 Model Essay
There are many on-line essay services offering model essays on almost any topic. It is
interesting to compare the quality of these essays and to discuss which are effective and
which are not. It is also a good opportunity to discuss issues of plagiarism and academic
conduct. Each web-site deals with these issues differently and a comparison of their
approach to academic honesty is a good foundation for some lively discussion.
Case Study 11.2 Concept Map
For the concept map, we would suggest a number of themes that could justifiably be
explored. Here are some:

If Australia speeds up its export drive, the nation can look forward to becoming
an equal trading partner with the great powers.

Australias creative talent, resources and world situation make export an

important growth factor for the next 50 years.
Australias economic problems require a renewed and successful export drive in
the areas of primary and secondary products, as well as service industries and the
arts.
With the rapid growth of Asian economies, Australia is well placed to find niche
markets in the East.

There are many more potential themes, and any one of them is sufficient to drive an
interesting discussion. Notice that all the themes weve isolated are assertions suitable for
an argument, capable of being supported by evidence. In fact, most tertiary writing is
argument, and therefore logic-driven.
Case Study 11.3 Notes
These notes are a form of brainstorming that is a common approach to gathering ideas for
essays. It is interesting to discuss the differences between concept maps and this type of
textual idea mapping and to determine which methods different writers prefer.
This case study also tests our ability to organize material into a logical order. A useful
approach is to read through the entire list and determine the major issues and sub-topics
to those issues. Some of the topics may not seem appropriate and may be discarded. At
this point, it would be wise to determine the thesis statement what is the main message
of the essay. Then the topics can be arranged in an order that addresses this thesis.
Case Study 11.4 - Extracts
The opening sentence plays an important role in any written communication, and it
should convince a reader that the paper will be interesting and relevant. While it is
important to define terms, the choice of dictionary signals the level sophistication of the
management of the topic. In tertiary work, terms are usually dealt with in a context, such
as management, science, commerce and the meaning is affected by contextual issues.
The links between introductions and conclusions need to be clear. The introduction
shows what the essay is about and the conclusion should clearly indicate that the essay
has achieved the goals set in the introduction.
Discussion questions and exercises
1. Exhibits 11.x and 11.y below present additional examples of introductory and
concluding paragraphs from student essays. Keep in mind the following:
the purpose of an introduction
the purpose of a conclusion
the relationship of the conclusion to the introduction.
Read the extracts and comment on their effectiveness. Suggest any improvements
or alterations that you think may be necessary.
EXHIBIT 11.x

Extract from an essay on the principles of good communication in business

correspondence
Introduction
A good business letter is efficient and pleasant in conveying its message. This is
extremely difficult to achieve since a combination of the major elements of good business
correspondence, such as efficiency, pleasantness and clear and concise meaning, require
detailed planning. The manner of the correspondence must be suitable with respect to the
information being conveyed and the person or persons to whom it is directed. Different
types of business correspondence require varied formats and wordings. They are
dependent on the nature of the message being transmitted.
Conclusion
Clear, attractive presentation and the use of effective language are the most important
parts of good business correspondence. Skilful use of grammar and tone may also create
the desired impression on the reader. A brief, simple, well-presented summary is far more
effective than a longwinded report on the same material.
EXHIBIT 11.y
Extract from an essay on the techniques of persuasive communication their
application and dangers in business
Introduction
Persuasive communication in business is practised in all areas of operation. It is practised
within the organisation itself and in dealings with the economy generally. The objectives
to be achieved range from encouraging interdepartmental cooperation to projecting a
stable image or attracting sales for the companys products or services. Whatever its
objectives in communicating, the organisation is operating in a specialised area that
requires the services of qualified personnel in the same way engineers are necessary for
the technical operation of a plant.
Conclusion
The communication of objectives and information cannot be effectively achieved if
channels do not exist to facilitate such communication. These channels in turn cannot be
used to their maximum effect unless positive efforts are made to maintain and encourage
their use. An organisation will not develop communication facilities either within itself or
with its public unless conscious steps are made to provide these within the organisation.
Public relations therefore exist to safeguard the communication links of an organisation.
Business must realise that effective communication cannot be assumed. It will occur only
when it as been preceded by thorough planning and full consideration of all relevant
information. The role of public relations is to facilitate these processes.
2. Read the following list of topics which have been set for a major essay of 1500
words. Each topic is general and covers a broad area.
Choose one of these topics, narrow it down and select and define one aspect:
interviewing

 globalisation
medicine and technology
communication breakdowns
intercultural communication
censorship
modern propaganda
mass communication
Australian popular culture
communication technology.

3. Brainstorm the topic to see as many different perspectives as possible.

i. Choose one aspect that interests you.
4. Find at least three books, three journal articles and three websites on that aspect of the
topic.
5. Outline one approach to writing an essay or research paper on the topic.
6. Write an introductory paragraph. Write a conclusion which shows you achieved your
aim.
7. Prepare a correct bibliography.
8. Complete the essay; be sure to reference accurately throughout.
9. Select three articles from professional journals and present critical evaluations,
keeping in mind the following guidelines:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.

Are ideas organised and developed logically?

Are the main themes emphasised?
What is the effect of technical terminology?
Are statements expressed clearly and coherently?
Do the authors arrive at the main point as quickly as possible?
Is the information presented in an authoritative manner?
What is the overall tone of each of the articles? Personal? Impersonal?
Is the writing reader-oriented? Why or why not?
How effective and appropriate is the overall vocabulary usage and sentence
structure?
j. Is there a difference in style between the journals?

References and further reading

Barrass, R. 2002, Scientists must write: a guide to better writing for scientists, engineers
and students, Routledge, London.
Bate, D. & Sharpe, P. 1996, Writers handbook for university students, Harcourt Brace,
Sydney.
Berkman, R. I. 2000, Find it fast: how to uncover expert information on any subject, 5th
edn, Harper Resource, New York.

Bjork, L. & Raisanen, C. 1997, Academic writing: a university writing course,

Studentlitteratur, Lund, Sweden.
Crme, P. 2003, Writing at university: a guide for students, Open University Press,
Philadelphia.
Kreml, N. M. 2001, The users guide to college writing: reading, analyzing, and writing,
Longman, New York.
Littlejohn, S. W. 1992, Theories of human communication, Wadsworth, Belmont, CA.
Infotrac Terms
Academic writing
Essays
Thesis
Plagiarism
Case Studies
Websites
college.hmco.com/business/resources/casestudies/students/writing.htm
freemind.sourceforge.net
owl.english.purdue.edu/owl
ublib.buffalo.edu/libraries/asl/guides/bio/posters.html
www.star.uts.edu.au
www.utoronto.ca/writing/litrev.html