Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ourna
r hfiW
HEW LE TT
IL': ~ PACKAI=l D
Durn
H EWLE T T - PA C K A R D
this hydrophone.
Improvements in simulation and verification toots for Ie design are the main
topics of the first two oi these 8 rticle s. The first describes the development
Volume 49 Number 3
TI,. Ilcwlen PnckD,d Journ~lls pUblisheli ~"""olly by Ihe HowlonPack.,d Comp anv to recn puize Icchnical contributions
made by Hcwlert-Packerd personnel.
- - - - - - - - - _._ - - - - -- - - -- - - - - -
- - - - -
-- - - -- - - .
Advillory BOllrd
P..ai~ev BadVal .l nu~ g' a tr.d Clr c ui~ B1J S!l\OSS Divmon, Foil. Colli" ;;,
Co:llJf:tlln
WUIl,'ll1' W, Brown. In1L: llf jl!l.'rJ Cirwil BusinQ5!\ Divisl(.J H, S,Wtfl
W ashingwil
California
CiJlil:)flll:a
ClllitDtlll ii
Rubv
G ~ l ln al1V
Dough,$. r.e~nt'lI(jn,
P (l nt ~d
r, ll1L: I ~'y
Co lClI \lIhl
[:;UJllI:lllV
Mmk Cor7j'nski , Ir"I ~l C l S\JlJ phC ~ GU5.incss Umr, Carvi3 llis. OrC'{IQ I\
, , ~ I and
DonuL MUl er, Wnrltt'...,do CIJ !-i~ .'l l n (,'/ SUllnl\ J1 Dlvr:Slr.rn. M IJIIIl 1: t1 J ~
O.'.'lsmn. f\o$c\lillll,
I/ll"N.
Ca ',I'O l llitl
O IVl ~ io n,
Tol yn,
Ciltllurui;J
J a aau
applicarlon 10 the Window Nl''" enviro nrncnt , con necting I.f' l"lmi cal ..nul IIllw a gpnuuu infonnatlon S~"SI ellls t 01-(/'1 1)('1,' and
testi ng in ternationa lized soft warp. W(~
will also have th roe a ru c tos fro m 111 1'1'1'
Ill' in l ernal ('lI gill('('l'in g I' OU f('J'P ll l' P S .
http://www.hp.comlhpj/journaI.htm.I
M. Shnhid Mujraba. HPl OlbvriJ !<]f lc:'C . Palo Aha. California
Steven J. Narci$o. VXl Sy5tcm:f O i ~' i s i n l l , LovelanLl,Colorado
Current
Past Issue s-e-revicw back to Febru ary Hl!J4, comp lete with links 10 oth er III' s ues .
GOtty
r;~: f/1 1 il l1 V
lnrtex-i-scarc h har-k to OUI' Ilrs t issu e in HHD, ('Olllpl!'l!' with an Order Im llm l IiII'
Collins, Colofodn
KoltM YlIn ngnwll. Kr,lJij 111~r I U ," 'J Ul l)~vl!i a l"\, KObo. Japan
Bar ~ara
In
IC
, \ Il\' W
Harry D. Foster
l1'f()\1~h careful
memory management,
a high -pl'rJ'onnal\('( ' oquivalcnce checker
is Integrated into an HI' division's A..<:;IC
The Hf' ( :i\10S IIS TL (high-slH', '1! transcel vor l0l{ic-) r-ourrollcd impel!l\Iu 'l '1I0
pads r-an lu- IISl'd t,) 1'01111'01 n'lkl'liolls
on integrated circuitl/O p nd rlrivors.
i11'sign nnw,
..0
18
fo
Measurement Laboratory
Samuel O. Naka~awa, Dennis M, Sylvester,
John G. McBride, and Soo-Young Oh
n t,T c
I
n
Cal bra I n 01 Op 'cal
Inshu
n
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~
t I~ '"
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r;
l ' -Cos
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Bor~
and Kalwanf
Sin~h
. BI_"'-
Glossary
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E-Mail Registration
II Usc-EMail Notifi ca f.lo n III n 'gisl ('r
Tester Description
pu b lis h ed.
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1\ range
or ull rnsOI11 id
imaging systems that. use digital beamformers for car diol ogy and multipurpose
jmaging and mechanical beam formers [or cardiology. general-purpose. and
Intravascular imaging.
1'01'
appl ication,
Au ~US I 1 9 g e.
Figure I
Bandwidth requirements for hydrophones.
--------.-.,.
inadequate frequ ency response show large errors. Hydrophones wit.h e ffec tive spot sizes that arc too large undercstimai e I Ill' critical parameter of peak pressure because
they average U1C pressure over the hydrophone's a ctive
i:
:.
' 0;
c:
Existing
Rcqulred
"'
VI
Th e
and NEtv1A~ standards regulate \:JH' charactcrizat.ion of medi cal ultrasound transducers hy specifyiru; the
IEe l
o +---t---~-------f---~
15
o
150
Frequency (MHzl
Au~u'l
The control and display of acoustic output have important perIorrnance and quality implications for medica l diagnostic ultrasound equipment. Theacousti c output ofthese devices should
beoptimized to provide imagequa lity sufficient fora clinician
to make a diagnosis, while at the same time, must be limited
to U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDAI approved levels.
The FDA has set limits lor acousuc ou tput. and requires reporting of ma ximumoutput levels before marketing these devices
and as partof the device labeling. Output measurements on
production units are performed to ensure manufacturing processcontrol and to establish compliance with FDA Duality
System Regu lations(GSR). Recognizing that measurement 01
acoustic output is an essenti al part of the deSign, manufacture, and marketing of this equ ipment, the HP Medical ProductsGroup (MPGl in 1985 established a dedicated. stale-ofthe-art. acoustic output measurement laboratory at Andover.
Massachusetts.
Measurement Stendsrd, the NEMA/AIUA4 Standard for RealTime Displavof Thermal and Acoustic Output Indices Oil Diagoosiic Ultrasound Equipment and International standards.
The laboratory's mission is fu urfold.
The firs t mission is to support the development of new ultrasound products, Before clinical studies. mea surements arc
performed on prototype equipment to characterize theacoustic
field, and maximum acoustic output isverified to be al or
below FDA aporoved limits for pressure and intensity. later,
after more systems are manufactured, outpu t control and
display are optimized and validated, and additional measurements me performed to establish the output variability of
newly des igned products , Finally, production test protocols
and testlimits are established.
The second mission is to col lect acoustic output data required
for regulatory labclinq. This includes co llection of data for
premarket notification and other international requirements,
..
I
n The laboratory has instruments
required to performmeasurements of acoustic pressure, intensity. Irequcncv. and power in the rangeof 1 to 20 MHz, and is
staffed by rna naqers, support engineers, and highly skilled
mea surement technicians.
A radiation force bal ance is used to mea sure total acou stic
power. This device consists of a small sound-absorbing target
attached to one armof a microbalancesuspended ina water
co lumn. To performa power measurement. tile source transducer iscoupled to the water column and the acoustic beam
isdirected at the target. The resulting force on the target, as
measured 11Y the microba lanc e. is proport ional to the total
acousticpower,
The meth odology for performing these measurementsconforms tothose specified in the NEMA UD2 Acoustic Output
F'iglll'(I ;~
12
.
-. ~
> 0
50
Zh'nl)
~-i
0
(a)
80
100
Xh,ml
II
II
..::.,
u
"'"
Ii;
is
>
2
I
III
III
~I
Ground Plaue
0
20
40
60
I
80
100
XDistance (~m~
(b)
(1)
:2l'
60
Trnce
= .i.:.-
40
ro
I
20
Figlll'<' 2
r-
n'
PVDF-TrFE
4 ,Inl Thick
37-" nl Diameter
Electrodes
model the electrical field patterns to cstimat (' Ilw l 'Xl ('lit
of the fringe field, Voltages on the three..d imensional
suuciu rc are sp ed lied and Poisson's equa tion is solve-d
iteratively. The geometry of the model is shown ill
F'igurc 3a. A ;J 7. p m - rl i aJlI e t(~ r (~ledJ'()d8 spot and Iran'
.s-:"
Figure 4
Schematic and equivalent circuit for the membrane
hydrophone.
~
V+
z-
- j
2rrJ" Co =
(-.i
)(2t)2
~ itD
(2)
-
c,
A,
C.
Iu
'0
,- - - - - - - - --
--
Figure !i
(a) Photograph of the rear side of the hydrophone. (b) Photomicrograph of the active spot, showingthe 37-llm geometric diameter.
5~Ohm Conngclo, "
On-M embrane
Hectronics
Top Eloclrcdc
(a~
The membrane is then mounted onto a ring support 5101"uc III its raw state, as receiv ed from tho vendor, th e
piezoelectric PVDF-TrFE film is Impaled with unaligned
flm'ode('lril; domains. To align these domains and create
the piczoelcctrk: active area, the film is spot-poled a t a
temperature of 1:30"C and all electric field strength of
70V/pm.
1.1llT,
(1('
to 300 MHz
AU~UH 1'.t98.
Ils(d 10 produce nonlinear ('f[eels in th o w at er propuga1ion m edium. ]11 a fully developed shock wave, such as Ihe
providr- all
T his wa veform is from a 20-MHz, 6A-tnlll-cijam0\.er transdl (('('r t ~xdi<'d ill a tone-hurst mode, as rec o rded by an
lIP :;1720i\ digital oscilloscope and an 1-1.1-' 54721A plug-in
wnplil"ip r wi til a I-Gl lz analog bandwid th, The- hydro-
son Mllz.
~O-MlIz
(a) Re ceived nonlinear weveiorm from a 20MHztransducer. (b) Spectrum of the nonlineer waveform with harmonics uo to BOD MHz,
10- 1
0.4
10- 2
0.3
I.,
..
.~
Ii
C1l
10~
;!!
"0
>
10- 3
-e
0.2
<l
0.1'
10- 6
10-7 J
12,86
(a]
12.88
12.90
lime (microseconds)
12.92
'-112,94
Frequency (MHz)
Figun- 7
Waveforms (insets) andspectra for fa} 500~l/m-diametrJr hydrophone and (b) new HP37~l!mdiameter hydrophone,
1()2
10l
101
jl
101
'0
;>
't:l
:t
lime
Tilna
=IQ'l
So
III
II
I I
10-1
10-2 .J-- --
--If--50
[a]
-"t-I
I'
'---'--
- j - -- ----lI
100
500-~11\l
spot diameter on a
hydrophone, and
tlll ~
- - - -1 - - - - - +-- - - -1I- - - I
100
50
IbJ
with
10-2 +--
200
Froquency (MHz)
III
150
-I
200
Frequency (MHll
tho spcr-tr show n in Fignre 6, given the lower excitation fn'qll('IH"Y or t.ll{-' ~()NOS svsicm.
si~llilil':lI\lly
largl'r 111:111
Tho sl'!1sit ivilY oln membrane hydrophone can he detormined by (wo fundamental parameters. The first is 1110
thlr-kness l"!'SOllaI1CP of tho membrane film, The second is
the response dotornuned by Ihe electrical and plezoelectrlc
properties of Ihe material. For a hvrlrophone the receive
vollag<' spl\sil,ivil,V, M, is given by the ratio of tlu- devoloped voltage 10 the iru-idcnt aco ust ic pressure, that is.
1\1 = VfP.
)HU'I'
OVE')" L1w
hydrophone area .
BeC<lI15t'
HP hydrophone is given
res ponse can he measured and used 1.0 estimate the effectiv e di am t-rer. In this method the actual beamwidths at
dB and at. - ti d B are co mpa red to those expected
- :j
Linearscansof a 20-MHz ultrasound transducerbeamwith two hydrophones: (a) a 500~llm-diameter reference hydrophone
and fb) the 37'/1 tn-dismeter HPhydrophone. In each case, the theoretical transducerbeam shape, Ihe theoretical beam
shape as spatially averaged by the hydrophone spot size, and tile discrete hydrophone measurement data are shown.
1.0
1.0
Ideal Beam ModeJ
0.9
0.8
Dela Points
IdoalBoamModel
I\
I
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.7
...'" 0,6
...'" 0.6
.;;..e
<[
0.4
0,4
0.3
0.3
01 '
0.2
0.1
(al
I \
E- o.s
<
- 2.0
I
r-
E 0.5
0.1
~
f ' -.
-1.5
-1.0
o
X Axis (mOl)
I"
o -:-
1.0
1,5
2.0
- 2,0
Ib)
I
-1.5
XAxis(mml
Figure D
HPmembrane hydrophone measurements ot nonlineardata from a 30~MHz IVUS catheter. (a) Iime-domsin waveforms.
(b) Frequency-domain spectra.
0.2 -
10-\
Sheath
No Shealh
Shealh
No Sheelh
0.1
:B"
10- 3
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"
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cr
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-0.3
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10...7
-0.4
1.0
1.1
(al
US(~
1.3
1.2
Time(,nlcro!ocondsl
1.4
1.5
(b)
100
300
200
Frequoncy (MHzl
400
SOO
:1,
r.
Lum, ]\;1.
nl'(',m~t('ill.
C,
(iro~SIl1(Il1 _
l.
Ult nisrmirs. l-i'I" IYJe)('( '/.rics, 1/')111 Frt'1J 1.II-',1J( ~.Ij C'lIldlll/. Vo l. "1:\,
M, 'II .,'I1((' III1'II I II Jli I ( :/t lll'/lrll 'ri.;: IIIi/,lll (U'/llI l'I1srJJl ;(' Fi elt]
i ll. Til l ' F}, I'I}I/I '! ll'lJ RIIII/p ' 0 .;') M/{::
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L-......-'".........._ _..
nr. :;O():l7.
Edward D. Verdonk
Paul Lum
Michael Greenstein
nI l
S:lI IIH ( 'Lilra. A n.ulv of Snll VI4u H' i~I 'C1, 1)(' is
rl'olnl ~ d m()1\' o IL
i.~
inxt runu -nt. uiou . Wilh III' sille ,' W77. 1l1'
Charles Grossman,
Ir,
Thomas L. Szabo
1 ! 1~llIl\.rr I ~
years
O f11~
ItS, Air F",x '(' . A sl'ni o l' 1,,1<1) (' n~lt'l 'r wit h
,\(oo lls li, ' (h lll'l1 l ,\ !" a s lln ' lIH'n l Laborat ory,
1"1'01\1 II " , Sla l.. l 1Ili' l' ls il.y ofN, '", York a l
1'< -< '\'i\"l' d his I'hl) d" gl'l' " ill physic~ front th r{ lll ll't't~,i l.v Ill' Il nth (I i 1\) ill IIlH:l. III' hl\.~ puh-
1 ~ ll tT: d \ l . I1I~r"
lisl ll' d Ii;; 1" '1"'1-'; .u u l his w01'11 has I'I-,nllt 'd in
Ill "g "tilhir' " il " " :1nd gargllyh's mul I.l';,i ll ill !(
..al s 10 d o trlc ks,
is
marrit'cll
II
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I,r
III
I,
rlUL
1111 ] r
II
1111 I
\j'
r-
II
II
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' k II I
11111
(11)e
\1
rhe ISO 9000 series, explains the gro wl Ilg interest in the val idal ion
or 1111'
10
thai, they can test and measure ill compliance with indust rial and
I q~aJ
IOllg~'r
II(' sun-
standards. Therefore, it, is important. t.o know how il can he guarani ('('I! 1hal
of calibration and traceability will he discussed. Th ese /irsl. two s('diolls gi\'('
ry of
Measurement has long been one or the bases of technical. economical , and
Andreas Gerster
even political development and success. Ln tho old [:;gypt ian culture, s ll r\'('~' i ll g
n<.'<,r ill 11)1' III' lH,hlin;:"1I Inst rum r-nt Divis ion
l1H'11I to
predict solar and lunar eclipses as well us th(' dares of the flood seaso n ol' Ihp
W(~I'P Iundmurntn!
Table I
Defiu itions q{ IIw Scne u Bas e Units of the
SJJs/ (!IIU~
Unit
Definition
Length
met er (Ill)
One meter is now defined 3S the distance that light travels in vacuu m during a
time interval of 11299792458 second.
Ma.';s
kilogram ( kg)
Sevres, France.
Time
second (s)
Electrical
amper e (A)
Current
A seco nd is defined by 9,192,G:1l,770 cycles of the radiation e mitted by the clcctronic transition between two hyp erfine levels of the ground sta te of ce s ium 133.
An ampere is defined as the electrical c urre nt producing a fo rce 01' :2 x 1O- 7 1ll' Wtons per meter of length between two wires of infinite len gth.
Temperature
kelvin (J{)
Luminous
Intensity
candela (cd)
A cande la is defin ed as the luminous intensi ty of a sour ce that e mits radia tion
of 540 x 1012 hertz with an intensity of 1IGS3 watt per steradian.
Amoun t of
Subs tance
mole (1\1)
Of course, no one can know the "rea]" value of a m easurand. Therefore, it must suffice to have a best approximation of this real value. The quality of the approximation is
expressed in terms of the uncertainty j hal is as s igned to
the apparatus that delivers the approximation or (he real
value. For calibration purposes, a measurement al ways
consists of tv....o parts: the value and the assigllld measurement uncertainty
The apparatus representing Ow real value (';111 1x- a n art ifact. or another instrument that itself is cali brated agains t
an even better one. In any case', this h('si approximation
to the real value is achieved through the con cep t of 11"1/('('a l)'iliJy. Traceability means that a certain measurem ent is
related by approp ri at e means 10 the tl4 illiti ll/l of tlu - un it
of t.he measurand under question. In other words , we trus t
in our measurement b(~cause W~, have delh uxl a unit (wh kh
is expressed through a standard, as shown late r), a nd we
made our measurement instrument conform with the dofinition of this unit (within (l certain limit of unccrt nintv).
Thus, the first step for a generally accept ed mea s ure ment
is a definition of the unit in question that is aee('p l ed by
everybody (or at leas t. by ail people who are re levan t fo r
our business), and the next step is an apparatus thai (';In
AUS"'1 1 9 9~.
I'l'])orting.(i
All hough II\(' calibra l io n chain desc ribe d above is a ve ry
COlimlOI1 a nd lhl' t!los t accepled melhod of ploviding
('alii ra
'0
of 0 JOn
In
I 11
In this section we describe the ca lib ratio n pro ced ures and
the related traceability concepts of som e o f t.h e OPI ical
measurement instruments produced by lIP. In contrast to
the calibration of electrical instrume nts like voltm et ers, ii,
15 nearly impossible to find turnkey solutions to r ca lib ration systems for optical instruments. Becaus e optical fiber
com11\lmications is a new ann developi ng fi t'ld , t 11(' lHl'<I'
surement needs are chMging rapidl y and orten t.he standardizal:ion cffOlts canl1ot.ket>p pa(~~.
' c I Po
er
e t e rs
accu racy.
Fi",'1.uc 1 illustrates I,he calibration chain for HP's po wer
meters. This is an example of the traceability concept of
all un bro ken chain of calibrations . It s tarts with the primary s tandard at the Physikallsch Technische Bundesans talt (Pl'B) in Germany, As discussed in the previous
section, th e c hain has to st a rt with the defini tion of the
un it, Since we want to meas ure power, the uni t is the
wa tt, wh ich is de fin ed to be I W = (l nvs )(l kgnv!i 2 ) .
(0
mechan ical
The heat tran sfer from the electrical healer is not the
same as from the absorbing surface.
The lead-in wires for the heaters are electrica l resistors
and therefo re also co ntr ibute to heating the sink.
Regula,
Figure 2
Rccallb'~l iofl
R~gular
Rccalibration
Comparison
---
Eleclric Healer
Recommended
Recalibra/ion Dale
Ab50rber
(Heal Sink) - - - -
Thermopilo
--
- - - - - - -. _ - -
.J
--I
: c:~ "B
,o c:
Co::::l
II
0,6
""]~'"
...
0,8
0,4
/1
I
"cr
0-
'"
01
SOD
1100
800
1300
Wavelength (nrn]
850
1400
1700
I
1550
Figul'<' 1
Calibration setup for absolute power calibration, The monochromator is usedto select the wavelength out of tile quasicontinuousspectrum ot the halogen lamp. The outputpower as a function of wavelangth is first measured with the working standard
and then compared with the results of the meterundertest. The deviation is usedto calculatecorrection factors t!Jat are stored
in the nonvolatile memory of the meter.
Monochrom.(Ol
Radialion Source
TI-
Standard
Ob)UCllve tens
MeIer
Under
Test
Halogen
---'"
tamp
length sweep is rat her slow. This can give rise to power
sia bilhv problems.
i r
ow
In
r y
11w p ro ce d ure described above calibrates only the wavelength axi s of the opt ical power meter. How accurate are
power measure ments at powers that do not coincid e with
th e power sele cted for th e wavelength calibration? This
quest ion is ans we re d by rho ltuearity calibration.
Sta te -of-the-ar t power meters are capable of measuring
powers with a dyn amic range as high as 100 dB or more,
Ide-ally, the readings should be accurate at each power
level. If one doubles 1he input power, the reading should
also double, A linear: Iy calibration can reveal wh ether
There arc several reasons for nonlinearity in photodetcctors. At powers higher th an a bo u t I mW, th e phot od iodo
irself may become nonlinear because of sa tu rat ion eff ects,
Nonlincaritics a t lower powers are normally ca used by
the electronics that evaluate the diode signal , Int e rn a l
aruplifi ers are co mm on sources o f nonlinearity; th e ir
gains must be adjust ed properly to avo id di scont inuitlos
when switching between power ranges, Analog-to-digi tal
converte rs can also be the reason for nonlinen ritics ,
In a well-designed power meter the nonlinearities indu ced
by the clectronlr s are very 1'1ll1.l11. Thus, the nonlincaritv o r
a good instrument is neat "zero, which makes it quit o di fficult 1:0 measure with a small uncertainty, lndced, often rho
measurement un certainty exceeds the nonlinearity.
The linearity calibration ofHP power met ers is an exa mple
of a self- calibration teclllliquc H ,10 Th e nonlincarirv NL a t
a certain power leve) Px L<; defined as:
rx -
NL = - rref
'
l.
This can now be co mpared with the enol' for a loss mea surern ent. Loss means the ratio between two p ow e-r levels
P , and p:} Let. D, and D:!be the corresponding dis p layed
power levels, ;.lnd define th e real loss RL= PI/1':!a nd II\('
displayed loss DL = 01 /02. The loss en-or U~ is given by
the relative difference between RL and DL:
LE =
DL - RL
RL
DL
= RL - 1
D IP:!
= D2P I -
1.
Au ~u't
OUT Sensor
P"
D!. = -p
Figure ()
The powers selected for the self-calibration procedure.
The entire power range is calibrated in 3-dS steps.
= -r.
[)II .
Becau se I' n and 1311 are selected to be equal, the nonliJ H'a rity NL is:
L1noarhy Steps
ticn o Laser
Figure 7
Principle of the Michelson interferometer. A coherent beam is
split by a beam splitter and directed into two different arms.
After reflection at the fixed and movable mirrors, the superposition of tile two beams is detected by a onotoaetcctor.
Because the two beams are coherent, the superposition will
give rise to an interference term in the intensity slim. ThIlS,
moving the movable mirror will cause the intensity detected
by (he detector to exhibit minima and maxima. The distance
between rwo maxima corresponds to a displacement of A/2
of the movable mirror, where A is the wavelength of the laser
source. Messonru; the necessarydisplacement to produce,
say, ten maxima will allow a direct determination of the wavelength.
DCleclor
ources
Beam
Spliner
Movable
Mirror
fixed Mirror
W<lV(' -
length ran ge. The first ques tio n is how wavel ongt h is
measured.
First, it. should be clear that wavelength mean s viu-uum
wavelength, which is effec tively the frequ en cy. Unfort unately, the wavelength of light va ries und er a ('hang!' or
the r efractive ind ex of the material it pas ses thro ugh.
The tools for mea suring nanomet er distances a re int e rferometers . Most of t:hf' commercially avail abl e wav r length meters are based either on th e Michelson interfc rometer or the Fabry-Perot intertoromoter. !' W(' will focus
on the Michelson technique here.
The principle of the Michelson int erferome te r is s how n
il) Figure 7, The challenge in tJ1C case of 1he Mich elso n
interferometer is to measure the shift of th e movab le
mirror. The rcqulred un cc rtainty or a few (11I1 ca nnot, 0 1'
course, be achi eved by mechanical mean s . Ins tead , the
interference pattern produced by light.w ith a known
wavelength is compared to the pattern of the un kn own
determination of the values or the conrribuuons. For SI ;1tistical reasons, the sum is gained by a root-sum -squ a re
algorithm. This uncertainty calculation is the most important part of a calibration. TIl(' qllrllity of the ins! rum cnt 10
be calibra ted is determined by the results of thi s analysis .
In the case of a ca libration process i ll a p roducti on envirorunent, the specifications [or all instruments sold de pend
on it.
par is: Ihe measurem ent va lue and the corresponding un-
Table II
E ra mple of a ll Uncertu i nttj Calcu lation
Standard
Component
Internal Influ ences:
Uncertainty o f Reference
Laser
Align ment, Diff ra ction
Fri nge Co unt ing
Resol ution
Total 1
Atm osp heric Influences :
Co m out o r Carbon-
Deviation
Uncertainty
0.08x 10-0
0.15x 1O-(i
1.1 x lO- lJ
2.2 x to-ii
0.5 x lO-{j
1.0 X 1O-()
1.2 x 1~
2.4 x 10-6
0.17x W-D
0,34 X IO-!I
l.D5 x lO-n
d iox id e ( l/ppm)
Relative Hum idity
Air Pressu re
Temp e rat ure
5,71x 10-9
Tota l 2
2.94 X 10--8
,1.00 x IO-[l
i).70 x 10-8
1.14 x 10-,.0:;
5.88 x 10-8
1.15 x 10-8
2.:30 x 10-8
1.15 x 10-8
2.:30 x 10-8
Tota l
1.2 x lQ'""li
2.88 x 10 s
2.4~
; I'
I. W.R. Fuch s, Bcrov tli.-' Enle s ich. bIJ 'II'cgte, Deutsche Verlags
Anstalt , Wi:)
:3. l3.w. Pr-lley, Till' Fu ndn men tn! Phy,~irnl Consumts and the
Front ier ,! ( llfl'l / S II I" ' IJ/C II / , Adam Hilger, Ltd., WOG.
J-](/71til)(J(} /( .
12. Gu inn 10 11,1' !~. I'[JI'f '.~." i()/, uf Uuccrtn i nt i; i ll k ll 'II S II 1'1 '11/1'11 I,
lnrernauonal Organization for Standardization L1S0 ), HJ}j;l.
\:3. II. Schnatz, n Llpphardr, ,I. Hclmcko, r Welli l" and ( i. Zhuu-r,
"Messung del' Frcqucn z Sichtharer Strahlung," J'h~J.~ iI{(/1i8('I/I'
HlIilll'7'. Vol. fll, 10U5. I). 9:!::!.
1. D. Derickson , Filw}'
HalII'TH, I nns.
Pn'nlic('
.1. ('fll i b 1"1I1ion I!( F i lw lc()pl i l' Power MI'I/'I ~~, lEG Standard 1315.
5. S. Gh cz ali, d tl'd by E. G. Giibl\l. -Quantmmorlnol{' irn Sf BinIWi(I'IlSy sll'II\," 1'11,l/s ikllli"(;I(( ~ Hliilfl'/', Vol. S:l, 1097. p. :Gli.
http://www.tmo.hp.com/tmo/datasheets/English/HP8153A.html
Acadernic
http://www.tmo.hp.com/tmo/datasheets/En glish/HP8168F.html
~.
http://www.tmo.hp.eom/tmo/dalasheets/El1glish/HP8156A.html
!J. C.L. Sandl'los, -1\ photor ell lincarity lester," /\Jllicd O,>/'ir.s,
Vol. 1. l!J()::!, p. 207.
or
v = Y':L
I.t
This expression resul ts from the energy IN that is stored in a
capacitor that carries a electrical charge l-t. In this case one measures rhe force that isnecessary to displace one capacitor plate
in the direction perpendiculartothe plate (F=i-JW/()zl. Again the
accuracy IS about 10 - 6. The approximate uncertainties in rea lization and represen tation ofsome SI units are listed in Table I.
Table I
u;;;;;taintyof realization and representation of selectedunits
of the Sfsystem. Note that [he representation of the volrage
unit has a lower uncertainty tnsn its realization.
Unit
Uncertainty of
Realization
Uncertainty of
Representation
kilogram
8 x 10- 9
13
11
meter
9xlO -
second
lxlO- 14
1 x10- 14
volt
lxlO- 7
5 x l0- 1O
3 x 10-
Figll n ' I
Principle of a current balance. The force experiencedby
the inner coil is compensated by an appropriate nlBSS on
the balance.
I.
I
118
v=
nfl!-
2e'
th issetup. anaccuracy of 5 x l 0 - 10 isachievable in the representation of the voltage unit, which is aboullO.OOOtimes better then
the accuracy in realization-really a strange situation.
n = 0.1, 2. ._. .
One solution would be to fix the value for e/h, similar towhat was
done for 1I1e newdefinition of the meter by holding thevalue for c
consta nt. It wouldthen be possible to replacethe ampere as an SI
base unit by thevolt and define thevolt using theJosephson effect.
A U~U $ I
I,
nnl! Iq
111 I II I;
pi'
nr 1111 III
11t[1
nd
In
~c~
er r :3
II
ul
'1
'I
rv 11 III
\'f-
18 j
n 1965 Gordon Mow 0 bs erved 'hal 'he complexi ly ai,rl ''''n51 'y of th'
silicon chip had doubled every year since irs int roduction, and accompanying
this cycle was a proportional reduction in cost. He then boldly prcrlict orl-c-what
is now referred to as Moore's Law-s-that thi s technology trend would co ntinue,
1'110 period for this cyc le was later revised to 18 months. Ye t the pcrtoruunu-e
of simulators, the main process for verifying integrated circuit design. has not
kept pact' with this silicon density trend. In
f~(:t,
to increase alo ng the' Moore's Law curve, and as the design pro cess transitions
from a higher-kvel RTL (Register Transfer Languag e) dcscri ption 1.0 irs gal (,Level impl ementauon, simulation performance quickly
H any D, Foster
Ila r ry
rho
bNO!lH'S
1.11(' major
".~~I!J!!~
hi~
of Te xas,
W(lS
used A..SrCs with gatl~ counts on the order of 100,000 raw gah ~s" During this
fill'
gale-level verification. This simulator had the distinction of being the fastest
RTL si mu lato r on t.lle market, but i( also suffered the mi sfortune
'1('
bC'ing C\l1l'
Journal
I 1
errfication
Boolean equivalence verification is a technique of mathematically proving that two design models are logically
equivalent (e.g., a hierarchical RTL description and a na t
gat.e-lpve! nctli st). This is accomplished by the following
steps;
L Compile the two designs. Conve rt a higher-love! Veril og
RTL specification into a set of lower-level equations and
state points, which are represented ill some intern a l dala
structure format. For a structural or gate-level i mplem cntarion, the ])1'QCCSS includes resolving insta nc e referen ces
before generating equations.
2. Identify equivalence points. Identify a se t of controllability and observability cross-design relationships. Thes e
relationships are referred to as equivalence p oints, and
at a minimum consist.of primarv inputs, primary output s,
and register or stare boundaries.
3. Verify equivalence. Verify the logi cal equiva lenc-e
between each pair of observability points by eval uating
the following equioalence equation:
(I )
sitional logic NOT or negation operator, v is the propositional logic OR or disjunctlon operator, EEl is th e Boo lean
XOR operator, n is the set intersection operator. m] reprcsents the logic expression (or cone of logic ") for a n observability equivalence point found in design mo del J. and
1112: is the expression for the corresponding point fou nd ill
design model 2. The' variables Xi are the COOt" S input or
controllability equivalence points for both mod els' logic
expressions. Finally, Dp(x:) is known as the don 'II'IIH' se:
for tJH' equivalence point 0, and consists of all possi ble
values of x for which tJ1C logical expressions Ill), and 1I1 ~
do not have to match. Figure 1 graphically illustrates the
process of proving equivalence between two ob ser v abilitv
equivalence points.
Another way to view Figure 1 is to obs erve th at if a co mbination of Xi Call be found that results in m 1( Xi) evalua ting
to a different value thal1111~(X:i), and Xl is no t ('ontainI'd
within the don't care set D<.>(x), then the two models an'
A cone 01 logic is tile setof ~ ~ le s or subexpressions
111 ~1
Au~us :
Figul'l ' 1
VigllJ'(~
Proving equivalence.
Equivalence Point
~forModell
o
e
Equal?
"""- Equivalence Point
'0' Modol2
(2)
wh ere A is th e proposirion al lo gic AND or conjunct ion
ope ra tor. Findin g a n Xi I.hat will saLis fy the non equivaknee oquat ion , equation 2, is NP-complete.* In general,
dotr-uni ning equiva lence bet ween two Boolean expressions is NP-eomplp te. This means. as Brvant- points out,
that a so lution's time comp lexity (in th e "VOI'S! case) will
gl'Ow r-xponcn tially with th s ize of th e p rob lem.
(a & d) I (b & c]
dire cte d acyclic gra ph representa tion of a Boolean fun ctio n." TIl(' uniqu e ch aracteristic of an aaDD is that it is a
canonir-al-tnrm rc prc scntatiou of a Boolean fun cti on,
wh ic h means that the two equations III I and rn:!in ow'
pre vious example will have exactly the sallie OBDD representat ion when they are equivale nt, Thi s is al ways true
if a conunon ordering of th o controlla bility equ ivalence
po in ts is usr-d to r-onstructt he OUODs for m) and 1\)2.
FIgure :3
DBDD with not-so-good ordering.
o
o
[a &dll (b& 0)
F'igll l'l' 4
Hierarchical 10 flat namemapping. (a)Hierarchical RTL andqetes. (b) Flal gate description.
lal
tha t the identificat ion of regi sters and primary inputs and
ou tpu ts is consist ent ac ross the entire flow. The same
hierarchical point in a Verilog cycle-based simulation
run can be referenced in a fiat place-and-route Verilog
notlis: withou t. ha vin g 10 derive th ese common points
computati onally
Name Mapping_ lover will map th e s tand ard cross-design
pa irs o f cont ro lla bility and observability oquivul ence
points d irei -tly as a result of the the I-1P Convex Division
now's ruuuln g conven tion. Figure 4 helps illustrate how
(bl
(n
description.
internal wire and reg ister variable names between designs. For example, Syuopsvs will unroll the RTL Verilog
wire and register bus ranges as follows:
wire
[0: 3 J foo;
\foo(ll.
\foo[2l.
\foo(3);
Ibl
and will map these points ba ck to the origina l RTL drscription. This results in a significantly bett er cone partition than limiting the subequivnlcn ce points to on ly the
structural or module interfa ce.
The performance gains achieved through COlle partitioning
arc highly variable and dependent on a circuit's top olo gy.
Some modules' measured performance gai ns ha ve been
on the order of 20 limes, while othe r modules haw' suffcrcd a p erformance loss of 1.5 times wh en applying a
maximum cone partition. TIle performance gains tend to
increase as the proof moves higher up th e hierarchy of
modules (due t.o larger cones). III general, we 've observed
tha t cone partiLionin~ contribut es to about a 40% increas e
in performance over the entire chip. More important, cono
partitioning allows us to prove certain topologies containing large cones of logic that would be imprn ctkal to prove
using OBDDs .
addition-
al advantage of simplifying the ord ering of OBDDs by reducing the size of th o problem. lover llSCS a simple topo-
Cant' partitioning
points can lead to a proof condition known as njals 111'.11ali ne. This quite often forces I,he equiva le nc-e checker into
a more aggressive and costlier performance mod e to complete the proof. We have developed a mel hod of idl'nlifying
a false negalive condition while sull rumaining in l!Ie fas ter
Ii
observability points.
False negative.
-I e
prorr-ss,
One type of false lwgative can ocelli' when the RTL spccities a don'l -care dirt -ctive to the synthesis tool, and the
equivalence checke r docs not account for the don't care
se t D(.( x) in equation I.
2. Remove the lowest level of logic (01' numbered ) controllability sub equivalence point. result ing in ;I larger co ne
partition,
or logic,
4. Identify and order the new set of input. control la bil ity
equivalence po ints.
'0
Fignre i
Solving the false negativeproblem.
false nega tive cOlldition are removed from the cone partition boundaries of III t and 1112 (c .g., )'1 and X2), till' resulting large-r ('OlH' partition m I ' (xu, X:l) is easi ly proved to be
equivalont to 1lI ~'(xo, >::1). Figure 7 helps illustrate how
the false ne gative condition can he eliminated by viewing
a larger partition of the cone.
"G '
Au ~ u S I
S I ")I ~ . ( )Ihcrwise,
mnint uin a nd manipul ate a single grouped structure rcpres enta tiou Ior eq uatio ns containing btL'> CS.
l Iigh- Usc Data Stru cture Recycling. The vari ous data
s tru c tu res (or C typedefs) used during the compilati on
process can 1)(' re cyc led when it becomes necessary to
tre e thc rn, lk cyding is a te chnique of linking the specifi c
SI l'l II- I Ul'l' typ es to ge ther into a f me li s/.. Later cornpilat ion sf eps call l ap into th ese li sts or high -us !' da ta suu c(urc "lemcnts and no l incur any of the system overhead
norm a lly a.s. soriarr-d with allo cat ing or freeing memory.
W" have observ ed performance ga ins in th e order of
1.2:) t imes for small design..'l and lip to 2 times for larger
d('sigll s by usin g data s tru ct ure recycling techniques.
Ta ble I
RTI.-/o -(la /r' lover Results
Size
(kgates) Minutes GBytes
Chip Name
two threads (see reference (j for a discussion of superlinear behavior). Bach thread only coni ribut pl! a ,1% increase in the overall process memory size . This can 1w
atrributed to a single program image for fl1l' co mpiled
net. and primitive relat i on al data st ruc tures , which wonstored in globally shared memory.
Processor Interface
:")50
116
1.::1
Crossbar
GOO
2G
l.l
570
68
1. ~3
~l O O
5G
1.0
Long Threads. To reduce the overhead incur re d wlu-n
launching threads, the Iull set of observahilitv cquivalcnce points need s to be partirioned into s imila r-sized
SubSNS or lists for eac h thread (i.e., thr eads shoul d !J('
launched to provo a list of cone s aud not a si ngh: poi nt) .
Figure 9 helps illustrate this idea.
Table II
Call'- / /)-GI/ /I' lover Result
Size
(kgates) Minutes
Chip Name
GBytes
Processor Interface
550
20
1.2
Cross bar
GOO
!l
0.9
Memory Interface
570
20
1.2
:300
IO
o.n
ttl
I P rforn
nc
Gills
The prot ol.ype multit hrc nded equival ence checker is based
on lover's s inglr- threadod proof engine, A front-end input
('ompikl' and d:'lw smu -turo r-mulation Pllginf' WL1~ devol-
.----------~- - - _
...-
-- - - - - - - - - - ,
Figur(' S
Multithreaded performance.
7
ti
.f
0-
"
"''""
'"
."
3
2
Number 01 Threads
Figll rp !J
Multithreaded equivalence checker.
list 01Cones
tiSl or Cones
5. M. l'\\iita H. Fujisawa, and N. Kawaro, "Evalua tion and lmprovements of Boolean Comparison Method OilSi'd Oil Biunr y
Decision Diagrams," 11I1"I'//11liuIIII/ Cll llj i,.,/U'(, Oil C OI I/ Jl ll r, ,/,Aided Desiqu, November HJ88, pp, 2~'5.
hltp:/Iwww.hp.(".omlwsgltechJsuperconD6Jindl'x.hlml
mp l
III
:PICF for
~
1rrTi
p
LJI
a ll d
_nrJ LI
fit ,r ll.-
'-Jh l ~
'or
Ln r
"d] Il
IV I 111! 1 IIl~
I
TO
~I I
J' I
a r Jf
Tell
Jt ] T.... Ir _ I (
W.
Zi Ik 1-', til
I"
II
I~ ,
r"'
[~
1' 1 '
k ,
- mn d lld
II
I P ~Ir
I '
siq nal lu pc
l r 1 11 r
t r r l"1cmre II te
II
IJ I tJ
((l n l' ~~
LJ 1 11 1 I 1 Jr. ~,I I
11 ,1 11 I ~r II."
1111 c,llJ l ,
nolo gies is being aggressively scaled down for wirin g density, lead ing to high
aspect ratios in metal lines, l~' For example. according 10 lh e Semiconductor
~l: 1 by
increasing metal aspect ratio, cap acitiv e coupling between neighboring signal
lines increases and more cross k"1H< nois e is generated. With in cre asin g edgp
rates and ground bounce ill advanced technologies, cross talk will hocomc a
When the number of signal lines eas ily exceeds one million
,L'>
it does in ioday's
ad vanced microprocessors, SPICE simulations arc too ineffl clent to carry 0 11\
for each
IiJlC .
A rapid and ac curate cross talk noise estimat ion a lte rna tive is
Oll
presented. However, I.he driver lIlo(kling is not dis cussed and tho analys is is
limited to step response. Another model approxima tes the d river with a res istor
and a ramp voltage source/' but signal line resistance is neglf'('l r-d. 'l'hes
approaches lack the accuracy need ed in deep-submicrometer interconne c-t
analysis.
A u~u ,1
(2)
[~VCl"Vdd
' - - ,-
to?
{ T') [ e - liT:! -
[or T r ~ t, wh ere Vdll is the supply volt age. T; Is till' ri srtime at the output of the aggressor driver, and
ShO'NIl
(3)
in Figure l.
[2RvR,,(Cv C(' +
t 1
eve" + c,.e
ll ) ]
== U{;j(C" + C(.) + Rv (C v + Cd +
'til]
+ (; \'(; ;0 + C"C a )!
+ Rv(C\. + Cd - 1:0]'
[2R\0
.R;I(CVC(,
t .!
== [R,,(C a + C,,)
(6)
(1)
fo r () ~ t. ~ T r, and as:
Figll n 'l
Ie,
)1Cc
Fi ~ure
Victim
line
v,
;:::: c.
(4)
::::. C~
Figllre :J
Normalized cross talk noise voltage as a function of interconnect length. The modelprediction is represented by a
solid line and the SPICE simulations are represented by
circles. The error of the modelcompared with SPICE is less
than 10%. Cross talk noise increases sharply for line lengths
over IOODjlm beforereaching a saturation value.
25 -
T, = 270 ps
R.d '" lOOIl
20
15
."
i.
>
10
/ .
5-
0 1-
........--
-/
1000
100
10000
Figure 4
Vx.ll lll X
Vdd
Cc
+ C-,
:::: - : (;
' --
'"
(7)
('
25
20
."
:; 15
>
10
-o~---~O
10
400
60
__ _
Rise Time (psi
~O
'
whe re TJ'i ' Trw, and Trc account for the intrinsic delay,
inpu t slope, and interconnect loading dependencies,
rpslH'ct ivoly,
Figure 5
100
90 -
80
(9)
wh ore Villi is the supply voltage, 1lI,sal is the sat ura ti on
so urc e-to-drain current. and Ci is the juncrion capacitance.
..
.e-
70
E
l=
60 -
50
40
..
S
So
::l
30
20
devico si ze; both IIi,s;'1 and Cj incr ease as tho driver size
10
.:
200
100
300
400
NOlie of those cases is o f pra ct ical interest UI deeps ubm icrome ter technologies.
(H)
( 10)
w here I{w is a rer-hnology dependent' fitl:ing parameter and
is typically betw een 0.1 and 0.2 for decp-subrnicromcter
(12)
This input s lope dep end ency term call be very signifi cant,
espec-ially for slower input signals and small load capacila ne('s . For inst ance, for a Lnun line with Tm = 160 ps,
Trw can 1)(' as hi gh as 30% of Tr .
Interconnect Loading Dependency. The third term in
R :li
= 1[ R:li
].1
+ R~d ,';i ,
(1:J)
Figure 7
Rise time estimation error of models compared with SPICE.
Errorfor the modelin this paper is 10%. A modelbased
on reference 9 produces a significant error.
\0
/
-10
z
(;
Jj
-20
,/
-30
-40
I
I
I
I
-50
700
600
500 .
400
/
300
200
IDO
SPICE
This Model
- - - Reference9
///
.:
1./
O'j-~----l-i- - - f -I --
2000
4COO
-I-I
- - tI --
6000
81100
-iI
10000
r"
- - This Model
- - - Rererence9
-60
././
Figlln'li
./
Ii:
As a comparison, Ow rise liH1C estimation based on a previously published modcl'' is also shown in Figure 6. 111is
,/
/'
2000
4000
6000
Interconnecllenglh hllll)
8000
\0000
model neglects Tri and Tr.v. Also , interconnect capacitance shielding and short-circuir current in '1'('( . are no!
conside red. AB a result, thi s model si gnilic.u uly und e restimates T; for short lines and overestimates Tr for long
lines.
Interconnect LengthIfUI1)
AU~uU
Estimated cross talk noise voltage as a function 01 interconnect length. The modelprediction is represented bV8 solid
line and the SPICE simulations are represented by circles.
The model is accurate (less than 10% error) over 8 wide
range of interconnect lengths.
['01"
0.8
;-j. K. Rahrnat, O.S. Nakagawa, S.-Y. Oh, and .1. Moll, ":\ sl 'nlill g
scherne for interconner-t i.n de ep-submicron p rocess es.' 111//'1"nru ional 6lt;(:/1'D'Il Deivirn M el'loi'l/lI Techn ;f"o!lJi!/" sl , 1!)f);I ,
p.246,
/--
0.6
.."
z
... 0.4
;
::;
...e
-l-----I--~
]-t/
I
20aO
4000
I
6000
8000
- -- - ---- - - -~ - - -- - -
M. Bohr, 5.S, Ahmed, S,U. AIIIlWd, l\t 8osl , '1: Ghan), ,I. (;rl'<Isoll.
and S.
/1(1 .';(('';
HlSR.
S. N. Weste and K. Eshraghian, Prin ciple flI CMOS V/ ,,<,'I n t'si.!!//.,
Addison-Wesley,
[1.1 this
lalk nois o on signal lines in deep-submicrometer interconned systems. With appropriate scaling and calibration of
tlw model coeffi cients, if. W;lS shown that the model is
s ufficient Iy accurate for cross talk analysis. All model
pa ramet ers and coe fficients are readily ava ilable. Therefore, Ill<' mod el is suitable for rapid cross talk estimation
and s ignal integrity verification.
A u ~u ' l
HW:J.
Dennis M, Sylvester
Samuel O. Nakallawa
S:uu Nak: lga\\';l
i~
a nu-m-
...,-!""!........o!!::!i;<"':!=::;;iI
~I S E E
'lild 1'11 111'1' i1"gn''' s [ro m Thr- PI'lIILWlvun ia Sial , I illi\ "'ls il)' ill IiIH; a ur] ID!l;J. lie'
~ f itlli,;ml .
John G. McBride
Soo-Younll Oh
S" o-YOUi1g
Oil is ;, II l'oj-
" us lll m VI.o.;l d l's it(lIs . nol'll ill Vr-rnal, Uta h. 11<'
1111; ('", 11<' 1'<" '1'1\'1'" his I'h IlEr-: d" f(I'I'" Iroru
S umford Univers ity and juincd 111' in I ~ J~(J, II "
1'I 'I'\i\'o-d Il is ~l SEE d" g l'l'" ill l!IHl 1'1'0111 Strmford I !111\,,ls ily. 11.- is m nrrl ..d,h'LS Jour ("1Ii1-
IIll,V S,'oll ls
(, I \i j)~'s
of AlIll'rica .
n ( ~ga l ivo
ponsation circuitry Ior process, voltage, and temp erature (PVT) variations. MeasUI'Cd HSTL signal integrity in a large, complex board environment is presented.
hi,:::h ~J)tIllri
I\ ( an ",~.
tra nsmission line reflections. I Iowcver, parallel termination exact s a cosily toll
on power dissipation because a de component is added to power c-onsnmpl.ion.
An alternative termination approach is source series termination. In a point-
Robert B. Manley
noh
~f"ll l ('>\,
is :, VI.SJd ,,
B~
means
to
hoard impedance increases signal integrity and speed while keeping POWN
dissipation to a minmuuu.
co mpo nents: a low-impedance output driver and a precision seri es resistor. To decrease factory costs and conse rv e hoard space , it is desirable 1',0 replace the printed
circuit bo ard pre cision seri es resistor wiLh a n on-chip,
Pv'l-compensaring resistor.
in the programmable resistor arra y, The NFET.., ha ve eoncorresponding to their bin ary wt' igh l l'd hit
positions in PROG[5:0j, For exa mple, if PROGIOJ contro ls a
till(:(,an('e~
trois a transfer gate wi th a conduc tance of2<.i . TI\(' n-sis tance of RpH<x; decreases as the binary count PROGI5:01
increases. III ('ffeet. as tho biliary co unt ill cn'1I11 1I1..... il ion '
N 1" r'~T
ar ray,
Th e cali brati o n c ircu itry (Figure 2) is d l'si ~lll' d Lo program all IISTL output dri ver impe da nc es , HII , to match
that of an external precision resistor. }{I';XT. During no rm a l
op erati on. an en ab le signa l, CAL. causes all NFET equivalent in siz e to an HSTL ou tput dri vel' pull-li p NFET 10 (, O ll du ct, Curren t be gins to flow through the I/O pad through
Rr,XT' This current puth forms a volt age di vid er, w here :
or
R m o (; is tuned by turnin g Oil and off various cornbinalions of transfer NFETh with a six-bit binary word . Each
bit in the binary word, PROG[5:0], cont ro ls a transfer gate
Figlll'l '1
Single-ended output driver.
VOD
RpROG
W=32X
W=16X
PPU
PRE
PPD
W=BX
POST
PAD
Reso
Figur e 2
Calibration circuitry.
VDD
W~lg
CAL
PRE
- - - -W=4X
1__ -'L
--
.- --
W=BX
- - --
.=.
--J
W~X $~ t_ 1
s
~ ~ '"
CI
.:
to'
<.:)
cc:
c::
a:
COO
0..
a..
0::
PROG[5:0]
Q..
0...
::!:.
o
a:
e,
PROG[5]
PROG[4]
PROG[3]
,
I ,
PROG(2J
VDDa
PROG[l]
PROG(O}
VDOO!2
elK
~R
'V
GNO
VI' :\ll
calibration word is used by the calibration circuitry's programmublc resistor and distributed I I oth er 1lSTL driver
programmable resistors. Incremental biliary chan ges ill
PROG[5:01 cause incremental resis ta nc-e changos in IJ)(,
programmable resistor. Because Rl'lWlj is now program-
i fa
tiill Driv r
Fi}.(IIJ'(' ,1
~'i g(ln'
Overdamped signal,
-,
..
-,
I
- -,1-'2=---- +- -+- -1-
VSOURC
\.
VDESl --1- """'--1
' '''~_"
300mY/div
- ,
.,. ~
~~
....
~~
1 VSDURCF
I--
-- -- -. -"
/2
300mVjdiv
150mVOffsel
VDfST
1
2.00ns/div
'1
,I 1
/
150mVOf/sci
Measured Re sults
Figure
,I
r---+--+--+---+--+--1~-t--+------1 "'--~"1.00nsldlv
- - 7- ~
\2
1.11 ( '
driver's output impedanrc by chan ging Illl' (':-': 11'1'11:11 calibration resistor, I~EXT' In Figure 6 I\I':XT > Zo, ill Figure 7
Rl~XT = Zo, and in Figure 8 REXT < Z", Sign al integri ty i~
maintained when the d river output rosistan co ma u -hes I.h('
transmission line impedance.
u u re Work
Figlll'<' 7
Dltterenuelwaveform.
1 VDlSl +
2 VDEST .'
- -_ .
--
/- ~
--\-/
f-
1\
2
-----
i--I
1,00nsldiv
\ 7'
I
/
"\
'.
/
IV
1:\
\
.-
-- .-
I
- - ~-- ~
300mV/d,v
--
- f---
'. 2
,.,------
/1
x. .1
f---
/\
750mVOHsoI
- -
f--
--
\/
-- )
,-
- - -:: ~ .,.
- ' --
-r7~ /
j
- -I -
'--
--
:'2
1 VSOU~Cl
2 IVDfST I
J
2,00 ns/div
300 mV/div
750mV Olfsel
Figul'l' )o)
Underdamped signal.
Fi gilrr- 10
Ho as a lunction of Va as Va goes from a logic high (0 a
logic low.
55
~ . -- . ~
I----
r-
iIJ
9-
"'- i-,
-I-
~
II
U
'"
II
;;;
';;
lo- I _ r
1('"" 1
I,~
50
:;
CI.
;;
1 :2
1 VSOURCE_
2 Ivom I
II
:.
'C
Q
2.00nsldiv
l'<IlI g('
300mV/div
1.0
750mV Dffsel
0.5
values of V(:s, V ns , and the back gate voltage of the transf('1" and dr iver ~JFETs . Figure 9 show!'; the outpu t rcs istanco ('han ging as f he output voltage swings from 0.1V to
J.4V (lO'){, to 90(}1.). Figure 10 illustrates the output resis-
!lOWl'VI'I',
ill
point was shifted towards the high logiC' level o f \I" . For
IISTL I/O applications. this inherent dovi auo n in oul pur
resistan ce minimally affects signal iru egri ry, For fut uro
applicatlons, it may be> worthwhile to in vestigate al tcrn auvc series l.l'nnillati{)11 schemes for tigh ter illll H'dall('p
matching environm ents.
which H" == Z" (:'iOQ) O('(' U I'5 when V" = Vl 11l<J2 . This is
becaus e the cal ibration rirruitry tunes the programmable
V ]lli( l~,
sour ce seri es termination resistor, a chip can r-onun unicato al highel' rrC'<]uC'llCips and hoard spac(' Ihal wo uld nor-
70
()\II"
fan lily o f
The authors wish 1.0 fhank Gordon Motley for hi s valu able
pad design and 8SD advice, Rick Luobs for o fTNi n~ llIP
u
c:
original design co ncept, Hob Martin for his Il'c1mi t'al support, RO~l Lar son and Wally Wahlen for th eir charartori za-
..
"a::
60
./
i.ion errort, Holly Mall ley for l\laking Ill<' papPI' rr-adnb k -
;;
aS
50 -
:>
0.5
1.0
: .
I. (i. Esch . Jr. and It Man ley. "I-lSTL CMOS I/O Pads for ZOO-MHz
I )al a Hal os." l'/'{)('( 'I'd i II.'IS (!t't.III: ].1).1)(; Heu ilett-Pnnkxrnl [)IISi!J1/,
i i 'd IllU /II.'IY t ;u/ (/ i ' I'I '//I'(' ,
pp. (i l-GS.
2. Il. ( 'anri ghl, .11'., "The Impact of Driver Imp edance upon Transmis s ioll Li m- IlllpNbull'l'." Pm(,{~I'di'llf/S of 1!l1' 441// Electronic
C'U/II / 'II /H' lI l s 1IJ11 1 Terllll ll!l/f) i/ Ci I'/lJ im !l lCc. pp, (j(j[)(j74.
1,0
pa~kE1 JPS
lac.kag lnq
11 1 '~l rl lll q ,
and II L rc Jl lllRr
Ek'
ttl
orat nil
ging of RF and microwave microcircuits has tra ditiona lly bee n very
expensive. The packaging requirements arc e xtrem ely demanding: very high
electrical isolation and excellent signal integrity to frequencies of 10 GHz and
above,
a." well as 01e ability to accommodat e GaAs l es dissip ating s ignltl cun]
amounts of heal The traditional approach has been to start with a machin ed
metal package and solder in de teedthroughs and fiF glass-to -meral sea ls
(Figure 1). Thin-film circuits on cera mic or Sapphire are then attach ed
to
machined into the package form waveguides beyond cutoff, wh ich provid e
isol ation from one circuit. section to another. Next, GaAs or Si res ar e attached
to the floor of the package in gaps b etween the thin-film circuits . Nt.pr win '
bonding is done to interconnect the
and to the package, the RF connectors ar c s crew ed on over the RF' glass-tometal seals to form the finish ed assembly (Figure 2) .
Traditionally, beth the placement of the thin-film circuits in the microcircu it
package and the bonding to connect them hav e been done man ually. The
microcircuit typically plugs into a small bias printed circuit board that
is connected to the rest of the instrumen t through a de cabl e. whil e Hi"
connections to the instrument are made hy semirigid coaxialm icrowave
cables, which screw onto the HF connectors on the microcircuit. This solution
is capable of providing excellent elec tr ical performance ana quick turnaroun d
Limes from design to implementation. However, traditional mic ro circuits Uti
have the substantial drawbacks of being very expensive, bulky, and hea vy.
Figun- 1
Traditional microcircuit package with de and RFqless-tometstseals, (8) Top view. (b) Cross section.
II
(a]
1
:/
fbi
Figure 2
l lntil tlu- end or the cold war, much of Hcwleu-Packard's
test an d measurement equipment WClS bought. fOT detonsc-rolat nd applications, for which performance was
often of paramount importance. Today, the- demand for
RF and microwave test and measurement instrumentalion i~ driven primarily by consumer applicatlons, such
as the satellite, wireless, or fiber-optic communications
markets, In rnese extremely competitive markets, keeping
costs down and getting good value are crucial, To lower
IIw cost: of RF and microwave instruments, tho cost of
their microci rc uits must 1)(' reduced, since this is often a
significant portion of the manufacturing cost of the instrumeal. It is important when reducing costs, however, that
Ihl' predictable performance and quick turnaround time
of the rradit ional microcircuit be preserved.
UI
\Vt' han' deve loped a family of high-performance microcircuit packages 1.0 be used for RF and microwave applic;ltioIlS. Within HI', th e new family is called MIPPS, which
sumrls for untlt irh ip ill le.1J1 'nl -subsf.'l'oI/? PGA (pin ,gr i d
II rrlll/) l!n('krt,qf.' 1'0/'11 tion.
Reducing Cost
Top Lid
Top Ud
Epoxy Prelonn
Bohom l id
BOhomUd
Epoxy PrelDnn
Circuit Assemblv
w ith Caps and Pin.
Baseplate
EpoxyPlotonn
Bassptat a
A U ~ u ' 1 1 9 ge.
- - --
- - - - -- - - - - - - - - - ,
Figllt' t' -I
Fignre 5
)I
c~
0.35pF
Fringing Capacitance
beiweon SMA
Connector and
Bosoplate
. rc..
Coa~
G)
t -
-...
Coax
Cenler Conductor Radius = 0.25 mm
Outer Conduclor Radius = 1.20mm
Lenglh
0.10 mill
{9S ohmsl
)1C
= 0.2 pF
C'" 0_1 pF
-:.
~ .. ;-~.:.
~,. -- ~
~:~.~~-- .;..'.:..-,
Counterbore on Top
. - 01 Boseplate to TrAp
ucess Epoxy
Coax .
Cenler Conductor Hadius
0.25mm
Ouler Conductor Radius'" 1.45mm
Langill = 0.15mm
(1050hmsl
..:;; . ...-~ -
..-
HI'
h
oeg~~
B
I
n'9p ala
Hole throu h
Cd' gE
on ucuve poxy
A
hi C' '(
nee rno ,rcul
to Ba~eplalc
Capacitance ot PGA
----- Pin 10 Ground Plane
on Back at Alumina
placed be tv....ecn I.Iw prin ted c irc uit board and a ha c kuu;
plate to shield the backside of the print ed circ uit hoard .
T
Inductance of PGA
Pin Goin9'hrough
Alu,nlna Suhslrale
Capacitanco Dr PGA
Pin Att~ch Pad nn Top
of Alumina 10 Ground
Early in the p roj ect a decision W ,L'; made to have all of t.hc
PCA pin s on 0.1OO-inch centers for co mpatibility w it h lowfrequency PGA pack ages . This allo ws MIPPS mod ules to
be easily tes ted at frequencies up to 20 MHz using industry-stand ard zero-insertion-force sock ets. Tlu - fi rst MI PrS
product is a 130-dB elec tron ic step attenuator used in HF
signal gen erators II up 10 4 GIl l,. Once thr [~ F perform an ce
was initially characterized. a low-sp eed ac tes t was implemerited, taking ap proxlmarely 30 seconds 10 com plet e'.
A full HF I es t is don e after tlu - part is inst al led on t ho instrument printed circui t board, with be tter than H7% yiel d
resulting. By pr oviding a quick, low-sp eed screeni ng at
the module level , duplication of a lengthy lns trumen t-level
test on the module its elf is avoided. In addition . the l\f1PPS
assembly is tcsl od be fore sealing the lid. allo wing easy
replacement of defective res. For more comp lex modu lo
designs, if a high yield at final RF test canno t Ill' ac:hic:vpl!
with a simple low-frequency module-level test, more exu-ns ive HI-' res ting can be imp lemented before lid seal to
get the desi red yield at final RF LE'St.
The firs t l\'IIPPS module designed was a O-to-130dB electroni c s tep auonuator op erating from de to 4 G1-h:. with
at tenuat io n adju s table in !'r" dB steps. This module is pictured in Figure 6. which shows (1 completely assembl ed
pad<age (top) and a view of th e atte n uato r thi ck film
att ac hed 10 th e basepl ate, The module is used in the HP
t;4IOOA Ia mil y of e le c t ro n ic signa l generators. It is baser!
on Gaas Ie 51 op at ten ua tor chips manufactured by HP.
Previous s igna l gen er ators hav e us ed mech ani call y
switche d su-p at tcn uators , which have exce ptiona lly go od
electrical performance (very low loss and low levels of
rc fkxte rl energy), bUI take approximarelv 50 milliseconds
( 0 s witch and settle from one attenuation state to t.he
IW Xl. Altho ugh UH'j' Ar c guaranteed to work for grea ter
Ihan five m illion cycl es , they will event ual ly wear out.
With till" mo re complex an d higher-speed modul arion forma ts userl in new wi reless communications pr otocols, as
well as the higher volumes of these products, mechanically
Figure
(i
The final MIPPS electron ic s tep attenuator has a som ewhat higher insertion los s than a mechanically switched
,..
.--/~
~-'"'" ~
." .~ -; .,\'C .. :
_ __
~:~::.
. t'\ ~
--
_ ...
--J
An interesting addition 1.0 the sta nda rd MIPPS sl,('p aucnuator module occurred when the HP instrument division
Figure 7
Figul'(~
The MlPf'S module WClS a joint development. clIo!'1 he tween H1"s Microwave Technology Center (MWTC) and
HP's Colorado Springs Technology Center (CSTC). Wo'd
like to thank the manager of MWTe. Jerry Glad ston e.
for giving us the time and guidance to s tart and continue
this project. We would also like to thank Roger Gra eber
from the Microwave Instruments Division (U1e first ClI Stonier of the M [PPS technology) for his many helpful
suggestions on how to achieve ltigh isolation in small
areas, Don Estreich, who managed the project for the>
last two years at MWTC. for making sure (hat. we had
the necessary resources for the job, and Ilcidi Barnes of
MWTC for continuing the M.lprS work on new projects
and continuing to refine the concept. PI'OI1\ CSTC, we'd
like to thank Ron Baker and Vicki Foster for th eir invaluable help in assembling prototype hybrids and [~(lsa
Clayton, Rosemary Johnson, Brenda Archuleta. lind AI
Baca for the fine work they have dOIH' ill manufactnring
the thick-film substrates, We would abo like to thank Bob
Kressin, Jeff Herrle, Chris Eddleman, and Scott Cas mor
[or their continued product engineering support.
AU~U~1
Lewis R. Dove
Marlin l. Guth
Dean B. Nicholson
O il I hic k-mill
pa d ' ag.,s fo r
his hll hhil's illl' llIeI, ' l1y ing , l'lIn llillg, a nd sk iing .
A u ~u s t
e1"sign a nd rk-vel o pt ne nt
~!!!!!l~_...:!!!!!l!!Il!I
I( ' s,
Ilh'i ~io ll
ill
W~O
a l"hol' ~p~lI l t1 a ',i llg fl'O m tlu- I [lli,,rs ily o f Ca lifon da 01 1 Ik -rk elr-y wi th ailS d"g n ',' in l'Il" "
Ir iC'a l,' ng illC'l' ri ng
r:,
In ~r,
~'r
eranon ot ::Jrh l
r for
'llv. 1I
re p ~r to
I rstcrunn p2r(3IlH r r,
I n recent ycai's, there has been signi fi cant. th eoretica work on " ..fl nin g
a methodology for fault detection and c lass iftca u o n in analog circu its.! : '
However, because input-output relationships are
11101"('
circuits than for digital circuits, the development of a system atic, aut o mat ed
approach for dete ctin g defects in an al og circuits is far behind t he d igit al
Sl;lt p
of mixed-signal
testing within the IlP Integrated Circuit Busin ess Division (le B O) today. We
present descriptions of the test development processes for a parti al response
maximum likelihood (PRMl,) read ch annel ASIC an d
it
Si n ~h
rec;('in',1 his
designed for HP's s ca nne r pro d ucts , These chips contain s igllilinll\t ana log
Bus iness
f! .~'j .
Ill' S hl ;.:iII'OI'C in
dig ital -to-analog COnVE-riNs (DACs). ThE' test strategy implcmeurcd for these blocks was largely functional. Many
circui ts conic! not afford the additional complexity and
parasiri cs of embedded test access. However, provisions
were made in the desi gns for accessing inputs and outputs
of Iunr-nonal bloc ks , and to allow special test modes of
o()('ra lion . The HP n.:l90 tester has sufficient analog resou rce's to officie ntly execute detailed functional testing
wit h high rcso l ul ion for det ccling subtle variatiuns in performa nce resulting from process variations and defects
(s('(' "Tes ter Des cription" 011 page GG).
The emphasis of 1his paper is primarily Oil analog test, with
sppc-i fic ex amp les given for the read channel j\ GC and
phase-lock ed loop blocks and the CDn s ignal processor
analog signal p ath .
Test
discovered either by the customer or th e test devel op ment process. tn the case of the read channel ASIC, th e
customer provided a test harness that could be used to
power up the chip, write (0 regis ters , and vi r-w outputs
while stimulating the analog inpu ts . This pro ved to be very
useful for debug activities. How ever, there we re seve ral
cases in which the HP 9490 tester's ability to contro l th e
timing of analog inputs and capture outputs on a cycleby-cycle basis was invaluable in isola ting design hug s or
marginalities,
rograll1 Evolu io
TIll' I('st programs for the read channel and eGO signal
process or c hips both evolved in three dtstinct phases:
Turn -on
dovelopme nt las ted from afte r the lnitial prototype shipnH~nls unl il artwork release for the final chip revision.
Duri ng (his stage, digital and analog static current tests
\\'(')"1 ' dp!lll gged, pad leakage WSIS were added, and any
remai ning digital functional tests were added, but the
lllq jority of tim e was sp ent adding comp lexity and refinem cn rs 10 tlu- original analog tests and creating new analog
tes ts 10 verify that all analog functions met. the required
spoc-ifi cru io ns. Often this activi ty was interrupt ed by tJ1C
need to create s pecific tests to debug unexpected behavior
be an incorrect comparison, an incorrect. de level, l'XC CSsive offset" instability, or an unavailable mode or ope ration . Compromised performance might be rnoasured in
terms of gain, linearity, dynamic ran ge. resolution. se tt ling
time, bandwidth, acquisition range, det ecti on thres hold ,
or some other appropriate measure, Very often , indiv idual subblocks cannot be specifically isolated , but their
performance can he inferred from high er-level test s tha t
exercise the subblocks in a variety of way s.
Figure I
Read channelanalog signalpath with simplifiedtest access circuitry end HP9490 analogresource utilization.
Read ChannellC
ADe Reference
-.
TMUXIP
TMUXIN
Differential Buffa,
ADC
AGC
AWG
10
TMUXDN
,1
elK
= Transmission Gale
~I
11-
For a complex analog system such as a PRML read channel, it W;IS necessary to design in test access points that
allowed tJ1C inputs and outputs of Iunctional blocks to be
st imul at ed and measured as directly as possible. Such
access proved invalunble in dobugglng and verifying rhat
AnalogloDigltal Convertor
Automa(lc GainConlrol
Mllrary WavelonnGenerator
PMU
PVM
VGA
PrecisionMeasurement Unit
PrecisionVoltage Measurement
VariableGain Amplifier
Addit ional cons tra ints placed on the design of the analog
blocks were that (1) they need ed to he individually powered down to a state in which th ey drew no current from
the a na log s upply, (2) analog outputs were tristated (in a
high-imp edan ce stat e), and (;3) digital outputs were driven
to th e rails, Al so, th e curre nt drawn by any block from the
an alo g supply was require d to be proportional 1.0 a referenc e current set by an on-chip bandgap reference and an
exte rnal precision resistor,
Testin
th e Read C h nn el A Ge
Figure :2
~o
0"0
Gain Step
Adapt
OAe = DigltalloAnalogConverte,
OlA = Programmahlo Operational TransconduclanceAmplilier
VGA = Variable-Gain Amplilier
it ~-d B
Figun ': l
tin
t e
n I Ph
-L
op
">
-8() -
..
'"
~ -too,
CI
c:
Q
c:
~
E
-120
;::
Measured
Q -140"
Curve Fil
pass/fail limits
elements of' the Hi-tap analog delay line wit hin Ihe d od ,
recovery block. Additional tests were writ t en t ha f ( l ,l inrli'I
45
135
: l~
corupurur ors in
phase-locked loop can acquire lock 1.0 sln o wavt-s wil h I Ill'
CD
AU ~ " ' f
Tile test head includes 128 pinswith per-pin dc function control. The maximum digital test frequency IS 64 MHz (1 28 MHz
with pin multiplexing) withedge and format changing on the
fly. Vector depth is 4M bytesper pin. The digital test subsystem includesdebugg ing tools such as shmoo plots, sequence
debugger with fail mapping, and digital waveformdisplay.
Especial ly useful for testing of ADCs is thedigital data capture
capability with 500K-byte depth and special hardware for highspeed digital signa l processing.
Figure 4
Histogram of 2000 recoveredclock periods.
I\
240
'"
N,"',,'
Clock I
200
"'Cl
Periods
'C::
oX
160
c::;
'0
~
120
.J:)
Short(15/161
ClockPeriods
E
::l
80 -
I
I
/
0 -J-++++l-I-H+++H+H-H-H+t+f+H++++++HttH I /I /1111I II 11+
40
ClockPeriod 148.83psJdiv.)
26.04 ns
A u ~ u' l
27.78 ns
f+1
st Su
fl"
280 .l
...."
d"
....(':
Si
.. I Pr c
Figure
Briefly, the quantization noise of an ADC with a truly ran dom input can be shown to have a mean sqn are variance
(or noise power) of {\Z/12, wh er e !:l is the least-sig nifi can t
bit. By selecting a sine wave frequency that is not harmonically related to the samp ling frequen cy, we ca n ac hie ve
quasirandom sampling over s everal cycl es of th e si ne
wave, and th e .we quantization noise po w er will ap proximate ~~/l2, We also assume that the s ine wave exercises
the full ADC range, that. is, its peak amplitude is 2 1\'iV~,
where N is the number o f hits. 11H':n:
Analog-to
Digil3l
Convener
START
Parallel
Data
Signa
Programmoblo-Gain Amplifier
:=0
2~N
-:j
x ~2
(1)
~.)
~ } RGB
Serial
Signa! Power
Noise Power
Dela
PGA
t'(!-
il
----=
(2)
12
1.76.
(4)
Alternatively, the ENOB can also be ca lc ulate d by comparing the measured noise + distortion p ower, NDll lP : L,; , to
its ideal value, Nid e:,l = 6 2/12:
ENOB
=N-
IOg2( ND
mp:l'-; ).
N u1p:
u
II bits. The noise input power of 1'.111' AW(J was sulumct t-d
from the measured signal path noise power ( 0 yield I he
effective measured noise power ND lI1 ('a" . which wa s 111('1\
used to calculat e th e ENOB. We ass ume d Iha l IIII' AWe;
noise was independent of the signal palII noise.
Figure G
Sinusoidal test AWG (arbitrary waveform generator)
waveform.
;\1'('
ava ilab le
j ()
improve the SNR of the AWe; output wav eform, but they
were not used in this test b ecause of the sharp Iransitlons
required between bla ck and vid eo leve ls . Figure 6 illustrates the l -kl-lz waveform c reated for t he AWe;, wh ile
Figure 7 shows the detalls or the wa veform nc ar its start.
The difference between th e black level (.:lAV) and tilt' sine
wave envelope co nsti tutes th e inpu t s inusoida l s ign a l.
The maximum rate of change or this wav efo rm is about
8,6V/50 ns= 172V/l-Is, which is well within th e slew rar e of
the AWG (600V/,IS).tl
Test and Data Analysis. Th e START pul se, whi ch initiates
AWG Points
567,000
Figure 7
Zoomed-in sinusoidal testAWG waveform.
/ - Blacklevel
4.4
-4.2 +--
A U~ U\I
1)('
IllUS(
- 4.2 +----~-------:~----~-_l
CD
- - - - .- - - - - - - - - - ------1I
AWG Poinls
2426
ing function."
The total noise + dist o rtion power is calculated from {he
Iundameutal amplitude and SNDR value, and is corrected
for th e noise power of th e AWG. 111e ENOB is calculated
using equation G. The ENOB for the case shown in Figure 8
is approximat ely SA bits . corresponding to a PGA and ADe
Figure S
Figure 9
ADC Sample
1023
Fundamental
iii
2HD 3HD
:s.
"
C.
In
-110
0
10
I
20
Fourier Componont
I
30
40
- 2.0 .1---
-'--- - - - - - - - - - 1
ADC Sample
1023
..
---=::.._--.
0, J. Doerrnborg ct. al, "Full Speed Test ing o f ,VD Conve rters,"
lEF:F: .!oI/1"IUJI q/ Sol1,(l -$ lo lc Oi rcui ts, Vol. SC W, no. Ii, DpcClllbcr
oJ A
/0 J) Cm uic rt ors,
8 'ignal
II. HP
.9J/90
mEl: f'!'l'SS.
TPL MfI.1!1Ull.
HJ();"I.
'u I
Ilwr''''
7-11t
to n e 10
) '-
I .
de
r 1L Ilul.] ,1\
Iliit
II
III
r flal
,I
J. r l
'le
If' I r
C
Il1L-lll lilt
h 111(!
I (
II I
:'1
W ('
t n-
1811fl11'l
III
sail J I JlJe s
TJ
ttacb
epox
1:-11(11
(IIr
n unbl n
use of printed circuit board surface area and to improve reliability to {'xc('('/I
that. of tJ1C conventional light bulb. The two major categories of llght-emitt lug
diodes (LEOs) used in the automotive industry are ex teri or and interior.
For interior USI:', HP's surface mount HSl\1x-Tnnn LEDs (36 products. e.g..
HSMA-T<125) had application pot ential, but their reliahillty need ed to 1)('
EDs
improved the failure rate in temperature tests from an average of 120 ppm 10
o ppm
after
[iV(J
absorption and was not able to meet automotive market rcq uirc monts for
C~CC standard).
Figll n ' l
HP HSMx-Tnnn surfacemountLEDs.
supp li er,
Hig -Temperatuee Epoxy Ene psul tio n Cure
In fra red (IH) sold er ing per the CECC s pecifications (the
upper tem pe ratu re constraint of 260C may be exceeded
for a max imum of 10 :';(' (,OIHls) res ulte d in failures after
I(is hours of p reconditioning at. 85Q C and 85% rel a tive
hu mid ity ( RH) . Th e failu res included broken stltch hands,
lilted die-attach, epoxy c rac king, and epoxy-leadframc de-lam inati on. There fore, an aggressive program was planned
for till' third generation of thi s surfa ce mount lED to bring
its qua lity to wo rld-class automotive standards.
Th i I Ge
ED
Table I
Datafrom. E]lo;( I/ Curl! Temperature Erperi nunt
Cell
Number
1
2
;!
4
Conditions
125C, 2 hr
125C. 8 hr
150C, 2 hr
150C, 8 hr
Cumulative
Failure Rate 1%)
after 200 Cycles
5.49
:3.17
0.22
0.G5
The raw data showed that the 150C cures gave very lo w
fai lure rates co mpare d to th e 125C cures. No fact or was
sta t isti ca lly different. Repeating thi s expe rime nt gave
similar results without highlighting any signifi can t factor,
It. was suspected that other Iactors were influ en cing the
behavior of the product,
o sture Removal
The mois ture content in th e housing material (polyphtha lamide ) is in con sistent and depends on th e degree o f exposure 1.0 the mo isture in th e amb ient air. The re for e, dryi ng
or baking the housing material befo re cas t ing is very
critical.
To co nfirm th e ab ove hypothes is , a n experiment was
carried out w ith three factors: precondition ing att or wirebonding for 48 hours, drying after pr econditioning. iUHI
different eas t epoxy cure temperatures. The various ce lls
and the c umul ative failure rates are shown in Table II .
When there was no preconditioning aft er win >bond ing,
epoxy curing at I (-lOoe gave an almost. zero fa ilure rai l'.
When th ere was preconditioning after wire bonding.
epo xy curing a t 150(: still gave a lower Iailure rai l' than
epoxy CLUing at 125C. With no drying aft e r prccondii ion ing, the failure rat es were gre ate r than 80')(,. Wh en t1WI"l '
was preconditioning after w ire bonding, no mat ter wh nt
drying condition was used the failu re rate was not zero,
The precoudiuoning after wire bo nding was hypot hes ized
to be too severe and a more re alisti c experiment that siruulated I,he pr oduction floor environme nt was done, After
wir e bonding, uni ts were left exp osed for GO hours in a n
open environmen t where the room ternporat ure reac hed
:37C and the relative humidity was between liO'Jfi and 80%.
Having established th at a 150C epo xy cure temperat ure
is superior, it was kept co nst an t in th e s ubseque nt :2:11'1111
fac torial experiment, wh ich is s ummarized in Table III.
The analysis of variance revealed leadfram o drying 10 Ill'
the biggest factor, The other fa ctors had less than nn e
tenth the signifi canc e of leadframe drying, so th ev W NP
grouped together as residuals and a no the r analysi s o f
vari an ce was done. This showerl lcadframe dryi ng befo re
dispensing to be sign ifican t at a 1)i)'){'l'onfi d pIIC(' level.
Even though the oven ramp rate did 110 1. show up as a
si gnificant factor, th e- raw data indi cat e d that th e fas t
ramp gave fewer failures. Th e same can be said for II\('
inline position of the magazine. This is proba bly du e to
better air circularion an d better te mpe ra ture co ntr o l ill
th e bo x oven.
Physical anal ysis s howed th at. th e mai n failure mo de for
undri ed lead fram es is broken s titch bonds. In those cells
with dri ed leadfrnmes, stitch bon d failures were elimi na ted
and reliability performance beca me co ns istent .
Au~U, 1 1998
Figure :3
Schematic diagram shDwing water molecules(a) diffusing into the polymermstrix housingand (b)turning to water vapor during
the cast epoxycuring process.
H
H
0
~o
~o
~
-so
0 -
-soo
~o
~
-so
N C
N C
N C
H
0
-so
I
H
-so
H
-so
Housing
N C
N CI
o
0
I
H
N C
N-C I
N C
~o
~
(a)
Epo~y
Table II
F ailu re Ra tes uritl: nnd uri thou! M ois lu'I'p. Precotuli tionimq (nu l Dryiug
Preconditioning at
85C/85% RH after
Wire Bonding
Drying after
Preconditioning
Epoxy Cure
Temperature (OCl
No
No
125
24.5
No
No
150
0.2
;j
No
125
85.9
No
150
80 .0
1 hr a l 145"C
1 hr at 145C
125
150
2:3. 1
Ii
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Vacuum
125
10.7
Yes
4 hr at. 145C
125
1:3.1
Yes
4 hr at. 145C
1:30
4.6
Cell
Number
12.7
Table III
2 .'1Full Fact oria ! Experim entul Design tnul Res ults
Leadframe Baked
before Dispensing Epoxy
Oven
Ramp Rate
Position of Magazine
in Oven"
No
Slow
Broadside
51.0
Yes
Slow
Broadsid e
0.6
:3
No
Fa-<;t
Broadside
26.0
Yes
Fas t
Broads ide
Run
Number
0
.) -
No
Sla v.'
Inline
Yes
Slow
Inline
0.:2
No
Fas t
Inline
11.7
Yes
Fas t
Inli nc
zo.o
Twoovens were used. Onewas sei up with a slow temperature ramp \OS 'C/minule) in Ihe healing profileand the n her with a fast lamp (S"C/rnililuel to a stable
npelBlin\! temperature of 150" C.
The positions ot thn rnaqazlrm where the leadflames were storedduring tho curecyclc were SIIch that the airtlnw was hlocked b'l the side plate (blflailsic!c! and the
airflow was over the teadlrarnes [inline].
Inrnperatur e c\,c ling between - 55"C and + IOO'C.
Cast E
Oil
An obj ectiv e of this project was to make the produce insensitive to mo isture, thereby giving It unlimited shelf life
for automotive app lications . The previous produ ct, if
exp os ed to ambi ent conditi ons for more than a month,
would typically fail after soldering, with severe epoxy
crac ks and de lamination. Therefore, strengthening of the
cast e po xy was crucia l for this project.
FiglirP .\
140
120
100
I
I
fiO
80
IJ
40
0.4
I- 0.6
-I-0.8
- I - --l-1.0
12
----J,- 1.4
-I-I.G
-I-1.8
- l
2.0
A first pass experi ment was done to dl'termine if the package performance could be further opt imized by mod ifying
the ep oxy resin-to -hardener mix rat io. Evaluation un its
wer e built using three different. res ln-to- harde nor ra tio s
of 1.0,1.2, a nd 1.8 and then cured at lfiOC a nd 12i)(; .
Th e results after the preconditioning and sl r (' 5 S tests are
as shown in Table IV.
AU~U 5t
Figu\"('
ij
to hardener.
400
~ 350
'"
:;
e., JOO
5%Weighllos$
Co
,!
..
c
.!:
10%Weightloss
250
"C
.,~
200
Currenl Rallo
I
I
150
1.0
2.0
0.5
1.5
MI. Ralio (Part. or Resin 10 1 Part 01 Hardoner\
2.5
loop, a re ca used by moisture introduced during precon d itloning. Th ese are 5 ('('1\ in the control cell but not.
in t 1)(' cell thai has a resin ratio of 1.2. " Then the epoxy
is s atu rn! pl! wit h mo isture, spider cra c ks arc normally
o bse rved after so lderi ng. Cra c king in epoxy resin induced
by wa ter absorption is a very well-known effect. s During
I he s older ing process , th e temperature exceeds the Tg of
Another advantage of a higher resin content in epoxyanhydride systems is the reduction o f th e co ncentra tio n
of -COOlI and -COO- hygroscopic linkages (Fjgure 8).
This, coupled wHJI higher cross-lin k dcnsltv, redu ces II \('
moisture uptake capability, making the properti es of the
material less susceptible to change wh en exposed to
moisture.
A fine-tunin g otthe resin ratio was dono by usin g c uring
ratios of 1.0 through 1.4 at. 150(; an d c heckin g th e reliability through thermal shock and thermal cyc ling aft er
108 how's orprecondluoning (Figure 9 ). Again, Ih( '
results showed that using an epoxy m ix ratio of 1.2 gave
the best overall performance in thermal S ] ress tests .
Table IV
~l l i/1e Fa ilu r e Ra tesfo r Different. EpO.171 Resin-to-Hardener Mi RaNDs
Mix Ratio
Cure
Temperature
(OC)
% Cracked
during Forming
1.0
12fi
53
(i8
l.2
125
1.8
125
20
1.0
150
1.2
lijO
150
1.8
Augu, 11998 .
Th ~
He.wlol1-P,)(k", d 10u", . 1
Cumulative
Failure Rate (%)
aher 300
Thermal Cycles
1.8
2.0
1 ,)
0.2
52
'1:3
75.4
64.4
4;1
:38
0.4
1.(;
0.0
0.0
51
42
20.0
;1 0
13
, ~
l"i glll"(' (;
Spider cracks.
(a)
Epo V
j.
magazines of leadfrarues were load ed such tha t th (emperature rise time was minimized . All til(' un its wore proencapsulation dried at the stipulated te mperature' and
rim e. Th e results are summ arized in Table V. The results
proved beyond a doubt tha t the high cure ie mpcra tunwith a fast ramp and a 1.2 mix ratio is ind eed the bettor
process,
[o'igllre 7
F'igmc S
Anhydride esterification reaction with the oxirene ring,
Formalion 01 Monoester
II
ftOH
+ [
T.....
C./
COOR
0 -
l
'--'
COOH
II
Formalion01 Diester
D
COOR + &Hz - CH -R'
COOR
COOH
COO
CHz -
CH
R'
I
OH
I"igurt' !l
Epoxy mix ratio optimization reHabiliry performance. All parts werepreconditioned for 48 hr at 85C/85% RH.
(a) Th ermal shock, - 40C to ITO~C. ib] Thermal cycling. - 55C to TODoC.
10
20
e:
;;'"
II:
.......
"
.
'5
:l
'I:
\\
1\
1\
'\
.~
so x
...
'"
\\
5><
.. 20 ><
~, 50 X
11 100><
200><
JOOx
q\
100><
200><
JOOx
~ 10
..
OJ
>
';0
.'., ,
Number 01 Cyctos
5x
t,. 20 x
i'\'
6
15
Number01 Cycles
'5
" \q\\ \
5 .
\\'~
c,
I.
o -1--
lA
1.1
L2
13
IA
Mil( Ratio (Pans 01 Resin 10 1Pan of Hardener]
0.9
I.
lal
(bl
---jI
1.5
Table V
Epoxy Mix
Ratio (Resin
to Hardener)
Cure
Temperature (OC)
\. 0
125
8.1
1.2
p'"
_.J
6.4
:l
\. 0
150
n.n
1.2
150
0.05
Run
Number
Figu("(' 10
Figure II
130
140,lXlO
180'C
160C
140C
120
c
ii.
..
110
100
t-='
90
>
.3
U
<0
'co
a:
80
70
60
0
0.5
1.0
I
1.5
I
2.0
2.5
3.0
120.000
100.000
2nd Generation
3rd Genorotion
eo.ooo
60,000
4O.0ao
211.000
0
Thermal Shock
Thermal Cyc li ng
3.5
8. T,S. Elli es and F:F.:. Karasz, "InI erar I ion of Epoxy Resi ns w ith
Wai N ; tIll' Depression o f (; I:lss Trnnsitkm '[( ' m pl'ralll l'l ' ."
Poly m m: Vol. 25, 1984, pp, {)(it-GGD.
/)(1/11
Resill , Md ;l'aw-
19ia.
<3. Te sl 1\kt hod A112, Mois tu re-In duced S t l'l!05S S eJlsUi vallfo'l'
Pillsi il' SII/:!ill'I' M Oil /II Derirrs , JEDEC Sf:Ul (!;U'<! JESD22-A 112,
1'; 1('('1rnuic hulus: des Associatlo n. April 19tH .
I,
--I, Auuidrt
http://www.hp.com/go/autorn otive
(,. (' ,S. Leech, .l r., " Rem ovin g Moi sture fro m Electronic Compouonts and Assemb lies.' Ci rcu it ilSSCl/tlJI,I/, May 1094, pp . 34;}7.
T, X. Sl'dlen'k and .J. Kah ovcc, C rossedl ! liked f;jJo,r i es,
Ill' Grytcr, J!l8D. p. 117.
Leon~ Ak-Win~
Koay Ban-Kuan
1\0;1)'
==.....
Bnn-Kua n gradu-
s ia ill
I(' m li ll~
relinbillty
an Hl..~ D
a prq jt' c'l I"ad e l' for nut nmor ivc " xll' nOr l " nl p~
and Ior illlpmli llf: til l' I'l'lIahU ily of 1Jl(' III'
Yoong Tze-Kwan
)'oong Tze-Kw an gra(lu-
or
(''''<:I1il'~ 1 on -
wit h
anti TV
l!!lo"{! '!!"!"""",,,'U
rcquiu -men ts am) tolcrut .. high 'l1lois lIln' co nd itiu ns . II,> is a m e m b e r 111' i\HND S (i\Ial'ly:;j;t11
Tan Boon-Chun
SJ){i{'ia l i zi H ~
in ('poxy on -
has
~ I alaysla
packaging assembl y has long caused sporadic vield loss Previously It was
ilought that vacu um bak lny I educed the yield loss res ulting frcrn surface
Anthony
J. Bourdillon
,
,
- -
r8 SIIl
bicedlllg,
II
also
I rorluces coatings of hvdrocarbnns, which affect urface wettabi lit and surfar C!
energy. Surfactant coating results III a surface chemistry similar to vacuumbaked ubstrates hut is a better alternative because of its cant otlab uitv
For several years the cause of th e yield loss was unresolved. With inc reas ing
pin coun t. and decreasing clearance between rhe die and the substrat e cavity.
resolving the problem has become more urgent.
Earlier stu dies ! led us to resort to coun termeasures like vacuu m bakin g (0
reduce yield losses. However, the studies wer e not compreh ensive en ou gh to
verify the effec tivenes s of vacuum baking, and yield los ses have con tinued
10
occur from time to time for no apparent reason . We had not vet inv esti gatod the
po ssibility that surface contamin ati o n, resulting [rom vacuum baking. can have
AU ~U ' 1 1 99B'
Figure 1
BondFingsrs
(Tieredl
~~
~
l" -,
~~)};$~~
1LL
Die SIChip
a silicon surface.
Pins
AlzDJ
Cu-WHsatSlug
/
SIChip ~
AgEpOXY ~
Au
Ni
!, - - - -- --- -; -
(-1.2 I'm)
\~~.~~'-- (-lOpln)
CU-W~ '{/~
A CPGA substrate that was baked at. 235C for six hours
in a conventional vacuum oven at. a pressure of 0.1 mbar
A CPGA substrate that was baked in all all' convection
oven at 235C for six hours.
Figure 2
DIscOloration
l
IV IS
Au ger (pronounced o-jav] ana lysis is a widely used electron
spectroscopicmethodthat is capable of providing information
about the elemental composition of the outermost atomic layer
ofa solid. This techn ique examines thesurface chemistry and
interactions of elements on the surface of materials such as
metals. ceramics, and organic matter. Auger analysis is named
after its discoverer Pierre Auger.
Surfac ani
Some chemical materials have a special propensity to locate
(adsorb) at interfaces or to form colloidal aggregates in solution at verylow molar concentrations. Such materialsare called
surface-active agents. or surtactan ts. Surtactants are used to
modify the wettability of solid surfaces.
Wettability
When a drop of liquid is placed on a soli d surface. the liquid
either spreads toforma thin film on the surfaceas in Figures
2a and 2e. or remains a discrete drop as in Figure 2b . The
measure of the degree of wetting is the contact angle (see
Figure 2a). The contact angle is the angle made by the tangent
to a droplet at the solid surface interface. High wettability is
indicated by a small angle(Figure 2c). The extreme case of no
wellability is shown in Figure 2b.
f igure 2
Contact angles. (a) Partial wetting. (b) No wetting.
[c} Close to complete wetting.
(l
r~s
Figure 1
An illustration of the Augerprocess.
Droplel
rs
..
(sl
= rlcos A + rLS
Solid Surface
Auger
Electron
/
lal
Ejected
Heciren
L Incident Electron
[h]
(c)
The ratios of the intensities of Aug er electro n peaks can providequantitative information about the surfacecomposition of
a sample (forexample, see Figure 3 of the main article),
A = 15
//
(c]
"
dipole component,
ouc h IYIlP and fo und to IJ ' cons ist en I.. For comparison ,
add itio nal m easurem ents w ere taken from a second specimen (s porl me n B in Table I) which was subj ect ed to
evacuati on at room temp erature, without baking.
face cont act angl cm ct cr, model CA-A from Kyowa interface Sci enc e Compa ny.
1 + (cos 8)1'1
r~, and
="
r ei I'd
I I.
( r~
S I
+ r~
I'll I'll
I.. S
( 1)
r~
I.
s
W I'I -
SLUn
of the surface
Figll!'!' :3
Auger spectra generatedfrom the die attach pad of a raw CPGA substrateafter etching timesof (B) 0 seconds and (b) 5 seconds.
5000
II
I ~AU
. - .'.~
Au
10000
Au
: Au /
C
Etching 0 s
Etching5.
-IOOOOL
-5000
Au
Au
- -+1000
lal
Au
I he HewlelHJckord l oornal
2000
(b)
-t--t-I
1000
2000
Figur e Ij
Auger spectra generatedfrom (he die attach pad of a CPGA
substrate after vacuum baking and after etching times of
(a) 0 seconds, (b) 10 seconds, and (e) 20seconds.
2Q00
1000
Au
I
Au
Etching 0 s
- Au
-1000
- 2000 -'---t--+--+---+-
2000
(a)
. ' r:
5000
I .
Au
/Au II
L\ u
Elchlng 10 s
:1
- 5000 -
Au
1000
2000
(b)
5'000
-
,,,,,,,---.r-"""'-
~ ~V '"
Au
Au
a"
'u;
c:
oS'"
Etching 20s
-sooo
Au
I
1000
[cl
2000
Figure G
Auger spectra generatedfrom the die sttscb pad of a CPGA substrateafter baking only in air andafter etching times of (a) 0 seconds
and (b) 5 seconds. After etching for 10 seconds, Ihe spectrum was similar [0 (b).
10000
2000
~I
'\I'I ,1...".
I""
"<'
'in
"'"
~
- 2000
iNJI., \10.
,~.'Io'-J)f/I ....
..'
,1''''Au
'
Au I
Au
Ni
I
0
Au
AuAu
~
'in
"
Elchillg 0 S
-lMOO
Au
Elching5 s, 10s
Au
!
(a)
2000
1000
Ki061lc Energy (eVI
Au
1000
Kinetic Energy l eV~
(bl
2000
Table I
Elem entul.A na ujsis of CPGA Surfacef rom AI/gel"Sp ectra
Etching
Time
Etched
Thickness
lsl
(oml
Au
1.25
58
100
34
Ni
Specimen A
0
5
Vacuu m Baked
Baked in Air
()
;1:3
.:l
57
10
_') .0
66
:34
20
5.0
70
45
24
27
51
f> 1
0
G
10
1.25
100
,)
100
z.o
20
Specimen 8
Raw Substrate
10
Ambient Evacuat ed
1.25
100
,)
100
_.n-
4:3
10
45
1.25
100
2.5
100
CD
Table II
Measu red Eq u ilibr i um. Con /act A ngles and Comp u ted Surface Enerq ies
Contact Angle(Degrees)
CPGA Substrate
rP
rs
Polarity**
28.G
12.5
41.1
0.30
54.1
27.9
5.7
:33.6
0.17
49.3
3 1.7
4.1
35.8
0.11
Water
Methylene Iodide
Raw substrate
76.:3
44.8
Vacuum baked
92.4
94.4
rsd
The Auger results discussed above show that carbon contamination increa ses dramatically after standard procedures of vacuum baking. Typically, oil from the rotary
vacuum pump backstreams to th e oven and diffuses pore
con tam inant s in the process . The samples are placed in a
hot oven , which is then pumped down to create a vacuum .
Because of therm al gradients, hydrocarbon vapor can then
preferentially condense on co ld substrate surfaces. This
likelihood is cons is te nt with the Auger ana lysis data on
s ubstra tes that have been vacuum baked. In confirmation,
surfaces that are only exposed to a high vacuum at room
tempe rature , but without ba king (tha t is, without thermal
gradi ents) show an ins ignifican t increase in contamination dep osition.
Since hydrocarbon contamination inhibits epoxy bleeding, it is not necessarily advantageous to eliminate surface contamination . Hydrocarbon films, deposited on
subs trates during vacuum baking, have reduced surface
ene rgies (Table II) co mpa red with clean Au surfaces.
Surface en ergy and co n tact angle are related as in the
Yeung-Dupre equat ion:r.s
(2)
trs'.
FigU l"t>
(j
Auger spectra generatedfrom a surfactant-coatedCPGA substrate after etching times of (a) 0 seconds and (b) 70 seconds.
41100
2DOO
~"~_'.o+'o;'"'"t'''~IT'.'
.,
-,"
r'
'..., * '
,"--,'I'~-TfoVj
Au
Au
Elcl\lng 0 s
c
- 2000
- 2000
c
- 4lI00 -'------+-1000
2000
t-------i--1---+--
-+--
1000
t -- t- - + 2000
Discussi on
The coating consist en cy was evaluated by comparing contact angles of deioniz ed water on 25 substrates sampled
fro m live differen t lots. For all average measurement of
9SoC the standard deviation was 1.9 percent. This deviation
-t--
~
~
Acknowledgments
HlS2.
2. N.X. Tan. A..J. Y. Leo, A..1. Bourdillon, a nd C.Y.S. Tan, "Orientation Anomalies in Pla t ing Thickness Measurements from
Advanced Pacl<aging Substrates ." Sen: ie ll/III II I'I II/" SC i /' III'I'
mill Tecllll % .IJY. Vol. 17, IDfJ(i. p, 4:37.
Finally, I he s urface tension is different in various adhesivcs, inc ludi ng various types of epoxy, polyimides, and
simil ar mate rials. The se lection of LUI adhesiv e depends
on I ru d e-o ffs betw ee n adh esion strength, curing times,
mois t ure absorpt ion, a nd oth er pa ra me ters. We have
detu onst rated Ihat: wet (abilit y can, in actual practice, be
contro lled.
I. .J .E. Ireland. " Epoxy Illecd oui in Ceram ic Chip Carri er s ,"
7. AW. Adamson. Ptuis icu! C/w /IIi.>t/".IJ o.r Sin:l fl('PS, seco nd
edit ion, \Viley lruors ci cncc, WG7.
S. J.J . Bi k erm an. Physi cll i Si /l:r(l('/~~ , Academi c Press, \fliO.
fl. N,X. Tan, K.I I.I I. Lilli , and A.J, BOl1l'dillo ll ,"All:lly sis or Coal ings Which Inhib it Epoxy Bleeding in Electron ic Packaging."
Jourrutl ofMu teriul St:i(')II'(': Al(J I(~J ill /.~ i ll EiI'cll'lJIl i cs , Vol. S.
H)f)7, p . 17:l.
IO. Te.~ 1 Me th ods (I lid Pro cerl n res for ;1!i I:rt w/('I"II'IJll i cs.
Mil-Sld-8R:m, Method 20 W.i3, W!J:1.
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